Chapter 2: Electric Power System – Generation, Transmission & Distribution of

Electricity

What is an Electric Power System?

An electric power system or electric grid is known as a large network of power

generating plants which connected to the consumer loads.

As, it is well known that “Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed but can only
be converted from one form of energy to another form of energy”. Electrical energy is a
form of energy where we transfer this energy in the form of flow of electron. So, electrical energy
is obtained by converting various other forms of energy. Historically, we have done it from
chemical energy using cells or batteries.

However, as the invention of generator had occurred, it became the technique to first
convert some form of energy into mechanical form of energy and then converting it into electrical
form of energy using generator. Generators produce two type of power AC and DC. Nevertheless,
99% of the present power systems use AC generators.

Electrical energy has grown immensely over two centuries because the flexibility it
provides for its use. The variety of use has led its demand to increase monotonously. However, as
the load or demand has increased practically one requirement is consistent. That is, we must
generate the amount required by the load at that very instant because this large amount cannot
be stored for delivering this high amount of demand.

Therefore, the generation of electrical energy is happening simultaneously as we use

it. In addition, our demand is always varying. Therefore, the generation is also varying with it.
Apart from varying demand, the type of current we consume also varies. These variations put
many constraints and conditions. This is the reason of the complex and big control rooms across
the whole power system.
The lines network between Generating Station (Power Station) and
consumer of electric power can be divided into two parts.

• Transmission System
• Distribution System
 We can explore these systems in more categories such as primary transmission and
secondary transmission as well as primary distribution and secondary distribution.
This is shown in the fig 1 below (one line or single line diagram of typical AC power
systems scheme).
It is not necessary that the entire steps which are sown in the blow fig 1 must be included
in the other power schemes. There may be difference. For example, there is no secondary
transmission in many schemes, in other (small) schemes of power system, there is no power
transmission, but only distribution.
The main objective of an electric power system is to obtain electrical energy and make it
reachable safely to the load point where it is being used in usable form. This is done in five stages
namely
1. Generating Station
2. Primary Transmission
3. Secondary Transmission
4. Primary Distribution
5. Secondary Distribution

The following parts of a typical power supply scheme are shown in figure 1.

Fig 2: Typical AC Electric Power Supply Systems Scheme (Generation, Transmission &
Distribution)

After these five levels, the energy must be available as the stated form in terms of voltage
magnitudes, frequency and consistency. Generation means the conversion of a form of energy into
electrical energy. Transmission implies the transport of this energy to very long distance with very
high amount of voltage magnitude. Moreover, distribution is fulfilling the demand of the
consumers at certified voltage level and it is done in terms of feeders. Feeders are the small-small
chunks of load distributed at different places, physically.

Let’s explain all of the above levels one by one.

Generation or Generating Station

The place where electric power produced by the parallel connected three phase
alternators/generators is called Generating Station (i.e. power plant).
The ordinary power plant capacity and generating voltage may be 11kV, 11.5
kV 12kV or 13kV. But economically, it is good to step up the produced voltage from (11kV, 11.5kV
Or 12 kV) to 132kV, 220kV or 500kV or more (in some countries, up to 1500kV) by Step up
transformer (power Transformer).
Generation is the part of power system where we convert some form of energy into
electrical energy. This is the source of energy in the power system. It keeps running all the time.
It generates power at different voltage and power levels depending upon the type of station and
the generators used. The maximum number of generators generate the power at voltage level
around 11kV-20kV. The increased voltage level leads to greater size of generator required and
hence the cost involved.

Presently the generating stations we employ mainly over the world are following: -

1. Thermal Power Plant

What is a Thermal Power Plant?

According to energy conservation law, energy is neither created nor destroyed. But we can convert
one form of energy into other forms of energy. Electrical energy can be derived from many other
sources of energy. And the plant that is used to generate a bulk amount of electrical energy is
known as a power plant or power station. In the thermal power plant, the electrical energy is
transformed from heat energy. Heat energy can be derived from different heat sources like; coal,
diesel, biofuel, solar energy, nuclear energy, etc.

The power plant that uses coal to generate heat is known as the thermal power plant. The thermal
power plant is a conventional power plant. Sometimes, the thermal power plant is also known as
a steal-turbine power plant or coal power plant.

Working of Thermal Power Plant

The thermal power plant works on the Rankine cycle. A one-line diagram or layout of the
thermal power plant is as shown in the below figure.
 In a thermal power plant, a very large amount of fuel (coal) is required. Therefore, the coal
is transported via trains to the fuel storage space. The size of coal is very large that is not suitable
for the boiler. So, the coal is crushed in small pieces via crusher and fed to the boiler.
To produce steam in the boiler, a high amount of water is also required in the thermal
power plant. The water is treated with filters and free from impurities and air. After that, the water
is fed to the boiler drum. In the boiler drum, the combustion heat from the fuel is transferred to
the water. And the water converts into steam. This steam is high-pressure and high-temperature
steam. Further, this steam is supplied to the superheater. And this super-heated steam is supplied
to the turbine blades.

So, the heat energy is converted into rotational energy of mechanical energy by the turbine.
The turbine is mechanically connected to the same shaft as the alternator. So, the turbine rotates
the rotor of the alternator. An alternator is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy. Further, the electrical energy is converted into high voltage using a transformer and
transfer the electrical energy to the load via a transmission line in a typical power system. The
steam released from the turbine is supplied to the condenser. In the condenser, the exhaust steam
is condensed by means of cold-water circulation. And the steam releases pressure and
temperature. This will increase the efficiency of the cycle. The condensed water again fed to the
boiler with the help of the feedwater pump and used in the cycle. The ash is produced after the
combustion of coal. So, it was taken out from the boiler furnace. And it is necessary to dispose of
properly without damage the environment.

Components of Thermal Power Plant

In a thermal power plant, various components are used in the cycle. Here we have listed,
main components of the thermal power plant.
1. Boiler
2. Turbine
3. Super-heater
4. Condenser
5. Economizer
6. Feedwater pump
7. Alternator
8. Chimney
9. Cooling tower
10. Working of Thermal Power Plant

1. Boiler

The pulverized coal is fed to the boiler with preheated air. The boiler is used to produce
high-pressure steam. The boiler in the thermal power plant is used to convert the chemical energy
of coal into thermal energy or heat energy. During the combustion of coal, a high temperature is
produced inside the boiler. This temperature is high enough to convert water into steam.
2. Turbine
The high pressure and high-temperature steam are fed to the boiler. This superheated
steam is a strike on the turbine blade. And the turbine starts rotating. The turbine is a mechanical
device that is used to convert the heat energy of steam into rotational energy or kinetic energy.
The turbine is mechanically coupled with an alternator via a shaft. When the steam release from
the turbine, the temperature and pressure is reduced. And this steam is passed to the condenser.

3. Super-heater
In a steam turbine, super-heated steam is used to rotate the turbine. The wet and saturated
steam is supplied to the super-heater. And it is a device that converts it into dry and superheated
steam. The super-heater’s temperature is the highest among all components of the thermal power
plant. In the thermal power plant; there are three types of superheaters used; convection, radiant,
and separately fired. The superheater is used to increase the temperature of the steam generated
from the boiler. This will increase the thermal energy of the steam.

4. Condenser
When the steam release from the turbine, the temperature and pressure is decreased. The
exhaust steam of the turbine reuse in the cycle. To increase the turbine efficiency, we need to
condense this steam to maintain a proper vacuum. The condenser decreases the operating
pressure. So, the vacuum is increased. And this will increase the volume of steam that results in
more amount of work available at the turbine. And due to this, the plant efficiency will increase
with the increase in turbine output.

5. Economizer
The economizer is a heat exchanger device that is used to reduce energy consumption. In
the boiler, flue gases are exhausted into the atmosphere. These gases have a high temperature. So,
the economizer uses the heat of flue gases to heat the water. The water release from the condenser
is again used in the cycle. With the help of a feedwater pump, this water is transferred to the
economizer. An economizer uses the heat of flue gases to increase the temperature of the water.
The economizer uses the waste heat of flue gases. Hence, it is used to increase the efficiency of the
entire cycle.

6. Feedwater pump
A feedwater pump is used to supply water into the boiler. The water may be from the
condenser or freshwater. This pump is used to pressure the water. Generally, the feedwater pump
is a centrifugal type or positive displacement type of pump.

7. Alternator
The alternator and turbine are connected on the same shaft. The turbine rotates with the
flow of steam and the turbine rotates. The rotor of the alternator rotates and generates electrical
energy. Therefore, the alternator is a device that converts kinetic energy or rotational energy into
electrical energy.
8. Chimney
In most of the thermal power plants, coal is used as fuel. During the combustion of coal,
the flue gases are generated in the boiler. The chimney provides a path to the flue gas and exhaust
to the atmosphere.
The chimney works based on the natural draft and stack effect. The hot air is light in weight
and it goes up. The height of the chimney is high. The taller height, the more draft or draught is
created.

