13 Reproduction in humans

13.1 Human reproductive system

1 Structures and functions of the male reproductive system:

Structure Function

Testes Produce sperms (精子) and male sex hormones

Scrotum - Holds the testes

- Keeps the testes at a lower temperature for sperm development

Epididymis, - Epididymis stores sperms temporarily

vas deferens - Vas deferens carries sperms from the epididymis to the urethra
and urethra - Urethra discharges semen (精液) out of the body during ejaculation (射精)

Seminal vesicles, Secrete seminal fluid (精液) which

prostate gland and - provides a medium for sperms to swim in
Cowper’s glands - contains sugars that act as an energy source for sperms
- contains mucus for lubrication
- neutralizes acidic urine in the male’s urethra and acidic secretions in the
female’s vagina

Penis - Contains erectile tissue and many blood vessels

- Transfers semen into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse

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2 Structures and functions of the female reproductive system:

Structure Function

Ovaries - Produce ova (卵) and female sex hormones

Oviducts - Lined with ciliated epithelial cells; cilia beat to sweep the ovum or the
early embryo (胚胎) to the uterus
- Site of fertilization

Uterus - Site of implantation (植入) of the embryo

- Protects the embryo or foetus (胎兒) and provides a stable environment for
it to develop in
- Its muscular wall contracts to push out the foetus during childbirth

Cervix - Dilates to allow the foetus to pass through during childbirth

Vagina - Holds the penis and receives semen during in sexual intercourse
- Its environment is acidic to reduce bacterial growth
- Acts as the birth canal for the foetus

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13.2 Human gametes

1 Sexual reproduction in humans involves the fusion of a sperm (male gamete) and an ovum
(female gamete).
2 Structure of a human sperm and a human ovum:

3 Comparison of the structures of a sperm and an ovum:

Sperm Ovum

Size Smaller Much larger

(about 0.05 mm long) (about 0.1 mm in diameter)

Shape Like a tadpole Spherical

Movement Can swim using its tail Cannot move by itself

Food reserves Very little Much more food reserves

(uses sugars in seminal fluid)

Number of chromosomes Haploid number Haploid number

in the nucleus (i.e. 23 chromosomes) (i.e. 23 chromosomes)

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4 Differences between the production and development of sperms and ova:

Sperm Ovum

Location Testes Ovaries

(in seminiferous tubules (精小管))

Time of - Begins at puberty (青春期) - Production of immature ova in the form of

occurrence follicle (卵泡) occurs before birth
- Occurs throughout life - Further development of follicles occurs
cyclically from puberty to about the age
of 50

Quantity Millions of sperms are produced Usually only one follicle becomes fully
every day mature and releases an ovum about every 28
days

5 Production and development of sperms:

6 Development of follicle and ovulation (排卵):

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13.3 Secondary sexual characteristics in humans

1 Increased production of sex hormones during puberty leads to the development of secondary
sexual characteristics (第二性徵).
2 Comparison of the secondary sexual characteristics in males and females:

Male Female

Similarity - Hair grows in armpits and pubic area

Difference - Larynx enlarges and voice deepens - Breasts develop

- Shoulders broaden - Hip broadens
- The body becomes more muscular - More fat is deposited under the skin
- Beard grows

13.4 Menstrual cycle

1 If the ovum meets a sperm in the oviduct, fertilization may occur. The fertilized ovum will
develop into an embryo. To prepare for the implantation of the embryo, the uterine lining
(子宮內膜) thickens and its blood supply increases before ovulation.
2 Menstrual cycle (月經週期) lasts about 28 days:

Time Key events

Days 1 to 5 The thickened uterine lining breaks down. Menstruation (月經) occurs.

Days 6 to 13 The uterine lining thickens and the blood supply increases to prepare for the
implantation of an embryo.

Day 14 Ovulation occurs.

Days 15 to 28 The ruptured follicle becomes the yellow body, which releases a hormone to
increase and maintain the thickness of the uterine lining. The uterine lining
becomes very thick. It is ready to receive an embryo.

3 If fertilization occurs and the woman gets pregnant, the degeneration of the yellow body is
delayed. The uterine lining continues to thicken. Menstruation does not occur until the baby
is born.

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4 Conditions of the ovary and the uterine lining in a menstrual cycle:
developing mature ovulation yellow bodies
follicles follicle

events in
the ovary

thickness of
uterine lining

28 day

lining breaks lining becomes lining continues to

down and its thicker with increased thicken and becomes
thickness blood supply very thick
decreases to to receive an embryo
a minimum
menstruation ovulation

5 The highest chance for a woman to get pregnant is to have sexual intercourse a few days
before and after ovulation. This period is called the fertile period (受孕期).
6 At menopause (絕經), ovulation and menstruation gradually stop. The woman can no longer
become pregnant.

13.5 Fertilization

1 Sperms are brought into a female body during sexual intercourse (性交):
- When a male is sexually excited, the erectile tissue of his penis is filled rapidly with more
blood. The penis becomes erect. The male inserts his penis into the vagina of the female.
- Semen (containing sperms) is ejaculated into the vagina.
2 After entering the vagina, the sperms swim towards the upper parts of the oviducts (site of
fertilization).
3 Fusion of sperm and ovum:

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13.6 Pregnancy

1 After fertilization, the zygote is moved down the oviduct by the beating action of the cilia and
the peristaltic contraction of the muscular wall of the oviduct. During the journey, the zygote
divides repeatedly by mitotic cell division to form an embryo.
2 Implantation occurs when the embryo reaches the uterus and embeds itself into the thickened
uterine lining. Implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy.
3 Embryo in the uterus:

4 Functions of the amniotic fluid:

- Acts as a cushion to protect the embryo from mechanical injury
- Provides a stable environment for the development of the embryo
- Prevents the embryo from desiccation
- Allows the embryo to move around easily
- Lubricates the vagina during childbirth
5 The embryo develops finger-like villi that grow into the uterine lining. These villi, together
with some maternal uterine tissue, form a disc-shaped organ called the placenta. It is
connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord.
6 The umbilical cord contains two umbilical arteries which carry deoxygenated blood and an
umbilical vein which carries oxygenated blood.

