MODULE I

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An Embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a specific

function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware(software)

Embedded System vs General Purpose Computer

Criteria General Purpose Computing system Embedded System

Contents A system which is a combination of a A system which is a combination of
generic hardware and a general purpose special purpose hardware and
operating system for executing a variety embedded OS for executing a specific set
of application. of applications.
OS Contains a general purpose operating May or may not contain an operating
system(GPOS) system for functioning.
Alterations Applications are alterable by the user. Applications are not alterable by the
user.
Key factor Performance is key factor Application specific requirements are
key factor
Power More Less
consumption
Response Not critical Critical for some applications
time
Execution Need not be deterministic Deterministic for certain types of ES like
‘hard real time’ systems

Classification of Embedded Systems:

• Based on Generation
• Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements
• Based on deterministic behaviour
• Based on Triggering

1. Embedded Systems - Classification based on Generation

First Generation: The early embedded systems built around 8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80
and 4-bit microcontrollers

Eg. stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads etc.

Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8 or 16-bit
microcontrollers.

Eg. SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc.

Prepared by: Dijith Kumar K Embedded Systems

Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 1 Module I
Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32 bit
Microprocessors/controllers, Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).The instruction set is complex
and powerful.

Eg. Robotics, industrial process control, networking etc

Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoC’s), Reconfigurable
processors and multicore processors. It brings high performance, tight integration and miniaturization
into the embedded device market

Eg: Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.

2. Embedded Systems - Classification based on Complexity & Performance

Small Scale: The embedded systems using low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/
microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and where performance is not time critical. It
may or may not contain OS.

Medium Scale: Embedded Systems using medium performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit microprocessors
/ microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in hardware and firmware. It may contain
GPOS/RTOS.

Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems using high performance 32 or 64 bit RISC

processors/controllers, RSoC or multi-core processors and PLD. It requires complex hardware and
software. These systems may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main processor.

3. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on deterministic behaviour

Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be tolerated to a certain
degree.

Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can have catastrophic
consequences (financial, human loss of life, etc.).

4. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on Triggering

Event Triggered: Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and depend upon
occurrence of different events.

Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule (i.e., they are
allocated time slots during which they can take place) and thus by nature are predictable.

Prepared by: Dijith Kumar K Embedded Systems

Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 2 Module I
 Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

• Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.

• Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven
etc.
• Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection
alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
• Automotive Industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems,
Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
• Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
• Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
• Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
• Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.
• Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers, PLC
systems etc.
• Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of Sales
(POS)
• Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

Purpose of Embedded Systems

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.

• Data Collection/Storage/Representation
• Data Communication
• Data (Signal) Processing
• Monitoring
• Control
• Application Specific User Interface

Components of Embedded System

Power Supply - Normally, a 5V power supply is required for the system, however, it can also range
from 1.8 to 3.3V.

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 3 Module I
Microcontroller - An embedded system is either a microcontroller-based or microprocessor-based
system. They give a system computing power and are called integrated circuits.

ROM/RAM - ROM is called the code memory that stores the program code and is non-volatile. RAM
is called the data memory and is a volatile memory.

Timers/Counters- used to create time delays and count number of times of a particular event.

Communication Ports - Used to establish connection with other embedded systems. There are
several communication ports including USB, UART, USB, I2C, SPI, and RS-485

Output and Input – Sensors, switches and keypads are used as inputs. Monitors, LED display, 7
segment display, LCD etc are used as output devices.

Editor - The code you write in C and C++ programming languages will be saved in a text file in the
editor.

Compiler - A compiler is used to turn the written code into low-level machine language that the
machine can understand.

Assembler - difference between compiler and assembler is that the assembler converts assembly
language to machine language and on the other hand compiler converts a high-level language as C or
C++ to low-level language.

Emulator- The main task of the emulator is to make the embedded system act like a real system in a
simulation environment. Using an emulator, you’ll get an idea of how the code will function in real-
time.

Linker- Linker is a tool that takes one or more object files and combines them to develop a single
executable code.

Debugger – used for testing and debugging.

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 4 Module I
 Building blocks of an embedded System

Core of the embedded system

1. General purpose and domain specific processor

Microprocessor- It is a general purpose digital computer CPU. It contains ALU, PC, SP, registers etc. It
does not contain I/O port, ROM, RAM, timer etc.

Microcontroller – It is a computer system implemented on a single chip. It contains everything the

microprocessor contains plus I/O port, ROM, RAM, timer etc.

Digital Signal processors – Used specifically for signal processing applications. It is 2 to 3 times faster
than general purpose microprocessor in signal processing applications.

2. Programmable logic devices (PLD’s)

Programmable logic devices are used to implement logic functions. It is easily configured by the user
for specific applications.

Prepared by: Dijith Kumar K Embedded Systems

Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 5 Module I
 3. Application specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)

It is used as replacement to general purpose logic chips. It integrates several functions to a single chip,
so reduces system development cost. Have high speed of operation.

4. Commercial off the shelf components (COTS)

It provides easy integration with existing system. They are readily available in the market. No need to
design the module yourself.

Classification of Memory

Some of the processors or controller contain built-in memory. It is called on-chip memory. Some of
them doesn’t have sufficient memory. So we need to use external memory. It is called off-chip memory.

ROM (program memory)

ROM stands for read only memory. We can only read but cannot write on it. Information are stored
permanently during manufacturing. It is non volatile ie when the power is off data will not be lost.