9. Cooling tower
As the name suggests, the cooling tower is used to reject waste heat in the atmosphere.
Different heat transfer methods are used in the cooling tower. The heat of the water evaporates
into the atmosphere. And remains cool water that further use in the cycle. The condenser
converted steam into water. And the water that comes from the condenser is supplied to the
cooling tower. Generally, forced flow cooling towers are used in the thermal power plant. And the
air is circulated from bottom to top of the tower.

Efficiency of Thermal Power Plant

In a thermal power plant, the electrical energy is generated from two energy conversion.
The chemical energy of coal is converted into thermal energy of heat energy. After the thermal
energy is converted into kinetic energy or mechanical energy. And finally, the mechanical energy
is converted into electrical energy. So, due to the number of energy conversions, the efficiency of
thermal power plants is very low around 20-29%.
The efficiency of a thermal power plant is also depending on the size of the plant and the
quality of coal. In a thermal power plant, the heat energy is lost in the condenser. There are two
types of efficiency in thermal power plants.
• Thermal efficiency
• Overall efficiency

Thermal efficiency:
Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat equivalent mechanical energy available
at the turbine to the heat energy available at the combustion of coal in the boiler.

The thermal efficiency of the thermal power plants is 30% approx. Most of the heat energy
(approx. 50%) is wasted in the condenser. The rest of the heat energy is wasted in the flue gases,
ash etc.
Overall efficiency:
The overall efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to the
heat of combustion of coal.
 The overall efficiency includes the losses that occur at all stages of a cycle. It also includes
the efficiency of an alternator.
The overall efficiency of a thermal power plant depends on its size and rating of a power
plant in MW. Lower the capacity, lower the efficiency.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plant

Advantages
The advantages of a thermal power plant are listed below.
• The initial cost of this plant is less compared to other power plants.
• The cost of fuel is less.
• Running cost is less compared to a diesel power plant.
• It is less depending on the seasons. Most thermal power plants running throughout the
year.
• The coal is easily available and easy to transport in bulk quantity.
• Compared to hydropower plants, it requires less space.
• The maintenance of thermal power plants is less compared to the other power plants.
• This plant can be installed in any location where adequate transport facility and bulk water
is available.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the thermal power plants are as listed below.
• The thermal power plant uses coal as a fuel. And it is a conventional source of energy. So,
we need to use less conventional sources for a better future.
• Coal is a commodity. So, the price of coal depends on the commodity market and it varies
day by day.
• The running cost of this plant is high compared to a hydro power plant.
• It produces ash as a by-product. And it is necessary to dispose of ash without harming the
environment.
• Due to the combustion of coal, flew gases and smoke are released into the atmosphere.
Therefore, this plant is not environmentally friendly.
 • It produces harmful noise in the surrounded area. So, it affects workers and the people
leave nearby areas.
• The overall efficiency of the thermal power plant is very less. It is approx. 30%.

2. Hydel power plant (Hydro-electric)

What is Hydropower Plant?

The hydropower plant or hydroelectric power plant is used to convert the kinetic energy
of water into electrical energy. The kinetic energy developed in the water flow due to the gravity
of falling water from higher to lower head. The kinetic energy is used to rotate the turbine and the
turbine is connected with an alternator to generate electrical energy. A hydroelectric power plant
is a non-convention power plant and widely used to generate electricity from a renewable source
of energy. To achieve kinetic energy from water, the reservoir or dam is constructed at a high head
from the ground level. The initial cost of a hydroelectric power plant is very high. But the running
cost is very low. In the world, 16% of total power is generated from the hydroelectric power plant.

Layout and Components of Hydropower Plant

Generally, the hydroelectric power plant is constructed in a hilly area. The typical layout
of a hydroelectric power plant is as shown in the figure below.

The major components of the hydroelectric power plant are listed below.
• Forebay
• Intake structure
• Penstock
• Surge tank
• Turbines
• Powerhouse
 • Draft tube
• Tailrace
The amount of water stored in the forebay is decided based on the demand of required water and
load in that area.

Intake Structure
The intake structure is a chain between the penstock and forebay. It collects water from
the forebay and passes to the penstock. It plays an important role in power plants. The water
comes in reservoir or forebay from the river. Therefore, the water contains much trash like trees
and debris. The intake structure contains trash racks and placed trash racks at the entrance of the
penstock.
The trash racks are made of steel rods. It prevents severe damage to the turbine blades
and nozzle. In trash racks, steel rods are placed with a gap of 10 to 30 cm apart. Trash racks are
heated in cols season to avoid ice rocks collision with turbine blade. Due to heat in trash racks,
the ice rocks melted at the entrance of the penstock. The trash racks must be clean after a regular
time period. And racks and trolly arrangements are used to clean the trash racks.

Penstock
Penstocks are used to increase the velocity of the water. It is large pipes laid on the slope.
It carries water from the reservoir or intake structure to the turbine. The penstocks are open and
close with the gate. So, at the time of opening and closing of gates, the pressure of water is very
high. Therefore, the penstocks are designed to sustain the hammer of water.
Short length penstock has heavy wall and long length penstock has surge tank is used to
overcome the pressure of water. The penstock is made of steel and reinforced concrete. If the
length of penstock is small, separate penstock is used for the turbine. If the length of penstock is
large, a single penstock is used and at the end, it divides into branches.

Surge tank
A surge tank is a cylindrical tank or chamber placed near the powerhouse and it is
connected with the penstock. The surge tank is also known as the surge chamber. It is used to
control the pressure of water in the penstock. The water level of the surge tank increases when the
powerhouse rejects the water due to low power demand. So, the surge tank controls the pressure
in the penstock. When the power demand is high, a surge tank is used to accelerate the water flow.
And in this condition, the water level of the surge tank is reduced. During steady load conditions,
the water level becomes constant.

Turbine

The turbine is used to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy. When
the high-pressure water coming from the penstock strikes the turbine blade, the turbine starts
rotating. The shaft is placed at the center of the turbine. And a generator is also connected with
the same shaft and it further converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
There are mail two types of the turbine;
• Impulse turbine
• Reaction turbine

The impulse turbine is also known as a velocity turbine and the reaction turbine is also
known as a pressure turbine.

Powerhouse
The powerhouse is used to provide support and housing to the hydraulic and electrical
equipment. It is divided into two parts; substructure and superstructure. The substructure can be
an integral part of the hydraulic system or it can be placed away from the hydraulic system. It is
used to provide support to the equipment and provide necessary ways to the water.
The superstructure contains the main unit and electrical accessories. The generators are
placed on the ground floor with the turbine. Generally, for better visibility, the control room is
placed on the first or second floor.

Draft tube
A draft tube connects the turbine outlet (turbine discharge) to the tailrace. To decrease the
velocity of water, the width of the draft tube is gradually increased. The gates are provided at the
end of a draft tube which is closed at the time of maintenance. In the case of the reaction turbine,
the draft tube is a necessary component.

Tailrace
The tailrace is a flow of water from the draft tube or turbine outlet. The powerhouse must
be located near to the stream. If the powerhouse is placed far from the stream, it is compulsory to
build a way or channel to flow the water into a stream. It will decrease the efficiency, cavitation,
damage the turbine by silting caused unnecessary flow of water. Therefore, while designing a
hydroelectric power plant, place the powerhouse near the stream.

Working of Hydropower Plant

The hydroelectric power plant utilizes the energy stored in water to rotate a hydraulic
turbine. The turbine is used to runs an electric generator to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The rainwater saves by constructing dams across the river. The stored water on
dams has potential energy which is used to generate electric power. The electric power generated
by hydroelectric power plants depends on the quantity of water available and the head of water.
A dam was constructed in a hilly area. So, the head of water available naturally. From the dam,
waterfalls towards the blade of the turbine and turbine rotate with the force of water. Turbine and
electrical generator connected on the same shaft.
Therefore, the generator generates electric power. The power generated from the
powerhouse can be controlled by controlling the flow of water. The advantage of this power plant
is that it does not require any fuel. Therefore, the running cost of this plant is very less. It only
requires the water head which is available naturally.