Umbilical arteries Umbilical vein

Blood flow From embryo to placenta From placenta to embryo

Oxygen Less More

Blood content

Carbon dioxide More Less

Nutrients Fewer More

Urea More Less

Blood pressure Higher Lower

Valves Absent Present

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7 The embryo’s blood and the maternal blood are separated to:
- avoid breakage of embryo’s blood vessels by the high blood pressure of maternal blood.
- avoid clumping of blood in case the blood types of the embryo’s blood and the maternal
blood are incompatible (不相容).
- prevent the entry of certain pathogens or toxins from the maternal blood into the
embryo’s blood.
8 Functions of the placenta:
- Allows the exchange of materials between the embryo and the mother. Nutrients, oxygen
and antibodies (抗體) diffuse from the maternal blood to the embryo’s blood. Carbon
dioxide and other metabolic wastes diffuse from the embryo’s blood to the maternal blood.
- Secretes hormones to maintain the thickness of the uterine lining.
9 Structural adaptations of the placenta for the exchange of materials:

Adaptive feature Explanation

Finger-like embryonic villi Greatly increase the surface area for the exchange of
materials

Very thin walls of the embryo’s Provide a short distance for the diffusion of materials
capillaries and the embryonic villi

A lot of blood vessels The rich supply of blood carries materials away
rapidly to maintain a steep concentration gradient of
materials between the embryo’s blood and the maternal
blood

10 About eight weeks after fertilization, major organs of the embryo are formed. The embryo is
now called a foetus. The foetus continues to grow until it is ready to be born. It takes about
38 weeks from fertilization to birth.
11 Prenatal care (產前護理) is vital for the health of the foetus as well as that of the mother.

Do’s during pregnancy Don’ts during pregnancy

- Have a balanced diet - Do not smoke

- Do gentle exercise regularly - Do not drink alcohol
- Have prenatal check-ups regularly - Do not take drugs without seeking the
doctor’s advice

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12 Differences between identical twins (單卵雙生) and fraternal twins (二卵雙生):

Identical twins Fraternal twins

Formation Develop from a single zygote Develop from two zygotes

Genetic make-up Same Different

Sex Same Maybe different

Blood group Same Maybe different

Appearance Look very much alike May not look alike

13.7 Birth process

1 The onset of labour (分娩) is indicated by the rhythmic contractions of the muscles of the
uterine wall.
2 Labour can be divided into three stages:

13.8 Parental care

1 Parental care (親代撫育) ensures better development and increases the chance of survival of
babies.
2 Some benefits of breast-feeding (母乳餵哺):
- Breast milk provides essential nutrients and antibodies for the baby.
- Breast-feeding helps the recovery of the mother’s uterus and reduces the risk of breast
cancer and ovarian cancer in the mother.
- Breast-feeding enhances mother-child bonding.

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13.9 Birth control

1 Practising birth control (控制生育) (or contraception (避孕)) to avoid pregnancy helps couples
achieve their goals of family planning (家庭計劃).
2 Contraceptive methods and their biological principles:

Biological principle Contraceptive method Mode of action

Prevent ovulation Hormonal methods: - Contain synthetic sex hormones which

Contraceptive pills (避孕丸) prevent the formation of mature ova and
ovulation

Prevent sperms Rhythm method - Avoids sexual intercourse during the

from meeting the (安全期避孕法) fertile period
ovum
Barrier methods:
- Condom (安全套) and female - Trap ejaculated semen to prevent sperms
condom from entering the uterus
- Diaphragm (子宮帽) - Covers the cervix to prevent sperms
from entering the uterus
- Usually coated with spermicide (殺精劑) to
kill sperms

Hormonal method: - Contain synthetic sex hormones which

Mini pills (單一激素避孕丸) cause the cervical mucus to thicken so
that sperms cannot get through the
cervix and reach the uterus

Surgical methods:
- Vasectomy (輸精管切除術) - Tie and cut the vas deferens so that
sperms are absent in semen
- Tubal ligation (輸卵管結紮) - Tie and cut the oviducts so that the
ovum cannot meet sperms

Prevent Intrauterine device (IUD) - Put in the uterus to prevent

implantation of (子宮環) implantation of the embryo
embryos

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13.10 Comparison between sexual reproduction in humans
and flowering plants

Sexual reproduction

Flowering plants Humans

Similarities - Male gametes are small. This facilitates their transfer from the male sex organ to
the female sex organ.
- Male gametes are produced in large numbers. This increases the chance of
successful fertilization.
- Female gametes are larger and fewer in number.
- Female gametes are immotile and well protected in the parent body.
- Gametes are produced by meiotic cell division. This increases genetic variations.
- Embryos develop inside the body of the mother. They are well protected and
nourished. This increases the chance of survival of the embryos.

Differences - Male gametes are immotile. - Male gametes (sperms) are motile.

- External agents (e.g. insects and - No external agents are involved.

wind) are involved in bringing the Sperms are transferred to and
male and female gametes together. deposited in the female body through
Pollen tubes are developed to transfer sexual intercourse.
the male gamete to the ovule.

- The offspring are dispersed away - The baby is provided with parental
from the parent plants and become care after birth.
independent.

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