THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2022/2023 ACADEMIC YEAR LECTURE NOTES (FOR GROUP E)

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS PH 110

CHAPTER 7
CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the concept of circular motion.
• Describe circular motion variables and equations and relate them to their linear counterparts.
• Relate centripetal force and centripetal acceleration to uniform circular motion.
• Discuss the centrifugal effects with respect to Newton’s laws of motion.
• Mathematically relate the speed, acceleration, radius, mass and net force for an object moving
in a circle and to use such relationships to solve physics word problems.
• Combine Newton’s second law of motion, free-body diagrams and circular motion equations
to determine the value of the acceleration or an individual force for any situation involving an
object moving in a circle.
• Explain the differences between centripetal acceleration and tangential acceleration resulting
from nonuniform circular motion, and evaluate centripetal and tangential acceleration in
nonuniform circular motion, and find the total acceleration vector.
• State and explain Newton's universal law of gravitation.
• Define the acceleration of gravity and identify the variables which effect its value.
• Define a satellite and derive the orbital velocity and time period of satellite.
• Define geostationary satellites and explain their significance.
• Define the gravitational potential energy and derive the expression for the potential energy of
a body near the surface of the earth.
• Define escape velocity and derive the expression for escape velocity of a body.
• Identify and describe each of Kepler's three laws of planetary motion.

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Figure 7.1 This Australian Grand Prix Formula 1 race car moves in a circular path as it makes
the turn. Its wheels also spin rapidly—the latter completing many revolutions, the former only part
of one (a circular arc). The same physical principles are involved in each. (credit: Richard
Munckton)
Many motions, such as the arc of a bird’s flight or Earth’s path around the Sun, are curved. Recall
that Newton’s first law tells us that motion is along a straight line at constant speed unless there is
a net external force. We will therefore study not only motion along curves, but also the forces that
cause it, including gravitational forces. In some ways, this chapter is a continuation of chapter
four as we study more applications of Newton’s laws of motion. In addition, we shall study the
Newton’s law of universal gravitation, applications of uniform circular motion to motion of
celestial objects, as well as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
This chapter deals with the simplest form of curved motion, circular motion. Studying this topic
illustrates most concepts associated with rotational motion and leads to the study of many new
topics we group under the name rotation. In chapter 3, we studied motion along a straight line and
introduced such concepts as displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Two-dimensional
kinematics dealt with motion in two dimensions. Projectile motion is a special case of two-
dimensional kinematics in which the object is projected into the air, while being subject to the
gravitational force, and lands a distance away. In this chapter, we consider situations where the
object does not land but moves in a curve. We begin the study of circular motion by defining
variables needed to describe rotational motion.

7.1 Circular Motion

Circular motion is another example of motion in two dimensions. Circular motion can be either
uniform or non-uniform. During uniform circular motion the angular rate of rotation and speed
will be constant while during non-uniform motion the rate of rotation keeps changing.

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Circular motion or circulatory motion is the movement of objects along a circular path. A circular
path is a path whose every boundary point is equidistant from a fixed point, i.e., from the center.
Hence, in other words, the motion of an object equidistant from a central point is known as circular
motion. An important aspect of circular motion is that the direction of motion is changing
continuously unlike in the case of linear motion. Hence circular motion can also be described in
terms of angular variables. Some of the most common examples of circular motion include man-
made satellite that revolves around the earth, a rotating ceiling fan, a moving car’s wheel, the
blades in a windmill, and gears in gas turbines.
7.1.1 Variables of circular motion
(a) Displacement and distance
When a particle moves in a circular path describing an angle 𝜃 during time 𝑡 from one point say A
to another point say B, we see that the magnitude of the position vector remains constant, i.e. |𝑟⃗𝑖 | =
|𝑟⃗𝑓 | = 𝑟 ≡ radius of the circle and the direction of position vector changes from time to time.