The formula for power generation in a hydroelectric power plant is given by;

Where,
• ρ = density of water = 9.81 kg/m3
• Q = discharge of water (m3/s)
• H = available head (m)

Types of Hydropower Plant

The hydroelectric power plants are classified into different types as follows.
1. Based on the availability of water head
• Low head plant
• Medium head plant
• High head plant
2. Based on the nature of the load
• Base load plant
• Peak load plant
3. Based on the quantity of water available
• Run-off river plants without pondage
• Run-off river plant with pondage
• Storage type plant
• Pumped storage peak load plant
• Mini and micro hydel plant

Based on the Availability of Water Head

According to the available water head, the power plants classify into three types,
• Low head plants In this type of hydroelectric power plant, the available water head is less
than 30m. In this type of plant, by constructing a dam, the water is stored. And the power
plant is constructed at the base of the dam. If the excess water is available in the dam, it will
flow over the dam itself. In this type of plant, Francis, propellor, or Kaplan type turbines are
used in most of the cases.
• Medium head plant- The hydroelectric power plant which has an available water head of
30m to 100m is considered a medium head plant. In most cases, the Francis turbine is used
in this type of power plant.
• High head plant- The hydroelectric plant having an available water head is more than 100m
consider a high head plant. In this type of plant, a bulk amount of water is available in the dam
from the rain or melting of snow. These plants are constructed in hilly areas to achieve high
 water head. In most cases, these plants are constructed on big rives in which the water is
available throughout the year.
The high head plant uses Francis turbine up to the head of 300m and Pelton turbine uses if
the available water head is more than 300m.

Based on the Nature of the Load

Two types of loads can be connected with the power plant. The plant running continuously
throughout the day is said to be a base load plant. And the plant which is used to meet the peak
demand is known as peak load plants. According to the type of load connected with the plant, the
hydroelectric plants are classified into two types;
• Base load plant-These plants are used to take a load on the base portion of the load curve
of the power system network. The base load plants are large capacity plants as it is built to
meet the demand of the base load. The load factor of these plants is very high. In most cases,
these plants are runoff river or storage type plants
• Peak load plant-The hydroelectric power plant that was built only to meet the peak portion
of the load curve is known as the peak load hydropower plant. The capacity of this plant is less
than base load plants and these plants are turned ON only while the peak demand of load and
after this plant turned OFF. Therefore, these plants are used to run for a short duration of
time. In most cases, these plants are runoff river plants with pondage or storage type of hydel
plant.

Based on the Quantity of Water Available

According to the quantity of water available to generate electric power, the hydroelectric
power plants are classified into five types;
• Run-off river plants without pondage- This type of hydropower plant does not store
water. It uses the water directly from the river. The power output of these plants is not
constant. Because there is no control over the availability of water. Hence, the power output
fluctuates and the utility of this plant is very less compared to other plants.
• Run-off river plants with pondage- In this type of plant, a pond is constructed behind
the dam and near the plant. This pond increases the utility of the power plant. To meet
fluctuating loads, the capacity of the pond decides based on the 24 hours fluctuation in load
demand. This plant can be used as a base load as well as a peak load plant.
• Storage type plant- This type of plant uses a reservoir to store water. In some areas where
the water is available in rainy seasons only. In this area, the storage type of plants is used to
store water in bulk amounts and use in dry seasons. The storage type of plant can be used as
base load and peak load plant. The capacity of the plant decides by the water storage capacity
of the reservoir.
• Pumped storage peak load plant- This type of plant is used to meet the peak load
demand. It has a reservoir to store the water. When the load demand is high, it used the water
of the reservoir. And when the load demand is reduced, this plant is designed with a pump
that is used to supply water from tailrace to head race. The pumped storage plants are used to
run along with the steam (thermal) power plant to improve the overall efficiency of a
 combined power plant. The pump of this plant is energized from the secondary power plant
like run-off river plant or nuclear plant. In this plant, the required water is very less compared
to other hydropower plants.
• Mini and micro hydel plant- Mini and micro hydropower plants are used to meet the
power crises. Mini power plants work in the range of 5 to 20 m head and micro power plants
work in the range of fewer than 5 m available water head. This plant is a small capacity plant.
and the time required and cost to build this plant are less compared to other hydroelectric
plants. The mini-Hydropower Plant uses a special type of turbine known as bulb type turbine.

Site Selection of Hydropower Plant

The location of a hydroelectric power plant is the most important factor. Because to construct
a hydropower plant, the capital cost to very high. Here, we discuss which factor must be
considered while selecting a site for the hydroelectric power plant.
• Availability of water
• Storage capacity of water
• Water head
• Transportation facility
• Cost of land
• Water pollution
• Geological data

Availability of water
Water is the main requirement of a hydropower plant. Without water, this plant cannot
operate. So, the plant must be constructed on land where the water is available throughout the
year. In most cases, the hydropower plant is constructed over a river or canal to meet the high-
water demand. And check the previous years’ data of rainfall to confirm the availability of water.

Storage capacity of water

The natural main source of water is rainfall or melting of the ice mountain. In some
countries, the rainfall is seasonal. So, to use plants throughout the year, we need to store a bulk
amount of water. For that, a dam or pondage is constructed near the powerhouse. The capacity of
water storage will decide the capacity of power generation and how much time it can operate
without rainfall.

Water head
The hydropower plant uses the kinetic energy of water. If we have a high-water head
naturally, we can use the kinetic energy to rotate the turbine. In most cases, the dam is constructed
in hilly areas where the water head is available naturally. So, it is necessary to select a site with a
high head available naturally.
Transportation Facility
The hydropower plant requires heavy machinery to operate the plant as well as while
constructing a dam, powerhouse, etc. Therefore, the selected site has an adequate transportation
facility to transport machinery. Also, at the time of construction, it requires huge manpower. So,
the place selected for the power plant has a good transportation facility. The power plant site must
be accessible with rail or road transport.

Cost of land
The initial cost of this plant is very high. So, the land that is used to build dams and
powerhouses must available at a reasonable price.
Water pollution
Water is the main fuel of the power plant. If the polluted water is supplied to the turbine
blade, it may damage the turbine blade. And that will reduce the life of the turbine. Therefore, the
supplied water must be free from pollution.

Geological data
The place chosen for a plant is capable to withstand the trust of water and other stress.
There is no chance of land sliding. Otherwise, there are chances to fall dam and it creates flood
situation in nearby areas. Before constructing a dam, we need to check the previous year’s data of
earthquakes, thunderstorms, etc.

Different Types of Turbines used in Hydropower Plant

The turbines are used to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy.
According to the available water head and flow or volume of water, the hydropower turbine is
selected. The hydropower turbines are classified into two types;
• Impulse turbine
• Reaction turbine

1. Impulse Turbine:
As the name suggests, this turbine works on the principle of impulse. It uses the head of
water and converts the pressure of water into kinetic energy with the help of nozzles.
In some plants, one or more nozzles are constructed near the runner. This will increase
the velocity of the water. And this high-velocity water impinges on the turbine. The turbine has a
number of buckets fixed on the outer periphery of the wheel. The bucket is used to change the
direction of jet flow if required. The momentum of water is used to convert kinetic energy into
mechanical energy. The pressure of water remains constant at atmospheric while passes through
the runner. An example of impulse turbine is Pelton turbine, cross-flow turbine;
a. Pelton Turbine- In a Pelton turbine, the blades are spoon-shaped and the water is
allowed to strike via a nozzle to the blade of a turbine. The blade of the Pelton turbine is
also known as a bucket. Sometimes, the Pelton turbine is also known as the Pelton wheel.
In some cases, instead of one nozzle, a set of nozzles are used to split into a number of
 streams. These streams flow along the inner curve of the blade and pass in the opposite
direction. This creates an impulse on the blade of the turbine and generates high torque
by which the turbine starts rotating. Generally, Pelton turbines are used in a hydroelectric
power plant where the high head and low flow should consider. The plants which have
available water head more than 985 feet and have a reservoir of water uses the Pelton
wheel.

b. Cross-flow Turbine- The shape of the cross-flow turbine is similar to the drum and
water wheel. This turbine is also known as the Ossberger turbine. The water strikes the
rotor of the turbine. For the first time, pressured water transfers impulse force inside the
drum, and water leaves the turbine rotor at ambient pressure. After that, the cross-flow
turbine changes the water pressure and converts it into mechanical energy. This will be
led to reduce the pressure of water and increase the efficiency of the turbine and produce
high torque that rotates the turbine and produce mechanical energy.

