Design & Analysis of Algorithms

UNIT -2

ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHM
& COMPLEXITY THEORY

Prepared By Mr. Vipin K. Wani

 Asymptotic Notations
2

➢ Asymptotic notations are mathematical tools to represent time complexity of

algorithms for asymptotic analysis.

➢ The main idea of asymptotic analysis is to have a measure of efficiency of

algorithms that doesn’t depend on machine specific constants, and doesn’t require
algorithms to be executed and time taken by programs to be compared.

➢ The following 3 asymptotic notations are mostly used to represent time complexity
of algorithms.

1. Big Oh Notation (O):

2. Omega Notation (Ω):

3. Theta Notation (Θ):

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 Asymptotic Notations
3

Big Oh Notation (O): The Big O notation defines an upper bound of an

algorithm, it indicates highest possible (worst) value of time complexity .

Consider a input function f(n) belongs to the set O(g(n)) if there exists a
positive constant c such that it lies between 1 and g(n), for sufficiently large n
i.e. 0 < cg(n) < n. Then

f(n)<=C g(n)

Then we can say

f(n)=O g(n)

It can be represented on graph as.

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 Asymptotic Notations
4

Omega Notation (Ω): The Omega notation defines an lower bound of an

algorithm, it indicates lowest possible (best) value of time complexity .

if there exists a positive constant c such that it lies above cg(n), for
sufficiently large n i.e. cg(n)<C< n.

Then

f(n)>C g(n)

Then we can say

f(n)= Ω g(n)

It can be represented on graph as.

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 Asymptotic Notations
5

Omega Notation (Ω): The Omega notation defines an lower bound of an

algorithm, it indicates lowest possible (best) value of time complexity .

if there exists a positive constant c such that it lies above cg(n), for
sufficiently large n i.e. cg(n)<C< n.

Then

f(n)>C g(n)

Then we can say

f(n)= Ω g(n)

It can be represented on graph as.

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 Asymptotic Notations
6

Theta Notation (Θ): Theta notation encloses the function from above and below.
Since it represents the upper and the lower bound of the running time of an
algorithm, it is used for analyzing the average case complexity of an algorithm.
if there exist positive constants c1 and c2 such that it can be sandwiched
between c1g(n) and c2g(n), for sufficiently large n. If a function f(n) lies anywhere in
between c1g(n) and c2 > g(n) for all n ≥ n0, then f(n) is said to be asymptotically tight
bound.
C1 g(n) < f(n)<C2 g(n)
Then we can say
f(n)= Θ g(n)
It can be represented on graph as.

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 Best Case, Worst Case & Average Case Analysis
7

The Best Case, Worst Case & Average Case analysis is to have a measure of efficiency
of algorithms

Best Case Analysis : In the best case analysis, we calculate lower bound on running
time of an algorithm. We must know the case that causes minimum number of
operations to be executed. In the linear search problem, the best case occurs when x
is present at the first location. So time complexity in the best case would be Ω(1)

Worst Case Analysis: In the worst case analysis, we calculate upper bound on
running time of an algorithm. We must know the case that causes maximum number
of operations to be executed. For Linear Search, the worst case happens when the
element to be searched is not present in the array.

Average Case Analysis: In average case analysis, we take all possible inputs and
calculate computing time for all of the inputs. Sum all the calculated values and divide
the sum by total number of inputs. We must know (or predict) distribution of cases.

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 Best Case, Worst Case & Average Case Analysis
8

Best Case Worst Case Average Case

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 Best Case, Worst Case & Average Case Analysis
9

Best Case Worst Case Average Case

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 Input Size in Complexity
10

 We define input size as the total number of items present in the input.

If we increase the input size, the total number of operations performed by

an algorithm will increase.

 In other words, the time taken by an algorithm will increase with the

growth in the input size.

Example:

 Sorting – The number of items to be sorted.

 Graphs – The number of vertices and/or edges.

 Numerical – The number of bits needed to represent a number

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 Growth Rate
11

➢ Algorithms analysis is all about understanding growth rates.

➢ That is as the amount of data gets bigger, how much more resource will

my algorithm require? Typically, we describe the resource growth rate

of a piece of code in terms of a function.