MROM

• Masked ROM
• Oldest type of memory
• Programs are stored at the time of manufacturing
• It can’t be modified

PROM

• Programmable ROM
• It can be modified once by the user
• User buy a blank PROM and write content using PROM program
• It can be programmed only once and not erasable

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 6 Module I
EPROM

• Erasable and programmable ROM

• It can be reprogrammed and erased many times
• It can be erased by exposing to ultra violet light

EEPROM

• Electrically erasable and programmable ROM

• It is programmed and erased electrically
• It can be erased and programmed 10000 times
• Erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms
• Any location can be selectively erased rather than erasing entire chip

Flash ROM

• Advanced version of EEPROM

• Can write blocks of data at a particular time
• Faster than EEPROM
• Highly durable

RAM

• Random access memory (data memory)

• It is a read and write memory
• Volatile memory. ie when power is off data is lost
• Computer’s performance depends on storage capacity of RAM

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 7 Module I
NVRAM

• Random access memory with battery back up

• Contains static RAM memory and a minute battery
• Life span is expected to be 10 years

Sensors and Actuators

Sensors

• It acts as an input device

• Converts energy from one form to another for any measurement or control purpose
• Sensor sent this to processor/controller and process it
• Eg: Light, heat, pressure etc

Actuator

• It acts as a output device

• Actuator converts signal to corresponding physical action
• Eg: stepper motor

I/O Subsystem

The I/O subsystem of the embedded system give the interaction of embedded system with outside
world.

LED (Light emitting diode)

• It is an output device for visual indication in embedded system.

• 7 segment LED display is used for displaying alphanumeric characters.

Optocoupler

• An optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical isolator is an electronic component that transfers

electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using light.
• It combines LED and photo transistor in a single package.

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 8 Module I
Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a single or multiple
control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. Relays are used where it is necessary to
control a circuit by an independent low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal.

Stepper Motor

It is a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy and generate a discrete motion by
applying a dc signal.

Based on coil winding, a two- phase stepper motor can be classified into two.

1. Unipolar – contains two windings per phase.

2. Bipolar - Have single winding per phase.

Communication Interface

Used to communicate with external world

Onboard Communication Interface – used for internal communication of embedded system.

1. I2C (Inter integrated Chip)

It is a bidirectional half duplex two-wire serial bus that uses serial clock (SCL) and serial data (SDA)
wires to send and manage data between devices connected to the bus.

Because I2C operates using a serial clock, it considered to be synchronous.

I2C is used to connect devices like microcontrollers, EEPROMs, I/O interfaces, and other peripheral
devices in an embedded system. A microcontroller is often used as the master device, and other
peripheral devices are used as slave devices. Because all communication takes place on only two wires,
all devices must have a unique address to identify it on the bus.

2. SPI – Serial Peripheral Interface

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is a full duplex synchronous serial communication interface used for
short distance communications. It is usually used for communication between different modules in a
same device or PCB.

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 9 Module I
MOSI (Master Output/Slave Input) – Line for the master to send data to the slave.

MISO (Master Input/Slave Output) – Line for the slave to send data to the master.

SCLK (Clock) – Line for the clock signal.

SS/CS (Slave Select/Chip Select) – Line for the master to select which slave to send data to.

3. UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver transmitter)

In UART communication, two UARTs communicate directly with each other. The transmitting UART
converts parallel data from a controlling device like a CPU into serial form, transmits it in serial to the
receiving UART, which then converts the serial data back into parallel data for the receiving device.
Only two wires are needed to transmit data between two UARTs. Data flows from the Tx pin of the
transmitting UART to the Rx pin of the receiving UART.

UARTs transmit data asynchronously, which means there is no clock signal to synchronize the data
transfer. The transmitting UART adds start and stop bits to the data packet being transferred. UART is
being used in many applications like GPS Receivers, Bluetooth Modules, GSM and GPRS Modems,
Wireless Communication Systems, RFID based applications etc.

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Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 10 Module I
External Communication Interface – used for communication with external devices.

1. RS232 protocol

It is a full duplex wired, asynchronous serial communication interface.

RS232C “Recommended Standard 232C” is the recent version of Standard 25 pin

whereas, RS232D which is of 22 pins. In new PC’s male D-type which is of 9 pins.

In RS232 protocol output is Logic 0 when the voltage is between +3 V and +15 V and is Logic 1 when
the voltage is between -3 V to -15 V.

RS232 signal is converted to TTL using MAX232 IC

2. USB

USB is a wired high speed serial bus for data communication. It connects peripheral devices including
digital cameras, mice, keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices, external hard drives, and flash
drives.

• USB 1.0/Low-Speed: 1.5 Megabits per second (Mbps)

• USB 1.1/Full-Speed: 12 Mbps.

• USB 2.0/Hi-Speed: 480 Mbps.

• USB 3.0/SuperSpeed: 5 Gbps.

• USB 3.1/SuperSpeed: 10 Gbps.

3. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging data
over smaller distances. It operates in the unlicensed, industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band from
2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth
ranges up to 10 meters. It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version.

• Bluetooth is Wireless.

• Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.

• Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect almost any device to
any other device.

• The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Prepared by: Dijith Kumar K Embedded Systems

Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 11 Module I
 4. Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are
commonly used for local area networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital
devices to exchange data by radio waves. It can also provide wireless Internet access for Wi-Fi-enabled
devices when they are near areas that have Wi-Fi access, called “hot spots.” Wi-Fi uses radio waves to
transmit data from your wireless router to your Wi-Fi enabled devices like your TV, smartphone, tablet
and computer. Wi-fi routers use 2.4GHz or 5GHz for data transfer.

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Prepared by: Dijith Kumar K Embedded Systems

Lecturer in Electronics Engineering 12 Module I