Figure 7.2 Displacement of a particle in a circle

(i) Displacement
The change of position vector or the displacement ∆𝑟⃗ of the particle from position A to Position B
represents displacement of the particle. It is given by:
∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗𝑓 − 𝑟⃗𝑖

(ii) Distance
The distance covered by the particle during the time t is the length of the arc AB
(b) Angular displacement
When objects rotate about some axis-for example, when the CD (compact disc) in figure
7.3 rotates about its center-each point in the object follows a circular arc. Consider a line from the
center of the CD to its edge. Each pit used to record sound along this line moves through the same
angle in the same amount of time. The angular displacement (or rotation angle) is the amount of

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rotation and is analogous to linear distance. We define the rotation angle ∆𝜃 to be the ratio of the
arc length to the radius of curvature:
∆𝑠
∆𝜃 =
𝑟

Figure 7.3 All points on a CD travel in circular arcs. The pits along a line from the center to the
edge all move through the same angle ∆𝜃 in a time ∆𝑡

Figure 7.4 The radius of a circle is rotated through an angle ∆𝜃. The arc length ∆𝑠 is described
on the circumference.
The arc length ∆𝑠 is the distance traveled along a circular path as shown in figure 7.4. Note that 𝑟 is
the radius of curvature of the circular path. Angular displacement is a vector quantity, measured
in radians or degrees. Sometimes it is specified in terms revolutions (revs). It is dimensionless.
The following are the conversions involving angular displacement:
1 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 360 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠

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(c) Angular velocity
Angular velocity 𝜔 of an object in circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its
angular displacement. It is given by:
Angle traced
Angular velocity =
Time taken
∆𝜃
𝜔=
∆𝑡
The angular velocity of the particle at any instant is called instantaneous angular velocity, given
by:
∆𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜔 = lim ( )=
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Angular velocity is measured in rad/s or rev/s.
Angular velocity 𝜔 is analogous to linear velocity 𝑣. To get the precise relationship between
angular and linear velocity, we again consider a pit on the rotating CD. This pit moves an arc
length ∆𝑠 and so it has a linear velocity
∆𝑠
𝑣=
∆𝑡
∆𝑠
From ∆𝜃 = , we see that ∆𝑠 = 𝑟∆𝜃. Substituting this into the expression for 𝑣 gives
𝑟

𝑟∆𝜃
𝑣= = 𝑟𝜔
∆𝑡
(d) Time period
In circular motion, the time period T is defined as the time taken t by the object to complete one
revolution on its circular path. It is given by:
Time taken
Period =
Number of revolutions
𝑡
𝑇=
𝑛
Or
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
Or
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣

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(e) Frequency
In circular motion, the frequency 𝑓 is defined as the number of revolutions n completed by a
particle on its circular path in unit time t. It is given by:
𝑛
𝑓=
𝑡
Hence:
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) or 𝑠 −1
(f) Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration of a particle in circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its
angular velocity. It is given by:
Δ𝜔
𝛼=
Δ𝑡
We define the instantaneous angular acceleration as:
Δ𝜔 𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2 𝜃
𝛼 = lim ( ) = = 2
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The units of angular acceleration are rad/s2
Angular acceleration 𝛼 is analogous to linear acceleration 𝑎. The linear acceleration 𝑎 is
Δ𝑣
𝑎=
Δ𝑡
We know that 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔. Substituting this into the expression for 𝑎 gives
𝛥(𝑟𝜔) 𝑟Δ𝜔
𝑎= = = 𝑟𝛼
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡

If the angular acceleration α is constant, we have the following equations;

𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 + 𝛼𝑡
𝜔2 = 𝜔0 2 + 2𝛼𝜃
1
𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2

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7.1.2 Uniform circular motion
Uniform circular motion can be described as the motion of an object in a circle at a constant speed.
As an object moves in a circle, it is constantly changing its direction but not its magnitude. At all
instances, the object is moving tangent to the circle. Since the direction of the velocity vector is
the same as the direction of the object's motion, the velocity vector is directed tangent to the circle
as well.