➢ To help understand the implications, this section will look at graphs for

different growth rates from most efficent to least efficient.

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 Growth Rate with Diffrent input
12

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 Asymptotic Growth
13

Asymptotic Growth means the slower growth rate, and the better the
algorithm.
By this measure, a linear algorithm is always asymptotically better than a quadratic
one.
Ex. Algorithms having comexity
logarithmic : O(log n):
linear O(n):

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 Little o Notation
14

Big-Ο is used as a can not be tight or loose upper bound on the growth of an
algorithm’s effort.
“Little-ο” (ο()) notation is used to describe an upper bound that is tight upper
bound.
Little o is a rough estimate of the maximum order of growth whereas Big-Ο may
be the actual order of growth.

F(t) = 0 (g(t)) iff

F(n) =0(g(n)) for any Constant C>0 if n0>0

i.e. F(n) =0(g(n)) F(n) < C(g(n))

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 Little w Notation
15

It is Used to indicate lower bound that is asymptotically tight.

F(t) = w (g(t)) iff

F(n) =w(g(n)) for any Constant C>0 if n0>0

i.e. F(n) =w(g(n)) iff F(n) > C(g(n))

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 Recurrence Relation
16

A recurrence relation is an equation which represents a sequence based

on some rule. It helps in finding the subsequent term (next term) dependent
upon the preceding term (previous term). If we know the previous term in a
given series, then we can easily determine the next term.

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 Types of Recurrence Relation
17

1. Homogeneous & non Homogenous

Ax+bx+c=f(n) is a Homogeneous iff f(n)=0

Else is Non Homogenous

2 Linear & non linear

T(n) = f(n) +c is a Linear

T(n)=T(n-1)+1 is a Non Linear

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 How to Solve Recurrence Relation
18

There are 3 methods to Solving the RR

1. Substitution method
a. Forward
b backward
2. Master Theorem
3. Tree method

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
19

1. Solve the following Recurrance Relations T(n) = T (n-1) +n if T(0)= 0

By forward substitutions
If n=1
T(1)=T(0)+1 =1
If n=2
T(2)=T(1)+2 =1+2=3
If n=3
T(3)=T(2)+3 =3+3=6
So from above values determine the some common pattern
n(n+1)/2 = (n*n +n)/2 = n*n/2 +n/2 == O(n*n)

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
20
1. Solve the following Recurrance Relations T(n) = T (n-1) +n if T(0)= 0 By
Backward Substitution.
Solution:
T(n) = T (n-1) +n ------------------------Eq. 1
Now here to compute T(n) we require T(n-1) so for that Replace n by n-1 in eq 1
T(n-1)=T(n-1-1) + (n-1)
T(n-1) =T(n-2)+ (n-1)
Put back the value of T(n-1) in eq 1 so it will become
T(n)= T(n-2)+(n-1)+n --------------2
Now here to compute T(n) we require T(n-2) so for that Replace n by n-2 in eq 1
T(n-2)=T(n-2-1) + (n-2)
T(n-2)=T(n-3) + (n-2)
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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
21

Put back the value of T(n-2) in eq 2 so it will become

T(n)= T(n-3) + (n-2)+(n-1)+n
If we continue this replacement till K then kth term will be
T(n)=T(n-k)+ (n-(k-1))+((n-(k-2))+(n-(k-3))+……………+n
= T(n-k)+ (n-k+1)+(n-k+2)+(n-k+3)+…………..+n
Assuming n==k
=T(0)+1+2+3+……….+n
= 0+1+2+3+……..+n
=n(n+1)/2 = (n*n +n)/2 = n*n/2 +n/2 == O(n*n)
= O(n*n)=O(n2)

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
22

2. Solve the following Recurrance Relations T(n) = T (n-1) +1 if T(0)= 0 By

Backward Substitution.
Solution:
T(n)= T(n-1)+1 ---------------------------1
Now here to compute T(n) we require T(n-1) so for that Replace n by n-1 in eq 1
Put n=n-1 in eq 1
T(n-1)=T(n-1-1)+1
=T(n-2)+1
Put back T(n-1) in eq 1 so it will become
T(n)=T(n-2)+1+1
T(n) =T(n-2)+2 ----------------------------2
Now here to compute T(n) we require T(n-2) so for that Put n=n-2 in eq 1
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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
23