2. Reaction Turbine
In a reaction turbine, first, the pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy
before supplied to the runner. So, entered water has partially pressure energy and partially kinetic
energy. After that, both energies are reduced simultaneously while passing over the runner.
Hence, this turbine works on the principle of impulse reaction. The runner of this turbine
is under pressure (above atmospheric pressure). Therefore, the blade of this turbine is filled with
water in all conditions. Examples of reaction turbines are Francis, Kaplan, and Propeller turbines.
a. Francis Turbine- Francis turbine is the most popular turbine compared to all other
types of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant as it has high efficiency and wide
range of water head. This turbine is useful in the plant which has available water head
between 130 to 2000 feet. A Francis turbine can work on both orientations; vertical as well
as horizontal. The rapid water strikes the turbine and flows towards the center of the
 turbine. It leaves the turbine axially parallel to the rotation axis once the water has flown
through the turbine.

b. Propeller Turbine- The propeller turbines are used in low-head plants. This type of
turbine has a fixed or adjustable propeller. The diameter of the propeller is large which
results in slow rotational speed. A propeller turbine looks like a large propeller of ships
and submarines. The turbine has adjustable guide vanes. The water flow of the turbine is
controlled by the vanes. To transfer the energy of water, the vanes move the water into a
runner. The Kaplan turbine is also a type of propeller turbine. There are many other types
of turbines-like; bulb turbine, tube turbine, straflo turbine, etc. But out of these turbines,
the Kaplan turbine is widely used in hydroelectric power plants.
c. Kaplan Turbine- Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type turbine. It has adjustable blades.
It was introduced by Australian professor Viktor Kaplan in 1913. The Kaplan turbine is
an evolution version of the Francis turbine. A Kaplan turbine can work with low-head
power plants. This is not possible in the case of the Francis turbine. The Kaplan turbine
works efficiently with the water head ranges between 33 to 230 feet and the output of the
plant between 5 to 200 MW. The runner diameter lies between 2 to 11 meters. The Kaplan
turbines are widely used in high-head and low-head hydroelectric plants.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower Plant
Advantages: The advantages of hydropower plants are listed below.
• It is an environmentally friendly power plant and a non-polluting clean source of electrical
energy.
• The operating cost of this plant is very less compared to other power plants like steam and
nuclear power plant.
• It takes a very short time to start and stop the plant.
• The life of this plant is very high. The approximate life of a hydropower plant is more than
50 years.
• This plant can be operating as a base load plant as well as a peak load plant.
• Only water is required to operate this plant. So, we can say no fuel is used to run this plant
and this will reduce the operating cost of a plant.
• The water released from the plant can be used for irrigation and flood control purposes.
• Compared to a steam power plant, less staff is required in a hydroelectric power plant.
• The plant is not using any fossil fuels. So, there are no byproducts like ash.
• These plants are more reliable and it has high efficiency over a wide range of load
compared to other power plants.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages of hydroelectric power plants are as listed below.
• The power developed from the hydroelectric plant depends on the quantity of water and
water head. To create a water head, a dam is needed, and to store water, a reservoir is
needed. So, the capital cost to build a dam and reservoir is very high.
• These plants are located in hilly areas. And in most cases, these areas are far from the load
center. So, we need to transmit power via the transmission line. Which creates more
transmission loss and increases the capital cost to connect the load center and powerhouse
via a transmission line.
• It takes more time required to build a dam and reservoir.
 • In most places, the water is available in some seasons only. And this plant is depending on
the availability of water. This plant cannot operate in the dry season. So, the hydroelectric
plant depends on natural rainfall.

3. Nuclear power plant

What is Nuclear Energy?
Nuclear energy is becoming well developed as a source of energy. Compared to other sources of
energy like solar energy, and hydroelectricity, nuclear energy is more stable in that its power
supply is stable. Power generated by hydroelectric power plant is always dependent on the volume
of water in a dam. Likewise the energy generated by the solar panels depends on the amount of
sun it receives.

While the amount of energy generated by hydroelectric power plant and solar panels fluctuates,
nuclear energy is not like that. The main raw material for nuclear energy is a radioactive element.
The nucleus of a radioactive element is unstable in its ways. Its nucleus will keep on splitting
spontaneously until it attains stability. During that process energy is released and such
phenomenon is called radioactivity.

To understand better how the energy produced by a radioactive element is harnessed to give us
electricity, let’s see how the radioactive elements produces the energy in their nucleus. Remember
that the nucleus of these elements are never stable. They’ll keep on splitting until they attain
stability, that’s if they can. The process will lead to the release of energy, emission of gamma ray,
beta ray, and alpha particle.

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission occurs when the nucleus of a radioactive element (Radium, Uranium) is
bombarded with a stream of fast moving neutron. This process results in the splitting of a
radioactive element into a relatively heavy nucleus which is accompanied by energy release.
Nuclear Fusion
While nuclear fission involves the bombardment of a heavy nucleus to give two relatively heavy
nucleus, nuclear fusion releases energy when two lighter nucleus fuses together to form a heavier
nucleus. Nuclear fusion results from bombardment of two lighter nucleus with fast moving
neutrons.
Equation of Matter to Energy Conversion

A very careful measurement has shown that when it comes to nuclear changes, the laws of
conservation of matter and energy do not hold even though they still are applicable in our
everyday life and much of it is also seen in physics. During nuclear reaction, small amount of
matter gets destroyed in the process.
That is irrelevant when it comes to chemical reaction however, when Radium which is a
radioactive element decays radioactively, a fraction of it is lost in the process while energy is
gained. It seems that matter is being converted into energy. This is absurd and hard to believe
because we don’t see it happen in our everyday life or in our physics laboratory.
It was spoken of by Albert Einstein and later proved by measurements. Albert Einstein suggested
that the conversion of matter into energy is given by:
E = ΔMc2 … (Δ pronounced as “Delta” means “change in”.

Where;
E = Energy
C = Speed of light in m/s
Delta (Δ) M is the matter lost during the process of the nuclear reaction.

According to this equation of energy, mass can be converted into energy and vise versa. in
addition, the explosion of atomic bombs on Nagasaki and Hiroshima (Japan’s Cities) in 1945
(during world war II) were base upon this equation.

How a Nuclear Power Plant Works? How Electricity is Generated in Nuclear Power
Plant using Nuclear Energy?
The earlier types of nuclear power station generated electricity through the fission of
Uranium – 235. A block of graphite ( carbon ) is placed at the core of the nuclear reactor to reduce
or minimize the speed of the neutrons. The reason why the velocity of the neutrons have to be
minimized is because only at a low velocity can the neutrons penetrate the nucleus of the Uranium
– 235 atom. There are tabular channels passing through the graphite block.
 The nuclear fuel (Uranium ) is placed in the channels in the graphite blocks. The Uranium
is contained in an Aluminum tube. During the nuclear reaction, the graphite surrounding the
Uranium makes sure that the neutrons entering the Uranium is at low or regulated velocity.
Among the Uranium rods are other rods, made of boron steel. The use of boron steel is to absorb
excessive neutrons. By varying the number of the boron steel rods in the reactor, the speed of the
reaction is also regulated.
For safety reason, the boron steel rods that are not fully lowered are held by
electromagnetic catches. If the reaction is going too fast, the rods will be dropped quickly into the
channels in the core to slow the reaction.
The energy emitted by the nuclear energy during reaction causes an increase in the
internal energy and other materials in the reactor. In some designs of nuclear power plant, carbon
dioxide (gas) is pumped through the channels in the core and is heated by the internal heat energy
generated during the nuclear fission.
The hot gas is finally channeled out of the core to a heat exchanger where the hot gas is
used to boil water. The steam produced while boiling the water is used to turn the turbine which
is connected to electric generated. By this stages, nuclear fission is converted to electrical energy.
The fuel used by the reactor described above is Uranium – 235 which is quite rare. A more
advanced and a cheaper reactor recently developed is a reactor called Breeder Reactor.
It breed its own fuel. It make use of Uranium – 238 which is very common. The reaction
requires fast moving neutrons to split the Uranium – 238 nuclei unlike the other reactor which
requires slow moving neutrons. During the reaction, Uranium – 238 is converted to plutonium –
239. The breeder reactor is more economical. While CO2 was pumped into the reactor of the other
type, liquid sodium ( Na ) is pumped into the breeder reactor.
The essence of CO2 and liquid Na, is to serve as cooling liquid, to cool the system by
absorbing the heat energy of the system which in turn is used to boil water to generate steam for
the turbine which turns the electric generator.

Advantage and Disadvantageous of Nuclear Energy

Advantages
Nuclear energy has advantage over the other sources of energy in that it generates more energy
and is more stable. The amount of energy it generates is not dependent on the intensity of the sun
or the volume of water a dam holds like the hydroelectric power plant.
Disadvantages
• Disposal of nuclear and radioactive waste is very expansive.
• Risk of Nuclear Accidents
• Problem of Nuclear Radiation
• Shut down reactors for specific time
• Costly maintenance
• Non Renewable and Fuel Availability problems
4. Solar power plant

What is Solar Power Plant?

The solar power plant is also known as the Photovoltaic (PV) power plant. It is a large-
scale PV plant designed to produce bulk electrical power from solar radiation. The solar power
plant uses solar energy to produce electrical power. Therefore, it is a conventional power plant.
Solar energy can be used directly to produce electrical energy using solar PV panels. Or
there is another way to produce electrical energy that is concentrated solar energy. In this type of
plant, the radiation energy of solar first converted into heat (thermal energy) and this heat is used
to drive a conventional generator. This method is difficult and not efficient to produce electrical
power on a large scale.
Hence, to produce electrical power on a large scale, solar PV panels are used. In this article,
we will explain details about solar PV plants and PV panels. Below is the layout plan of
photovoltaic power plant.