7.1.3 Centripetal acceleration

We know from kinematics that acceleration is a change in velocity, either in its magnitude or in
its direction, or both. In uniform circular motion, the direction of the velocity changes constantly.
Therefore, an object undergoing uniform circular motion is always accelerating, even though the
magnitude of its velocity is constant. The direction of the instantaneous velocity is always a tangent
to the radius of the path at any point. Acceleration is in the direction of the change in velocity,
which points directly toward the center of rotation (the center of the circular path). We call the
acceleration of an object moving in uniform circular motion (resulting from a net external force)
the centripetal acceleration 𝒂𝒄 ; centripetal means “toward the center” or “center seeking.”

Figure 7.5 A particle moving uniformly around a circle experiences an acceleration because the
direction of the velocity changes continuously despite its magnitude remaining constant.
Let us consider a particle moving round a circle with radius r. Let its velocities along the tangent
at A and B be 𝑣⃗𝑖 and 𝑣⃗𝑓 respectively. Let ∆𝜃 be the angular displacement. The angle between the
tangents (velocities) is also ∆𝜃. Let 𝑟⃗𝑖 and 𝑟⃗𝑓 be the position coordinates of A and B, and Δr⃗ is the
displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 .
We define the magnitude of the average acceleration as:
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 ∆𝑣
𝑎̅ = =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 ∆𝑡

where ∆𝑣 can be accomplished graphically as shown in Figure 7.5 (c).

The triangle in Figure 7.5 (b), which has sides ∆𝑟 and 𝑟, is similar to the triangle of figure 7.5 (c),
which has sides ∆𝑣 and 𝑣. This similarity enables us to write the following relationship:

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 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑟 𝑣
= ⟺ ∆𝑣 = ∆𝑟
𝑣 𝑟 𝑟
Substituting the above equation into the equation for the average acceleration, we get:
∆𝑣 𝑣 ∆𝑟
𝑎̅ = =
∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡
When ∆𝑡 is very small, the two points A and B of figure 7.5 (b) becomes extremely close, and
hence ∆𝑟 and ∆𝜃 are very small too. In this limit, ∆𝑣⃗ would point toward the center of the circular
path, and because the acceleration is in the direction of ∆𝑣⃗ ,it will also be toward the center.
Consequently, in this limit the arc AB (𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟∆𝜃) will be equal to ∆𝑟 and the ratio ∆𝑟⁄∆𝑡
approaches the speed v. Thus, when Δ𝑡 → 0,the magnitude of the centripetal (radial) acceleration
will be:
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 =
𝒓
Thus, in uniform circular motion the acceleration is directed inward toward the center of the circle.
7.1.4 Centripetal force
Because an object in uniform circular motion undergoes acceleration (by changing the direction
of motion but not the speed), we know from Newton’s second law of motion that there must be a
net external force acting on the object. Since the magnitude of the acceleration is constant, so is
the magnitude of the net force, and since the acceleration points toward the center of the rotation,
so does the net force. Any force or combination of forces can cause a centripetal acceleration. Just
a few examples are the tension in the rope on a tether ball, the force of Earth’s gravity on the Moon,
the friction between a road and the tires of a car as it goes around a curve, or the normal force of a
roller coaster track on the cart during a loop-the-loop. The component of any net force that causes
circular motion is called a centripetal force. When the net force is equal to the centripetal force,
and its magnitude is constant, uniform circular motion results. The direction of a centripetal force
is toward the center of rotation, the same as for centripetal acceleration. According to Newton’s
second law of motion, we find that the net force causing the centripetal acceleration can be
evaluated:
𝒗𝟐
∑ 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 = 𝒎𝒂𝒄 = 𝒎
𝒓
This is the expression for the centripetal force acting on a particle moving in a circular path.
7.1.5 Centrifugal force
It is an imaginary force due to incorporated effects of inertia. Centrifugal force is a fictious force
which has significance only in a rotating frame of reference. It is always equal and opposite to
centripetal force.

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7.1.6 Non-uniform circular motion
If the speed of the particle moving in a circle is not constant, the acceleration has both the radial
and the tangential components. A particle that moves in a circular path or curved path with variable
speed, is said to execute a non-uniform circular motion. In this case, the total acceleration 𝑎⃗ can
be resolved into two components: Tangential acceleration vector 𝑎⃗𝑡 and a radial acceleration vector
𝑎⃗𝑟 . That is;
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝑟
The tangential acceleration at a particular point arises from the time rate of change of the speed of
the particle and it is given by:
∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎𝑡 = or 𝑎𝑡 =
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The radial acceleration at a particular point arises from the time rate of change in direction of the
velocity vector and has a magnitude given by:
𝑣2
𝑎𝑟 =
𝑟

Figure 7.6 The acceleration of a particle moving in a circle with a tangential component 𝑎𝑡 and
a radial component 𝑎𝑟 directed toward the center of the circle.