T(n-2)=T(n-2-1)+1
=T(n-3)+1
Put back value of T(n-2) in eq 2 so it will become
T(n)=T(n-3)+1+2
T(n)=T(n-3)+3
So the kth term will be
T(n)=T(n-k)+k
Assuming n==k
T(n)=T(0)+n Initial condition T(0)=0
T(n)= 0 +n
=O(n)

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
24
Solve the following Recurrance Relations T(n) = 2T (n/2) +n if T(0)= 0 By
Backward Substitution.
Solution:
T(n)= 2T(n/2)+n -----------1 when T(1)=0
Put n=n/2 in eq 1
T(n/2)= 2T(n/2/2)+n/2
T(n/2)= 2T(n/4)+n/2
Put back it in eq 1
T(n)=2(2T(n/4)+n/2) +n = (4T(n/4)+n) +n
T(n)=4T(n/4)+2n--------2
Replace n by n/4 in eq 1
T(n/4)= 2T(n/4/2)+n/4
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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
25
T(n/4)= 2T(n/8)+n/4 but back this in eq 2
T(n)=4(2T(n/8)+n/4)+2n
T(n)= (8T(n/8)+4n/4)+2n
T(n)= 8T(n/8)+3n
T(n)=2^3T(n/2^3)+3n
So the kth term will be
T(n)=2^kT(n/2^k)+kn-------3
Assume 2^k=n k=log2n
So eq 3 will becomes now
T(n)=nT(n/n)+log2n n
T(n)=nT(1)+nlog2n since T(1)=0 n+nlog2n
T(n)=O(nlog2n)
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 Recurrence Relation
26
Masters Theorem: The Master Method is used for solving the following types of
recurrence
T(n)=aT(n/b)+f(n) iff a>=1 & b>1
Where:
➢ n is the size of the problem.
➢ a is the number of subproblems in the recursion.
➢ n/b is the size of each subproblem. (Here it is assumed that all subproblems are
essentially the same size.)
➢ f (n) is the sum of the work done outside the recursive calls, which includes the
sum of dividing the problem and the sum of combining the solutions to the
subproblems.
➢ It is not possible always bound the function according to the requirement, so we
make three cases which will tell us what kind of bound we can apply on the
function.

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 Recurrence Relation
27
It can be solved by any of the following case:
where, T(n) has the following asymptotic bounds:
1. If f(n) = O(nlogb a-ϵ), then T(n) = Θ(nlogb a).
OR { if nlogb a > f(n) then T(n) = Θ(nlogb a) }
2. If f(n) = Ω(nlogb a+ϵ), then T(n) = Θ(f(n)).
OR { if nlogb a < f(n) then T(n) = Θ(f(n)) }
3. If f(n) = Θ(nlogb a), then T(n) = Θ(nlogb a * log n).
OR { if nlogb a = f(n) then T(n) = Θ(nlogb a * log n) }

ϵ > 0 is a constant.

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
28

1. Slove the Recurence relation using Masters therom T(n) = 8T(n/2) + n2

Solution:
➢Compare given eqetion with T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n) to find a & b
➢Here, a = 8 & b=2 & f(n)=n2
3
➢Now find nlogb a = nlog2 8 = nlog2 2 =n3
➢Now as nlogb a > f(n) this example is in case 1
➢So according to case 2 T(n) = T(n) = Θ(nlogb a)
➢T(n) = Θ(n3 ).

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
29

2. Slove the Recurence relation using Masters therom T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n log n
Solution:
➢Compare given eqetion with T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n) to find a & b
➢Here, a = 2 & b=2 & f(n)=n log n
➢Now find nlogb a = nlog2 2 = n
➢Now as nlogb a < f(n) this example is in case 2
➢So according to case 2 T(n) = T(n) = Θ(f(n))
➢T(n) = Θ(n log n ).

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
30

3. Slove the Recurence relation using Masters therom T(n) = 9T(n/3) + n3

➢Compare given eqetion with T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n) to find a & b
➢Here, a = 9 & b=3 & f(n)= n3
2
➢Now find nlogb a = nlog3 9 = nlog3 3 =n2
➢Now as nlogb a < f(n) this example is in case 2
➢So according to case 2 T(n) = T(n) = Θ(f(n))
➢T(n) = Θ(n 3 ).