Photo Voltaic (PV) Principle

Silicon is the most commonly used material in solar cells. Silicon is a semiconductor
material. Several materials show photoelectric properties like; cadmium, gallium arsenide, etc.
Electron-holes pairs are created in solar cells. The PV materials have the property to absorb
photons of sunlight. The valance band electrons of semiconductor material are at lower energy
and the electrons of conduction band are at a higher energy level. The difference between this
energy level is known as bandgap energy Eg.
When sunlight falls on solar cells, the difference between photon energy E and bandgap
energy Eg is absorbed by the cell. And it excites some electrons to jump across the bandgap. These
electrons move from the valance band to the conduction band and create holes in the valance
band.
Therefore, if the potential difference exists within the cell, the electrons of the conduction
band and holes of the valance band made the flow of current in the circuit.
According to Max Plant, the energy of photons is directly proportional to the frequency of
radiation.

Where,
• EP = Energy of Photon
• h = Plank’s Constant = 6.62×10-34 J s = 4.135×10-15 eV s
• v = frequency of radiation (Hz)
• C = speed of light ≈ 3×108 m/s
• λ = Wavelength of radiation (μm)
substituting these values in the above equation;

Components of Solar Power Plant

The major components of the solar photovoltaic system are listed below.
• Photovoltaic (PV) panel
• Inverter
• Energy storage devices
• Charge controller
• System balancing component
•

Photovoltaic (PV) Panel

• PV panels or Photovoltaic panel is a most important component of a solar power plant. It
is made up of small solar cells. This is a device that is used to convert solar photon energy
into electrical energy.
• Generally, silicon is used as a semiconductor material in solar cells. The typical rating of
silicon solar cells is 0.5 V and 6 Amp. And it is equivalent to 3 W power. The number
 of cells is connected in series or parallel and makes a module. The number of modules
forms a solar panel.
• According to the capacity of power plants, a number of plates are mounted and a group of
panels is also known as Photovoltaic (PV) array.
• Inverter
• The output of the solar panel is in the form of DC. The most of load connected to
the power system network is in the form of AC. Therefore, we need to convert DC output
power into AC power. For that, an inverter is used in solar power plants.
• For a large-scaled grid-tied power plant, the inverter is connected with special protective
devices. And a transformer is also connected with the inverter to assures the output
voltage and frequency as per the standard supply.
• Energy storage devices
• The batteries are used to store electrical energy generated by the solar power plants. The
storage components are the most important component in a power plant to meet the
demand and variation of the load. This component is used especially when the sunshine is
not available for few days.
• The capacity of a battery is that how much amount of electrical power it can store.
The capacity of batteries is measured in Ampere-hours (AH) rating.
• For example, a battery having 100 AH battery can supply 1 Amp current for 100 hours or
100 Amp current for 1 hour.

For a long life of a battery, never fully discharge a battery. And in case, if a battery is fully
discharged, never keep fully discharged battery for a long time.
The capacity of a battery is affected by the temperature. There is a reduction of 0.6% of
capacity for every degree Celsius rise in temperature more than 25˚ C.

There are two types of batteries used in the solar power plant;
• Lead-Acid battery
• Nickel-Cadmium battery
• Charge Controller

A charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the battery. The
charge controller is used to avoid the overcharging of the battery. The overcharging of a battery
may lead to corrosion and reduce plate growth. And in the worst condition, it may damage the
electrolyte of the battery.
Sometimes, the charge controller is termed a solar battery charger. There are many
technologies used to make a charge controller. For example, the most popular technique is the
MPPT charge controller that is known as “Maximum Power Point Tracking”. This algorithm is
used to optimize the production of PV cells.
System balancing component
It is a set of components used to control, protect and distribute power in the system. These
devices ensure that the system working in proper condition and utilize energy in the proper
direction. And it ensures maximum output and security of other components of a solar power
plant.

Blocking diode
The solar PV panels are connected with a battery. And these panels are used to charge the
battery during sunlight is available. During charging of the battery, the current flows from panel
to battery. But when the sunlight is not available, the current can be flow in a reverse direction
and it may harm the solar panel. So, the blocking diode is a diode that is connected between the
battery and panel to avoid reversal current from battery to panel.

Voltage regulator
The output of solar panels depends on sunlight. And the sunlight is not constantly
available. It is continuously varying. Similarly, the output of the solar panel is also varying with
respect to sunlight. This results in fluctuation in load current. The voltage regulators are used to
maintain fluctuation within an acceptable range.

Performance of Solar Cell

A solar cell is nothing but a PN junction. The plot of short-circuit current (ISC) and open-
circuit voltage (VOC) describes the performance of the solar cell. This plot is shown in the figure
below.

As shown in the above graph, Initially, the short-circuit current remains constant with an
increase in voltage. And a further increase in voltage results in a rapid decrease in current.
The power developed by the solar cell is calculated by multiplying current and voltage.
And from that, we can draw a graph of power developed. As shown in the graph of developed
power, at point P, the power is maximum. And we try to operate the panel at this point. This point
is known as the maximum PowerPoint. And the algorithm used to track this point is known as
maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The voltage at which the power is maximum is
considered as maximum voltage (Vm) and maximum current (Im).
The factor which is used to describe the performance of the solar cell is known as the fill
factor. The value of the fill factor remains between 0 to 1.
Fill Factor = Vm Im / VOC ISC
Vm Im = Fill Factor × VOC ISC

The equivalent circuit of solar cells is as shown in the figure below.

Where,
• Isc = Source current generated by the sunlight
• Ij = Junction current
• I = Current passes through the load
• RL = Load resistance

The relationship between current and voltage at the PN junction is given as the equation
below.

Where,
• I0 = Saturation current
• V = Junction voltage
• e = electron charge = 1.602×10-19 J/V
• k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381×10-23 J/K
• T = Temperature (K)
Solar Cell Efficiency
The solar cells are a device that used to convert the photon energy into electrical energy.
The efficiency of solar cells equates as below;

Quantum Efficiency QE,

Factors affecting the efficiency of solar cells

Theoretically, solar cells are used to operate at maximum efficiency. The main factors
affecting the efficiency of solar cells are listed below.
• Temperature
• Sun Intensity
• Solar Shading
• Reflection

Temperature
Due to the intrinsic characteristic of the semiconductor material, the efficiency of solar
cells is highly impacted by temperature. The solar cells cannot operate efficiently at a higher
temperature. And the efficiency of solar cells is high with lower temperatures.

Sun Intensity
The sun’s intensity varies throughout the day. In the afternoon, the sun intensity is
maximum. During this time, the efficiency of solar cells is maximum. During evening and morning
time, the sun intensity is not at peak level. Hence, during this time, the efficiency is lower
compared to around afternoon time.

Solar Shading
The efficiency of solar cells is highly dependent on solar sheading. During a cloudy
atmosphere, the solar cells are not capable to generate more energy. During the rainy season, the
efficiency of solar cells decreases due to shading.
Reflection
The solar cell collects photon energy. But the efficiency of cells will decrease if the cells
reflect light away from the surface. Untreated silicon surface reflects light up to 30% of incident
light. To avoid this situation, an anti-reflection coating is used on the surface of the solar cells.
Due to this coating, the solar cells appear dark blue or black.

Types of Solar Power Plant

The solar power plant is classified into two types according to the way load is connected.
• Standalone system
• Grid-connected system

Standalone System
The stand system is an independent power plant. It is not connected with a grid. It is
directly connected with the load. This type of plant is used in a place where a grid is not available
like forest, hilly area etc.
This type of plant can be used as a power backup plant when the power of the grid is not
available, this plant is used to supply the load. A battery and charge controller is an optional part
of this system. But in most cases, the battery and charge controller is used with this system to
increase reliability.
DC loads can directly connect with this plant. But in the case of AC load, the inverter is
required to convert DC power into AC power. Generally, this type of system is not used to generate
electrical power in bulk amounts. This type of plant use to operate small loads or in emergency
conditions only.
The block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.

The standalone system can be categorized as below.

• Direct-coupled standalone system
• Standalone system with battery storage
• Standalone system with batteries and charge controller
• Standalone system with AC and DC loads
• Hybrid standalone system
Direct-coupled Standalone System
In this type of system, the solar panels are directly connected with the loads. This system
is not suitable for AC load as this system does not have an inverter. So, DC loads are directly
supplied by the solar panel.
This system cannot woks during the night or when sunlight is not available. Generally, this
type of system is used for agriculture purposes to operate pump sets and other agriculture
auxiliaries. The block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.