7.2 Gravitation

Physicists like to find areas that seem to have nothing to do with each other and to show that they
are related if you look at them closely enough. This search for unification has been going on for
centuries. In 1665, the 23-year-old Isaac Newton made a great contribution when he showed that
the force that holds the moon in its orbit is the same force that makes an apple fall.

Sir Isaac Newton was the first scientist to precisely define the gravitational force, and to show that
it could explain both falling bodies and astronomical motions. See figure 7.7. But Newton was

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not the first to suspect that the same force caused both our weight and the motion of planets. His
forerunner Galileo Galilei had contended that falling bodies and planetary motions had the same
cause. Some of Newton’s contemporaries, such as Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren, and Edmund
Halley, had also made some progress toward understanding gravitation. But Newton was the first
to propose an exact mathematical form and to use that form to show that the motion of heavenly
bodies should be conic sections-circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. This theoretical
prediction was a major triumph-it had been known for some time that moons, planets, and comets
follow such paths, but no one had been able to propose a mechanism that caused them to follow
these paths and not others.

Figure 7.7 According to early accounts, Newton was inspired to make the connection between
falling bodies and astronomical motions when he saw an apple fall from a tree and realized that
if the gravitational force could extend above the ground to a tree, it might also reach the Sun.

7.2.1 Newton’s universal law of gravitation

This law defines the gravitational force. The gravitational force is relatively simple. It is always
attractive, and it depends only on the masses involved and the distance between them. Stated in
modern language, Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force along a line joining them. The force is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.

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 Figure 7.8 Gravitational attraction is along a line joining the centers of mass of these two
bodies. The magnitude of the force is the same on each, consistent with Newton’s third law.

The bodies we are dealing with tend to be large. To simplify the situation, we assume that the body
acts as if its entire mass is concentrated at one specific point called the center of mass (CM), which
will be further explored in next chapter. For two bodies having masses 𝑚 and 𝑀 with a
distance 𝑟 between their centers of mass, the equation for Newton’s universal law of gravitation is

𝑚M
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2

In the above equation, 𝐹 is the magnitude of the gravitational force and 𝐺 is a proportionality
factor called the gravitational constant. 𝐺 is a universal gravitational constant-that is, it is thought
to be the same everywhere in the universe. It has been measured experimentally to be ≅ 6.67 ×
10−11 𝑁𝑚2 ∕ 𝑘𝑔2.

7.2.2 Gravitation field intensity or Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’

Gravitation field is the space surrounding a material body in which gravitational force of attraction
can be experienced. The force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body is called gravitational
pull or gravity. The acceleration produced in the motion of a body under the effect of gravity is
called acceleration due to gravity or gravitation field intensity, denoted by ‘g’.

Recall that the acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 is about 9.80 m/s2 on Earth. We can now determine
why this is so. The weight of an object mg is the gravitational force between it and Earth.
Substituting mg for 𝐹 in Newton’s universal law of gravitation gives

𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑔 = 𝐺
𝑅2

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where 𝑚 is the mass of the object, 𝑀 is the mass of Earth, and 𝑟 is the distance to the center of
Earth (the distance between the centers of mass of the object and Earth). The mass m of the object
cancels, leaving an equation for 𝑔

𝑀
𝑔=𝐺
𝑅2

Substituting known values for Earth’s mass and radius (to three significant figures),

−11
𝑁𝑚2 5.98 × 1024 𝑘𝑔
𝑔 = (6.67 × 10 )×
𝑘𝑔2 (6.38 × 106 𝑚)2

and we obtain a value for the acceleration of a falling body:

𝑔 = 9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2

This is the expected value and is independent of the body’s mass.