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 Recurrence Relation (Example)
31

Slove the Recurence relation using any suitable example.

1. T(n)=T(n/2) + 1
2. T(n)=2T(n/2)+C when T(1)=1
3. T(n)= T(n/3)+C when T(1)=1

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 P-NP Class problems
32

➢ P Class Problems: The problems which can be solved in polynomial time of

complexity are called P class problems.

➢ Ex. O (n), O(n2), O(nlogn)

➢ Ex.
1. Calculating the greatest common divisor.
2. Searching & Sorting Algorithms
3. Finding a maximum matching.
4. Decision versions of linear programming.

➢ The Problems than can be solved in polynomial time are called tractable problems.

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 P-NP Class problems
33
 Features of P Class Problems

 The solution to P problems is easy to find.

 P is often a class of computational problems that are solvable and tractable.

Tractable means that the problems can be solved in theory as well as in practice.
But the problems that can be solved in theory but not in practice are known as
intractable.

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 P-NP Class problems
34

➢ NP Class Problems: The NP in NP class stands for Non-deterministic

Polynomial Time. It is the collection of decision problems that can be solved

by a non-deterministic machine in polynomial time.

➢ Ex. O (2n), O(3n),

➢ Ex.

1. Traveling Salesman's Problem,

2. 0/1 Knapsack problems

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 P-NP Class problems
35

➢ Features of NP Class Problems

➢ The NP class Problems are also called as intractable problems.

➢ The solutions of the NP class are hard to find since they are being solved by a non-

deterministic machine but the solutions are easy to verify.

➢ Problems of NP can be verified by a Turing machine in polynomial time

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 P-NP Class problems
36

➢ Consider an algorithm to solve Sudoku

problem
➢ For every blank space having the option 1 to 9
➢ And have to fill approximately 50 empty boxes
➢ So complexity is 950

➢ So is not a P class problem.

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 P-NP Class problems
37

➢ But if solution is given and we just want to verify solution whether is correct or incorrect then it
can be done in a polynomial time.
➢ So we can verify the problems solution in polynomial time but cannot solve in polynomial time

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 P Vs NP Class problems
38

➢ To understand the relation between P & NP Class problems consider the following three cases
1: If P==NP Which means
➢ Every problem can be solvable in polynomial Time which is not actually feasible.

2: If P!=NP Which means

➢ Every problem cannot be solvable in polynomial Time which is not again actually
feasible.
➢ So What is the relation between P & NP
P

P NP NP

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 Reduction
39

➢ If A problem is reduced to B Problem in polynomial time then is called reduction.

➢ In simple word, problem A is reducible to problem B if an algorithm for solving
problem A (if it existed) efficiently could also be used as a subroutine to solve
problem A efficiently.

Reduced to
A In polynomial time
B

Let A & B are two NP problems, And problem A is Reduced to problem B , If there is
a way to solve A by Non deterministic polynomial algorithm that solve B also in
polynomial time So B is always in polynomial time.

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 Reduction
40

➢ Let us Understand

1. Traveling Salesman's Problem O(2n)

2. 0/1 Knapsack problems O(2n)

3. Sum of Subset Problem O(2n)

4. Graph Coloring Problems O(2n) Here A is Base Problem

5. Hamilton Cycle O(2n) And B is any of the problem from the List

➢ If problem A is reduced to B and if B in NP then A is also in NP.

Reduced to
A In polynomial time
B
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 NP Hard Problem
41

A problem is NP-hard if an algorithm for solving it can be translated into one for
solving any NP-problem (nondeterministic polynomial time) problem.

Some of the examples of problems in Np-hard are:

1. Halting problem.
2. Qualified Boolean formulas.
3. No Hamiltonian cycle.

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 NP Complete Problem
42

A problem X is NP-Complete if there is an NP problem Y, such that Y is reducible to

X in polynomial time. NP-Complete problems are as hard as NP problems. A
problem is NP-Complete if it is a part of both NP and NP-Hard Problem
Some of the examples of problems in Complete are:
1. Decision version of 0/1 Knapsack.
2. Hamiltonian Cycle.
3. Satisfiability.
4. Vertex cover.