Standalone System with Battery Storage

This type of system can be operating while sunlight is not available. During the daytime
when sunlight is available, the solar panel is used to charge the battery. And the battery is used to
supply power during the night. This system is cheap as it is not using a charge controller. But, in
this system, the battery may overcharge or fully discharge and it reduces the life of the battery.
The block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.

Standalone System with Battery and Charge Controller

The charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the battery. The
cost of this system is high. But, the life of this system is high. Due to the charge controller, the
battery works efficiently compared to the standalone system without a charge controller. The
block diagram of this system is shown in the figure below.

Standalone System with AC and DC Loads

The output of the solar panel is in the form of DC power. Hence, DC load can directly
connect with the solar system. But if you need to connect the AC load, the inverter is necessary to
convert the DC power into AC power. Generally, this plant is connected with other AC sources
also. And this source is used to charge a battery during sunlight is not available. The block diagram
of this system is shown in the figure below.
Hybrid Standalone System
In this type of system, more than one source is connected with the load. These sources may
be a diesel generator, small water turbines, fuel cells, etc. This will increase the reliability of the
system and reduce the battery capacity. The block diagram of the hybrid standalone system is as
shown in the figure below.

Grid-connected System
This type of system is used to generate bulk power and transmit it to the load by a grid.
Hence, this plant is known as a grid-connected power plant. In this system, a greater number of
solar panels are used to generate more power. And it requires a large area to build a power plant.
The grid power is in the form of AC. And if we need to supply power to the grid, we need the output
of solar plants similar to the power of the grid. In this system, the most important condition is
that the output frequency and voltage must be matched with the grid’s frequency and voltage. And
also, the power quality maintains the grid standard. The block diagram of this system is shown in
the figure below.

Types of Solar Panels

The solar panels are classified into three major types;
• Monocrystalline Solar Panels
 • Polycrystalline Solar Panels
• Thin-film Solar Panels

Monocrystalline Solar Panels

This is the oldest type of solar panel. The monocrystalline solar panel is the most
developed and very efficient type of panel. The efficiency of the latest monocrystalline panel
reaches up to 20%.
The cells are made of pure silicone and it is the purest form of solar panel. These panels
look uniform in dark color. The shape of the cells of this panel is a round corner (oval shape). And
it recognizes by appearance. This type of panel has high power output and occupies less space
compared to a polycrystalline panel. But the cost of these panels is high.

The main advantage of this panel is that it slightly less reacts at high temperatures
compared to a polycrystalline panel.

Polycrystalline Solar Panels

Polycrystalline panels use melted silicon. This process is faster and cheaper compared to
the monocrystalline panels. The shape of the solar cell is rectangular with a sharp corner.
Generally, this panel looks blue color because of the impurities added to the silicon.

The efficiency of this type of panel is slightly less compared to the monocrystalline panel.
The efficiency is around 15%. And the life span of this panel is also less compared to the
monocrystalline panel.
Thin-film Solar Panels
This type of solar panel is manufactured with one or more films of photovoltaic material.
The polycrystalline panel is less expensive as the process to make this panel is easy. The major
advantage of this panel is that it is a flexible panel. As the name suggests, thin-film panels, this
panel is approximately 350 times thinner compared to the monocrystalline and polycrystalline
panel.

The main disadvantage of this pane is that it requires more space. And this issue makes
this panel unsuitable for residential applications. The life span of this panel is short compared to
monocrystalline and polycrystalline panels.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

Advantages
The advantages of solar power plants are listed below.
• Solar energy is a clean and renewable source of energy which is an unexhausted source of
energy.
• After installation, the solar power plant produces electrical energy at almost zero cost.
• The life of a solar plant is very high. The solar panels can work up to 25 years.
• This plant is not causing pollution.
• There are no moving parts in solar cells. So, maintenance is not needed to keep a solar
plant running.
• It does not produce any noise.
• For a bulk generation, this plant can be installed in any land. So, there are no specific site
selection criteria like thermal and hydropower plants.
• The solar plant can be installed on the house or flat. So, it reduces the transmission cost
as it generates energy near the load center.
• In a grid-tied power plant, the electrical generate power can directly transfer to the grid
and this will reduce the burden of conventional power plants.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of solar power plants are listed below.
• The initial cost of a solar panel is very high.
• It requires large land to produce electrical power in bulk amounts.
 • The solar plant is only installed in countries where sunline is available efficiently.
• During a cloudy atmosphere, the solar plant cannot operate efficiently.
• The efficiency of a solar panel is very less.
• This plant generates electrical energy when sunlight is available. During the night, this
plant cannot generate electrical power. Hence, if you need to use electrical power at night,
you have to install a battery and charge controller. That increases the cost and
maintenance of the plant as the life of a battery is very short.
• In a grid-tide power plant, the inverter is required, which is costly and needs skilled
manpower and new technology to make sync with grid power quality.

5. Wind power plant.

What is a Wind Power Plant?
A wind power plant is also known as a wind farm or wind turbine. A wind power plant is a
renewable source of electrical energy. The wind turbine is designed to use the speed and power of
wind and convert it into electrical energy. The wind power plant is widely used in the entire world.
Because the wind is the best natural source that available in most places. The wind turbine can be
operating between a wind speed of 14 km/hr to 90 km/hr.
A wind power plant is used to reduce the power deficit in a network. The electric
power generated from the wind power plant varies with variations in wind velocity. But the
advantage of a wind power plant is that the operating cost of this plant is less and it is a non-
polluting source of electrical energy. One single wind turbine is not sufficient to produce electrical
energy in bulk amounts. Therefore, more than one wind turbine is placed at the location at which
the wind is continually available. And that place is known as a wind farm. Generally, wind farms
are located near the sea area.
Classification of Wind Turbine
According to the orientation of the axis of the rotor, wind turbines are classified into two
types;
a. Horizontal Axis
Horizontal axis turbines are classified into two types;
• Propeller type
• Multiblade type
In a horizontal axis turbine, the orientation of the axis is kept along the horizontal axis. In
a propeller-type turbine, a number of blades are three or less than three. And in a multiblade
turbine, a greater number of blades are used.
The propeller-type turbine is mostly used turbine. The propeller-type wind turbines are
mounted on top of the tower and the blade of this turbine is made up of an airfoil or aerofoil
section. The below figure shows various types of propeller turbines.

Fig. 1 – Propeller Wind Turbine

Two-blade turbines are the most cost-effective turbine. But in this condition, a yaw control
system is required to mitigate vibration. This configuration is used for large units (2 MW to 3
MW) with suitable material and control systems.
A three-blade design is the most used and preferable design. Because the rotor is naturally
balanced with a three-blade design. This configuration is used for a wide range of power
generation (15 kW – 3 MW).
Multiblade turbines are used 12 to 20 blades made up of glass fiber reinforced plastic. The
diameter of the multi-blade rotor varies from 2 m to 5 m. The multiblade turbine consists of
curved sheet metal blades with inner and outer ends fixed with rims. The diagram of a multiblade
turbine is as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 2 – Multiblade Wind Turbine

b. Vertical Axis
Vertical axis wind turbine is classified into two types;
• Savonius type
• Darrieus type
In this type of wind turbine, the main rotor shaft is placed to transverse the wind and other
accessories are placed at the base of the turbine.
In savonius type wind turbine, a hollow elliptical cylinder is placed into two pieces. And
each piece makes half of the vertical turbine fixed to a vertical axis. The shape of this rotor looks
like the alphabet ‘S’. Therefore, savonius type rotor is also known as the S-type rotor. The figure
of savonius type rotor is as shown in the below figure.

Fig. 3 – Savonius type wind turbine

In darrieus type wind turbine, it consists of two or three blades. These blades are curved
in shape and the shape of this blade is known as troposkein. The blades with aerofoil or
airfoil cross-section are placed symmetrically on a vertical shaft. The darrieus type wind turbine
is as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 4 – Darrieus type wind turbine

Performance of Wind Turbines

To estimate the performance of wind turbines, we need to consider the below parameters;
• Power co-efficient
The power co-efficient defines as a ratio of power delivered by the rotor to the
maximum power available in the wind turbine.
 The maximum power available at the turbine (Pmax) is;

Where
• Ci = Incoming wind velocity
• A = Cross-section area of wind stream
• ρ = Density of air

Power delivered by a turbine (P) with an efficiency of 59.26%;

The actual efficiency of a wind turbine may be less due to friction losses into the rotor,
gearing, and mechanical coupling losses in a generator. In an actual wind turbine, the efficiency
is in the range of 35% to 44%.

• Tip-speed ratio
The tip speed ratio defines as the ratio of blade tip speed to the free stream wind speed.

Blade tip speed is defined as;

CB = ωR

Where;
• ω = angular speed of the rotor
• R = radius of the tip of the rotor

This equation applies to the horizontal wind turbines. And in the case of the vertical wind
turbine, the blade tip speed represents the peripheral speed at the middle of the blade length.