If an object is at height h above the surface of the earth, then g is given by:

𝑀
𝑔=𝐺
(𝑅 + ℎ)2

Clearly the value of ‘g’ varies with altitude or height.

7.2.3 Satellites

A satellite is a body which is constantly revolving in an orbit around the planet. Satellites can be
artificial or natural. The moon is the natural satellite of the earth, and it revolves round the earth
once in 27.3 days. An artificial satellite is a man-made object placed at a height above the earth
and given sufficient velocity so as to revolve round the earth in closed orbits.

7.2.4 Orbital velocity

The velocity with which a body moves in its closed orbit is called orbital velocity. For a satellite
to be in a stable orbit it must have a suitable velocity, which depends on the radius of the orbit. Let
us consider a satellite of mass m moving round a closed orbit of radius r with orbital velocity v.
Let M be the mass of the earth and R its radius.

In this case, the centripetal acceleration of the satellite is provided by the gravitational force. That
is;

𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐺

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 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑀
=𝐺 2
𝑟 𝑟

𝑀
𝑣 = √𝐺
𝑟

The orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the body; instead, it depends on the mass of the
planet and orbital radius.

If h is the height of the satellite above the earth, then the orbital is 𝑟 = 𝑅 + ℎ. In this case, the orbital
velocity becomes;

𝑀
𝑣 = √𝐺
(𝑅 + ℎ)

The orbital velocity can be expressed in terms of acceleration due to gravity.

7.2.5 Time period

For a satellite, it is the time taken by the body to revolve once round the earth. If r is the radius of
the orbit and v the orbital velocity, then the time period of the satellite is given by:

2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣

We know that the orbital velocity of a satellite is given by:

𝑀
𝑣 = √𝐺
𝑟

Therefore, the expression for the time period of a satellite becomes:

2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
√𝐺 𝑀
𝑟

𝑟3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝑀

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7.2.6 Geostationary satellites

The satellite which appears stationary relative to the earth is called geostationary or
geosynchronous satellite. A geostationary satellite always stays over the same place above the
earth. The orbit of a geostationary satellite is known as parking orbit, because they will appear
stationary with respect to the earth. Its period of revolution around the earth is the same as that of
the earth, and hence its angular velocity is the same as that of the earth.

Geostationary satellites have their applications in weather forecast, communications e.g. radio,
television and telephones.

7.2.7 Gravitational potential energy

The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing the body from infinity to that point against the gravitational force. Consider a body of
mass m placed at a distance r from the earth of mass M.

In this case, the work done is given by:

𝑊 = −𝐹𝐺 × 𝑟

We know that the gravitational force on a body in this case is given by:

𝑚𝑀
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺
𝑟2

Then, the work done by the gravitational force will be given by:

𝑚𝑀
𝑊 = −𝐺 ×𝑟
𝑟2
𝑚𝑀
𝑊 = −𝐺
𝑟

Therefore, the gravitational potential energy is given by

𝑚𝑀
𝑈 = −𝐺
𝑟

The gravitational potential energy of a body near the surface of the earth is given by:

𝑚𝑀
𝑈 = −𝐺
𝑅

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If a body is at a distance h above the earth’s surface, then its gravitational potential energy
becomes:

𝑚𝑀
𝑈 = −𝐺
(𝑅 + ℎ)

7.2.8 Escape velocity

If a body is thrown vertically upwards it rises up to certain height and then returns. The height to
which a body rises depends on the velocity of project. If a body is given sufficient kinetic energy
to overcome the gravitational pull of the earth it will escape into the outer space and never returns.
The minimum velocity, with which the body must be projected so that it may escape from the
earth’s gravitation field is called escape velocity of the earth.

Let M and m be the masses of the earth and the body respectively, R be the radius of the earth and
𝑣𝑒 be the velocity of the body with which it is to be projected so that it escapes the gravitation field
of the earth.