NP Problem
Reduced to
Y In polynomial time
X
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Relation Between P, NP, NP Hard & NP Complete
43

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Relation Between P, NP, NP Hard & NP Complete
44

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 Deterministic Vs Non Deterministic Algorithms
45

NP HARD NP COMPLETE

NP-Hard problems(say X) can be

NP-Complete problems can be solved
solved if and only if there is a NP-
by a non-deterministic Algorithm
Complete problem(say Y) that can be
/Turing Machine in polynomial time.
reducible into X in polynomial time.

To solve this problem, it do not have to To solve this problem, it must be both
be in NP . NP and NP-hard problems.

Do not have to be a Decision problem. It is exclusively a Decision problem.

Ex. Halting problem. Ex. Hamiltonian Cycle.

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 Deterministic Algorithms
46

➢ In computer science, a deterministic algorithm is

an algorithm which, given a particular input, will always produce the
same output, with the underlying machine always passing through the
same sequence of states.

➢ The algorithms in which the result of every algorithm is uniquely

defined are known as the deterministic algorithm.

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 Deterministic Algorithms
47

 Some of the terms related to the non-deterministic algorithm

are defined below:
 choice(X) : chooses any value randomly from the set X.
 failure() : denotes the unsuccessful solution.
 success() : Solution is successful and current thread terminates.

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 Deterministic Algorithms
48

 Problem Statement : Search an element x on A[1:n] where n>=1, on

successful search return j if a[j] is equals to x otherwise return 0.
 Non-deterministic Algorithm for this problem :

j= choice(a, n)
if(A[j]==x) then
{
write(j);
success();
}
write(0);
failure();

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 Deterministic Vs Non Deterministic Algorithms
49

DETERMINISTIC ALGORITHM NON-DETERMINISTIC ALGORITHM

For a particular input the computer

For a particular input the computer will
will give different output on different
give always same output.
execution.

Can solve the problem in polynomial Can’t solve the problem in polynomial
time. time.

Cannot determine the next step of

Can determine the next step of
execution due to more than one path
execution.
the algorithm can take.

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 Vertex Cover
50

➢ A vertex cover of an undirected graph is a subset of its vertices such

that for every edge (u, v) of the graph, either ‘u’ or ‘v’ is in the vertex
cover. Although the name is Vertex Cover, the set covers all edges of the
given graph. Given an undirected graph, the vertex cover
problem is to find minimum size vertex cover.
➢ The vertex Cover of a graph is defined as a subset of its vertices, such
for every edge in the graph, from vertex u to v, at least one of them
must be a part of the vertex cover set.

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 Vertex Cover
51

➢ vertex cover problem are the approximation algorithms that run in polynomial time complexity. A
simple approximate algorithm for the vertex cover problem is described below:

➢ Initialize the vertex cover set as empty.

➢ Let the set of all edges in the graph be called E.
➢ While E is not empty:
➢ Pick a random edge from the set E, add its constituent nodes, u and v into the vertex cover set.
➢ For all the edges, which have either u or v as their part, remove them from the set E.
➢ Return the final obtained vertex cover set, after the set E is empty.

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 Vertex Cover
52

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 Vertex Cover
53

2 4 2 4

1 1

3 5 3 5
2 4
2 4

1
1

Vector Cover of size 4 3 5

3 5
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 Vertex Cover
54

2 4

2 4
1

1
3 5

3 5

Vector Cover of size 3

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 Hamilton Cycle
55

Hamiltonian Path in an undirected graph is a path that visits each vertex exactly once. A
Hamiltonian cycle (or Hamiltonian circuit) is a Hamiltonian Path such that there is an
edge (in the graph) from the last vertex to the first vertex of the Hamiltonian Path.
Determine whether a given graph contains Hamiltonian Cycle or not. If it contains, then
prints the path. Following are the input and output of the required function.

Any Hamiltonian Path can be made into a Hamiltonian Circuit through a

polynomial time reduction by simply adding one edge between the first and last
point in the path. Therefore we have a reduction, which means that Hamiltonian
Paths are in NP Hard, and therefore in NP Complete.