• Solidity
Solidity is defined as the ratio of blade area to swept frontal area of the turbine.

Where;
• C = mean chord length
• R = radius of rotor blades
• n = number of rotors blades
 The above equation is for the horizontal wind turbine. For a vertical wind turbine, the
above equation divides by 2. Higher the solidity ratio use drag force and turns at a slower speed.
Lower the solidity ratio, use lift force and turn at higher speeds.

Site Selection of Wind Power Plant

The power produced by the wind turbine depends on the available wind speed. Therefore,
the wind turbines are located at a place where persistent and strong wind is available. The wind
varies daily. So, we need to analyze the data for a month or year.
To select the location for a wind turbine, the below-listed matters need to be considered;
• Wind speed
• Grid structure
• Distance
• Altitude of location
• Nature of ground
• Land cost

Wind speed
The power generated by the wind turbine depends on the cubic values of the velocity of
the wind. Therefore, a small change in wind speed varies more generated power. We need to
consider the average wind speed available for a particular location. For that, we required the data
of wind speed for a year or month. After data analysis, we need to consider an average wind speed
and select a site with a strong wind speed.

Grid structure
The power generated by the wind turbine is transferred to the load via a grid. The power
output of the wind turbine depends on the wind speed and it fluctuates with respect to time. So,
power output is also fluctuating with respect to time which gives poor power quality. Hence, the
connection of wind turbines with the grid is the most important task.

Distance
The transmission line is used to connect the wind turbine with the substation or load
center. If the distance of wind power plants is more, it will increase the transmission cost.
Therefore, we need to select the site near the load center to reduce the transmission cost.

Altitude of location
At high altitude, the wind density is high which increase the output of wind turbine. In a
place where the altitude is not available, the tower size is increased to get a high altitude. The
height of the wind turbine is calculated from the sea level.

Nature of ground
To achieve high-density wind, the wind turbine is constructed at height. It requires a big
and strong foundation to the ground. So, the nature of the ground is free from erosion and the
place is free from land sliding problems.

Land cost
The initial cost of a wind turbine is very high because it uses costly material and very big
construction of blades. The cost of land is also including in the capital cost. therefore, the cost of
land must be as low as possible to reduce the capital cost. in most cases, the wind turbines are
placed the non-useable lands.

Schemes of Electric Generation

According to the speed and frequency, there are different schemes available for the electric
generation by the wind turbine. These schemes are listed below.
• Constant speed constant frequency scheme
• Dual speed constant frequency scheme
• Variable speed constant frequency scheme
• Variable speed constant frequency with double output
• Variable speed variable frequency scheme
Constant Speed Constant Frequency Scheme
In this scheme, an induction generator or synchronous generator is used. The speed of the
generator is equal to or more than the synchronous speed. The block diagram of this scheme is
shown in the figure below.

Fig. 5 – Constant speed constant frequency scheme

The induction motor starter is connected with the transmission grid. The induction motor
runs more than synchronous speed. Hence, it behaves as an induction generator. And give
constant frequency power to the transmission grid. The frequency of the induction generator is
defined as;

The slip of the induction generator lies between 0 to 0.06. To avoid a large increase in
speed, the induction motor should be operating below maximum torque. Compared to a
synchronous generator, the operation of an induction generator is easy, simple in construction,
less maintains, and economical. Therefore, the induction generator is more used in this scheme.
But while operating the induction generator, a capacitor or capacitor bank is required to
avoid reactive power support in the transmission grid.

Dual Speed Constant Frequency Scheme

In this scheme, dual speed wind turbine is connected with a double
winding transformer as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 6 – Dual speed constant frequency scheme

The induction generator is connected with 2 stator winding. These winding are made up
of a different number of poles. Let say pole P1 and P2 (P1>P2). When wind speed is low, winding
with P1 poles are connected with the system and according to that, the power is generated. When
wind speed is high, winding with pole P2 is connected with the system and according to that, the
power is generated.
 Both times, the frequency of power remains the same. Similar to the above scheme, the
capacitor is required to be connected with the transmission grid to avoid reactive power support
on the transmission grid.

Variable Speed Constant Frequency Scheme

In this scheme, the DC transmission system is used. The synchronous generator is
connected with the system and the output of three alternators or synchronous generator is
converted into DC with the help of a rectifier. The connection diagram of this scheme is shown in
the figure below.

Fig. 7 – Variable speed constant frequency scheme

The DC output of the bridge rectifier is connected with the DC transmission line. And at
the receiving end of the transmission line, the power is converted into AC with the help of an
inverter. Again, this power is transferred to the transmission grid.
This type of scheme is also used in autonomous applications like a street light. It produces
high power for both low and high wind speeds. This scheme is suitable for both vertical and
horizontal axis turbines.

Variable Speed Constant Frequency with Double Output

In this scheme, the slip ring induction generator is used. This scheme is used to increase
the power generating capacity of a wind turbine. The power is generated from both stator and
rotor both. The output power generated at slip frequency is converted into power at line frequency
using rectifier and inverter pair.
The output power from the rotor depends on the slip and speed. The operating speed range
is between Ns to 2Ns and the slip lies between 0 to 1. The connection diagram of this scheme is
shown in the figure below.
 Fig. 8 – Variable speed constant frequency with double output

Variable Speed Variable Frequency Scheme

In this scheme, the synchronous generator is used to generate variable frequency power.
For the excitation of the synchronous generator, a capacitor bank is used. The magnitude and
frequency of the synchronous generator depend on the speed of the turbine, excitation of a
capacitor, and load impedance.
The output of a generator is converted into DC power using a rectifier. To control and
monitor the entire system, a feedback controller is used in the feedback loop. This type of scheme
is useful in the application where the load is insensitive to a frequency like a heating load. The
connection diagram of this scheme is shown in the figure below.

Fig. 9 – Variable speed variable frequency scheme

Generators used in Wind Power Plants

The generators are used in the wind power plant to convert the kinetic energy of wind into
electrical energy. There is different generator used according to the power requirement. The below
list shows the generators used in the wind power plant.
• Squirrel cage induction generator
• Wound rotor doubly fed induction generator
• Wound rotor synchronous generator
• Permanent magnet synchronous generator

Squirrel cage induction generator

The construction of the squirrel cage induction generator is simple and robust. The stator
of the generator is connected to the grid with the help of an uncontrolled rectifier and a forced
commuted PWM inverter. The connection diagram of the synchronous induction generator is as
shown in the figure below.

Fig. 10 – Squirrel cage induction generator

 The synchronous induction generator is directly connected with the wind turbine with the
help of gear. The stator side converter is used to regulate the electromagnetic torque and supplies
the reactive power. And the supply side converter is used to control real and reactive power flow
to the transmission grid.
The stator of the induction generator is connected with the grid using back-to-back
connected power electronics converters. The power converts are used to convert AC to DC and
again DC to AC. The size of the converter depends on the power rating of a wind turbine.
The squirrel cage induction generator does not require brushes. Hence, the system
requires less maintenance and the operation of the generator is easy and economical. A soft
starter is required in the system to smooth operation with the grid. And the cost of the entire
system is very high.

Wound rotor doubly fed induction generator

In this type of generator, the DC transmission link is used with the wind turbine. The figure
of this scheme is as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 11 – Wound rotor doubly fed induction generator

The output power from the induction generator is taken from both the stator and rotor.
The stator winding is directly connected with the grid. And the rotor winding is connected with
the grid via back-to-back converters. The rotor side converters are used to regulate the
electromagnetic torque and regulate reactive power to maintain the excitation of the machine.
The main power transmits from stator winding. A small amount (20-30%) of power is transferred
through the rotor. Hence, the cost of the converter is reduced. This scheme is used for high-power
applications. This generator uses a slip ring induction generator that requires periodic
maintenance.

Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator

In this type of generator, the rotor winding is excited by a separate field system. This
system is supplied by a separate DC source. The connection diagram of this system is shown in
the figure below.
 Fig. 12 – Wound rotor synchronous generator

In this system, a DC transmission link is used to transfer the power from the wind turbine
to the load center. To convert the power into AC to DC and DC to AC, back-to-back power
converters are connected with the grid.
The power factor of the system and load characteristics can be controlled by controlling
DC excitation. The stator winding is connected with the grid via four quadrants power converter.
The stator-side converters are used to control the electromagnetic torque and the supply-side
converter is used to control the real and reactive power.

Permanent magnet synchronous generator

In this type of scheme, a permanent magnet synchronous generator is used with the wind
turbine. The DC link is used to connect the wind turbine with the load center. Hence, this scheme
required converter sets. In the below figure, the PWM rectifier is placed between the generator
and DC link. And PWM inverter is connected to the grid.