By law of energy transformation;

∑ 𝐸𝑖 = ∑ 𝐸𝑓

𝐾 𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐾 𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓

At infinite distance, both kinetic energy and potential energy equals zero, that is 𝐾𝑓 = 𝑈𝑓 = 0.
Therefore

𝐾𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖 = 0

The initial kinetic energy of the body is given v by:

1
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 𝑒

And the potential energy of the body is given by:

𝑚𝑀
𝑈𝑖 = −𝐺
𝑅

Then;

1 𝑚𝑀
𝑚𝑣𝑒 2 − 𝐺 =0
2 𝑅

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 1 𝑚𝑀
𝑚𝑣𝑒 2 = 𝐺
2 𝑅

2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 = √
𝑅

Escape velocity is independent of the mass and direction of projection of the body. For the earth
𝑣𝑒 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚/𝑠.

7.2.9 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Historically, planets were studied first, and there is a classical set of three laws, called Kepler’s
laws of planetary motion, that describe the orbits of all bodies satisfying the two previous
conditions (not just planets in our solar system). These descriptive laws are named for the German
astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), who devised them after careful study (over some 20
years) of a large amount of meticulously recorded observations of planetary motion done by Tycho
Brahe (1546–1601).

(a) Kepler’s first law

This is law is sometimes called the law of orbits. This law states that “Every planet moves around
the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci.”

Figure 7.9 For any closed gravitational orbit, 𝑚 follows an elliptical path with 𝑀 at one focus.
Kepler’s first law states this fact for planets orbiting the Sun.

(b) Kepler’s second law

This law is sometimes called the law of area. The law states “The line joining the sun to the planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.” According to this law a planet will move slowly
when it is furthest from the sun and move rapidly when it is nearest to the sun.

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Figure 7.10 The shaded regions have equal areas. It takes equal times for 𝑚 to go from A to B,
from C to D, and from E to F. The mass m moves fastest when it is closest to 𝑀. Kepler’s second
law was originally devised for planets orbiting the Sun, but it has broader validity.

(c) Kepler’s third law

This law is sometimes called the law of periods. The law states “The square of the period of
revolution of any planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the mean distance of
the planet from the sun.” That is;

𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3

𝑇1 2 𝑟1 3
( ) =( )
𝑇2 𝑟2

Let us derive Kepler’s third law. Consider a planet of mass Mp that is assumed to be moving around
the sun of mass Ms in a circular orbit. In this case, the gravitational force provides the centripetal
acceleration of the planet as it moves in a circle.

Gravitational force (FG) = Centripetal force (FC)

𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑃 𝑣2
𝐺 = 𝑀𝑃
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑀𝑠
𝐺 = 𝑣2
𝑟

We know that;

2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇

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Then;

𝑀𝑠 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝐺 =( )
𝑟 𝑇

𝑀𝑠 4𝜋 2 𝑟 2
𝐺 =
𝑟 𝑇2

2
4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 4𝜋 2 3
𝑇 = =( )𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑠 𝐺𝑀𝑠

𝑇 2 = 𝐾𝑠 𝑟 3

where 𝐾𝑠, is a constant given by:

4𝜋 2
𝐾𝑠 = = 2.97 × 10−19 𝑠 2 /𝑚3
𝐺𝑀𝑠

Therefore

T2 ∝ r3

EXERCISES
1. A wheel accelerates uniformly from rest to an angular speed of 25 rad/s in 10 s. Consider a
particle sticking at a point 10 cm from the wheel’s center.
(a) Find the angular acceleration of the particle. [2.5 rad/s2]
(b) Find the tangential and radial acceleration of the particle. [0.25 m/s2; 62.5m/s2]
(c) How many revolutions has the wheel turned during this time interval? [20 rev]
(d) Find the angular deceleration of the particle if the wheel comes to a full stop after 5
revolutions. [ −9.95 rad/s2]
2. As an approximation, assume the moon revolves about the Earth in a perfectly circular orbit
with a radius r = 3.85 × 108 m and takes 27.3 days to make a complete revolution (see figure
7.11). What is
(a) the speed of the moon? [1025 m/s]
(b) the radial acceleration of the moon toward the Earth’s center? [2.73×10-3 m/s2]