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 Steps to find Hamilton Cycle (Backtracking approach)
56
➢ Given a graph G = (V, E) we have to find the Hamiltonian Circuit using.
➢ We start our search from any arbitrary vertex say 'a.' This vertex 'a' becomes the
root of our implicit tree.
➢ The first element of our partial solution is the first intermediate vertex of the
Hamiltonian Cycle that is to be constructed.
➢ The next adjacent vertex is selected by alphabetical order.
➢ If at any stage any arbitrary vertex makes a cycle with any vertex other than
vertex 'a' then we say that dead end is reached.
➢ In this case, we backtrack one step, and again the search begins by selecting
another vertex and backtrack the element from the partial; solution must be
removed.
➢ The search using backtracking is successful if a Hamiltonian Cycle is obtained.
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 Hamilton Cycle
57

Example: Consider a graph G = (V, E) shown in fig. we have to find a Hamiltonian

circuit using Backtracking method.

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 Hamilton Cycle
58

Example:

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 Hamilton Cycle
59

Example:

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 Hamilton Cycle
60

Example:

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 Hamilton Cycle
61

Example:

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 Satisfiability problem (3 SAT)
62
➢ The satisfiability problem, usually called SAT, is the following language.
SAT = {φ | φ is a satisfiable clausal formula}.
➢ Thought of as a computational problem, the input to SAT is a clausal formula φ and
the problem is to determine whether φ is satisfiable.
➢ Solving a 3-SAT problem is the act of finding a set of variable assignments to True or
False that make that statement true or alternately providing a proof.
➢ Boolean satisfiability problem also called propositional satisfiability
problem and abbreviated SATISFIABILITY, SAT is the problem of determining if
there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula.
➢ In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula can be
consistently replaced by the values TRUE or FALSE in such a way that the formula
evaluates to TRUE. If this is the case, the formula is called satisfiable.
Prepared By Mr. Vipin K. Wani
 Satisfiability problem (3 SAT)
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➢ Boolean, or propositional-logic expressions are built from variables and constants
using the operators AND, OR, and NOT.
➢ Constants are true and false, represented by 1 and 0, respectively.
➢ We’ll use concatenation for AND, + for OR, - for NOT, unlike the text.
➢ Example:
➢ Consider three Boolean variables y1, y2, and y3.
➢ Consider clausal formula F= (y1˅ ŷ2 ˅ y3) ˄ (ŷ 1˅ y2 ˅ ŷ 3)
➢ So the objective of the problem is then to decide whether F is satisfiable, i.e.,
whether there exists an assignment a of truth values true and false to the
variables yk such that every clause contains at least one literal rendered true by a.

Prepared By Mr. Vipin K. Wani

 Satisfiability problem (3 SAT)
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➢ Let us Consider different possible values of y1, y2 & y3

y1 y2 y3
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

So let us chech for which combination of y1, y2 & y3 F is satisfied

Prepared By Mr. Vipin K. Wani

 Satisfiability problem (3 SAT)
65
➢ Let us Consider different possible values of y1, y2 & y3
➢ So let us chech for which combination of y1, y2 & y3 F is satisfied
➢ If y1=0, y2=0 & y3=0
F= (y1˅ ŷ2 ˅ y3) ˄ (ŷ 1˅ y2 ˅ ŷ 3) = (0 ˅ 1 ˅ 0) ˄ (1 ˅ 0 ˅ 1) = 1 ˄ 1 =1 Which is true
➢ If y1=0, y2=0 & y3=1
F= (y1˅ ŷ2 ˅ y3) ˄ (ŷ 1˅ y2 ˅ ŷ 3) = (0 ˅ 1 ˅ 1) ˄ (1 ˅ 0 ˅ 0) = 1 ˄ 1 =1 Which is true
…
So like this we will check for each combination of input.
So to check the satisfiability of F for all 8 possible combination it will take O(8) i.e.
O(23) time.
So for n Boolean variable it would take O(2n) time to verify satisfiability of F.

Prepared By Mr. Vipin K. Wani

 Thank You…!
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Prepared By Mr. Vipin K. Wani