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 Figure 7.11 See exercise 2

3. A stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to the end of a string is whirled round a circle of radius 1.5 m
with a speed of 40 rev/min in a horizontal plane. What is the tension in the string? What is the
maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if the string can withstand a
maximum tension of 200 N? [6.57 N; 34.64 m/s]
4. A 3.5 kg mass is allowed to spin. The rope it is attached to is 2 m long and makes an angle of
25 degrees with the vertical.
(a) What is the tension in the rope? [37.8 N]
(b) What is the mass’s speed? [1.97 m/s]
5. A car has to move on a level turn of radius 45 m. If the coefficient of static friction between
the tyre and the road is µs = 2.0, find the maximum speed the car can take without skidding.
Take g = 10 m/s2. [30 m/s]
6. A park has a radius of 10 m. If a vehicle goes round it at an average speed of 18 km/hr, what
should be the proper angle of banking? [140]
7. A small body is tied to the end of string of length 1 m and whirled in a vertical circle. What is
(a) the minimum speed that the body must have at the highest point so that the string does not
slacken? [3.13 m/s]
(b) its speed at the lowest point if it has the above minimum speed at the highest point? [7 m/s]
8. In a rotor, a hollow vertical cylindrical structure rotates about its axis and a person rests against
the inner wall. At a particular speed of the rotor, the floor below the person is removed and the
person hangs resting against the wall without any floor. If the radius of the rotor is 2 m and the
coefficient of static friction between the wall and the person is 0. 2, find the minimum speed
at which the floor may be removed. Take g = 10 m/s2. [10 m/s]
9. A particle has a non-uniform motion on a circular path of radius r = 2 m. At a given instant of
time, the magnitude of its total acceleration a is 10 m/s2 (see figure 7.12). At this instant, find:
(a) the magnitude of both the centripetal and tangential accelerations. [8.66 m/s2, 5 m/s]
(b) the speed v of the particle. [4.16 m/s]

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 Figure 7.12 See exercise 9
10. A particle moves in a circle of radius 1 m. Its linear speed is given by 𝑣 = 4 𝑡, where 𝑡 is in
second and 𝑣 in metre/second. Find the radial and tangential acceleration at t = 0.5 s. Hence,
find the magnitude and direction of the resultant acceleration. [4 m/s2; 4 m/s2; 5.66 m/s2; 450]
11. The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 × 1027 𝑘𝑔 and that of the sun is 1.99 × 1030 𝑘𝑔. The mean distance
of Jupiter from the sun is 7.8 × 1011m. Calculate the gravitational force which the sun exerts
on Jupiter, and the speed of Jupiter. [𝟒. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 N; 𝟏. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 m/s]
12. Find the distance of a point from the earth’s center where the resultant gravitational field due
to the earth and the moon is zero. The mass of the earth is 6 × 10 24 kg and that of the moon is
7. 4 × 1022 kg. The distance between the earth and the moon is 4 × 105 km? Neglect effects of
other planets. [3.6 × 𝟏𝟎5 k𝒎]
13. How far away from the surface of earth does the acceleration due to gravity become 4% of its
value on the surface of earth? [25600 km]
14. An earth satellite makes a complete circuit around the earth in 90 minutes. If the orbit is
circular, calculate the height of the satellite above the earth. [279 km]
15. A satellite of mass 1000 kg is supposed to orbit the earth at a height of 2000 km above the
earth’s surface. Compute its

(a) speed in the orbit. [6. 90 km]

(b) time period. [2.12 hours]

(c) kinetic energy. [2. 38  1010 J]

(d) potential energy of the earth–satellite system. [-4. 76  1010 J]

16. A satellite of mass 200 kg orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the surface. How much
energy must be expended to rocket the satellite out of earth’s gravitational influence? Radius
of the earth = 6400 km; mass of the earth = 6×1024 Kg. [5.88×109 J]
17. A rocket is fired vertically upward with a speed of 9.8 km/s from the earth’s surface. Find the
maximum height attained by the rocket. Consider only earth’s gravitation. [20900 km]
13 12
18. The distance of Neptune and Saturn from the sun is nearly 10 m and 10 m respectively.
Assuming that they move in circular in circular orbits, then what will be the ratio of their
periods? [Tn:Ts = 31.6:1]

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