Fig. 13 – Permanent magnet synchronous generator

In this method, the permeant magnet is used. And this will increase the cost of the system.
Demagnetization occurs in the permanent magnet and the power factor cannot be controlled in
this system. Instead of a PWM converter set, uncontrolled converters are also used in the system.
This scheme is shown in the figure below.
 Fig. 14 -Uncontrolled converters in Permanent Magnet Synchronous generators

In this scheme, the voltage and current are proportional to electromagnetic torque and
rotor speed. Here, a boost converter and Voltage source inverter (VSI) is used. Boost converter
controls the electromagnetic torque by controlling the DC voltage (by changing the switching
ratio). The VSI is used to control the DC link voltage and input power factor.
The disadvantage of the diode rectifier is that amplitude and distortion increase in
the current waveform. And it requires a bulky capacitor bank and the life of the capacitor bank is
short. To improve the performance of the wind turbine, back-to-back converts are used with the
permanent magnet synchronous generator. The connection diagram of this system is shown in
the figure below.

Fig. 15 – Back-to-back converts in permanent magnet synchronous generator

In this method, the reactive and real power can be controlled with the help of the PWM
modulation technique. The use of this technique is costly and requires a sophisticated control
system.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Wind Power Plant

Advantages
The advantages of a wind turbine are listed below.
• The wind is an infinite source of electrical energy.
• It is a cost-effective source as the running cost of the wind power plant is very less
compared to a thermal power plant.
• It is environmentally friendly and does not require any carbon fuels. This plant help to
reduce the carbon emission.
 • The space required for the wind turbine is less compared to other power plants. In most
of the cases, the wind turbines are placed on the seashore and in some cases, it is also
installed in the sea to save space.
• A wind power plant can be a grid-connected plant or it can be directly used in the remote
area where a grid is not possible to reach.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a wind turbine are listed below.
• The main disadvantage of a wind turbine is that it is inconsistent. The power developed by
a wind turbine depends on the wind speed. And wind speed varies with time. According to
that, the power output fluctuating. Therefore, it is very difficult to connect the wind
turbine with a grid system. But, with the help of a power electronics converter, it is possible
to connect the wind turbine with a grid. But it will increase the complexity and cost of the
system.
• The capital cost to install a wind turbine is very high to build a construction and
foundation.
• Wind turbines harm the birds.
• Site selection of wind turbines is difficult. It must be located at which the wind is
constantly available.
• It is very difficult to transport heavy-spaced equipment of wind turbines at the site.

We generate electric energy through these power plants at different voltage levels and at different
locations depending upon the type of the plant. They are used for different purposes viz.
• Base load plant: - When the plant is used to handle the base load demand on the system
• Peak load plant: - When the plant is made to handle the peak load demand on the system

Accordingly, the plant is made to handle the load. This categorization is important for the
quality of power is being developed. It is also important for the fact that the power must be
generated at the same instant when the load is taking up the power. So, as we know the type of
load and approximate amount of load at the station, different type of generating station is chosen.
For example; Thermal plant, Hydel plant, Nuclear plant, Solar plant, Wind plant and Tidal plant
are chosen to handle the base load on the system whereas Gas plants, Diesel plants are used to
handle peak load demand. This is mainly governed by the nature of the time they take in the
process of starting the delivery of power. Base load plants take more time in delivering the power
whereas peak load plants must start very fast to supply the demand.

Primary Transmission
The electric supply (in 132kV, 220 kV, 500kV or greater) is transmitted to load center by
three phase three wire (3 Phase – 3 Wires also known as Delta connection) overhead transmission
system.
As the voltage level which is generated is around (11-20) kV and the demand is at various
levels of voltage and at very faraway places from the generating station. For example, the
generating station can be generating voltage at 11kv, but the load center is 1000km apart and at
the level of 440V. Therefore, for the delivery of electrical energy at such a long distance, an
arrangement must be there to make it possible. Hence, the transmission system is essential for
the delivery of electrical energy. This is made possible by using the transmission lines of different
length. These are overhead transmission lines in almost every cases. Some exceptions occur when
it is needed to cross an ocean. Then there is a compulsion to use underground cables.

But, as the system grew and load demand increased, the challenge in this process has
become very complex. At low voltage level, the amount of current flowing through the line for high
load demand is more and hence the voltage drop due to the resistance and reactance of the
transmission line is very significant. This leads to more losses in the transmission lines and the
decrease in the voltage at the load end.
This affects the cost of the system and the working of the equipment the consumers use.
So, transformer is used to increase the voltage level at certain values ranging
from 220kV to 765kV. This makes the current value lesser for the same load that would be
having higher values of current at certain load. The current value can be calculated using formula:

Where,
v = RMS value of line-to-line voltage
i = RMS value of line current
* denotes the conjugate of a phasor.

The increased demand and the constraint of location of generating station has made
possible the need of a very complex system called ‘Grid’. This system connects multiple generating
stations generating voltage at different levels being connected together as a combined system.
This makes the system to reach out to various load centers and this provides a great system
of having higher reliability. Presently, this system has grown to size of a country. One more system
is being used now a days is the use of HVDC. HVDC is used for greater distances and sometimes
used to connect two grids of different voltage or frequency levels. HVDC also provides lower
corona losses, lower communication interferences, elimination of inductive effect and elimination
of frequency of operation.
Transmission lines vary in sizes. This size determines its characteristics and its behavior
in the system. For example, in long transmission lines the voltage at the consumer end becomes
higher than its rated value during light load condition due to the dominating capacitive nature of
the transmission lines.

Secondary Transmission
Area far from the city (outskirts) which have connected with receiving
stations by lines is called secondary transmission. At receiving station, the level of
voltage reduced by step-down transformers up to 132kV, 66 or 33 kV, and electric
power is transferred by three phase three wire (3 Phase – 3 Wires) overhead system to
different sub stations.
Primary Distribution
At a sub station, the level of secondary transmission voltage (132kV, 66 or 33 kV)
reduced to 11kV by step down transforms.
Generally, electric supply is provided to those heavy load consumer (commercial power
supply for inductries) where the demands is 11 kV, from the lines which caries 11kV ( in three
phase three wire overhead system) and they make a separate sub station to control and utilize the
heavy power in industries and factories.
In other cases for heavier load consumers (at large scale), the demand is upto132 kV or 33
kV. So electric supply provided them directly by secondary transmission or primary distribution
(in 132 kV, 66kV or 33kV) and then step down the level of voltage by step-down transformers in
their own substation for utilization ( i.e. for electric traction etc).
When the transmission lines get closer to the demand centers, the voltage level is reduced
to make it practical to distribute at different places of load. Therefore, power is taken from the
grid and stepped down to 30-33kV, depending upon the places where it is being delivered. This
is then transmitted to substations. For example, the system voltage at substation level in India
is 33KV.
Many control mechanisms are provided in the substations to make the power delivery a
controlled and continuous process without much disturbance. These substations deliver power to
smaller units called ‘Feeders’. This is done by either ‘Overhead lines’ or ‘Underground
cables’. These feeders are in towns, cities, or villages or it may be some group of industries, which
takes the power from the substation, and convert its voltage level according to its own use.
For domestic use, the voltage is further reduced at 110V-230V (phase to ground) to
be used by the individuals at different power factor. The combined amount of demand is the load
on the entire system and that must be generated at that instant.
Depending upon the scheme of the distribution system, it is categorized as radial or ring
mains. It gives different degree of reliability and stability to the system. All these systems are
protected using various protection schemes comprising of circuit breakers, relays, lightening
arresters, ground wires etc.
Many measuring and sensing elements are also associated like ‘Current transformer’ and
‘Potential transformer’ and metering at all the places from the substations to feeders to the
consumers’ places.

Secondary Distribution
Electric power is transferred by (from primary distribution line i.e.11kV) to
distribution substation is known as secondary distribution. This substation is located
nearby domestic & consumers areas where the level of voltage reduced to 440V by step
down transformers.
These transformers called Distribution transformers, three phase four wire
system (3 Phase – 4 Wires also known as Star connection). So there is 400 Volts (Three
Phase Supply System) between any two phases and 230 Volts (Single Phase
Supply) between a neutral and phase (live) wires.
 Residential load (i.e. Fans, Lights, and TV etc) may be connected between any one
phase and neutral wires, while three phase load may be connected directly to the three phase lines.
In short, secondary power distribution may be divided in three sections such as, feeders,
distributors and service lines (details below).

Combined Process of Power System

The entire structure of the power system is consisting of the source (Generating
station), transfer (Transmission and Distribution) and the load (Consumer). The objectives are: -
• Rated voltage and frequency to the load centers.
• Reliability of the system so that power delivery is continuous.
• Flexibility of the system so that the power is available at different voltage levels
• Faster clearance of faults so that the runs well for longer time and it life elongates
• The cost of power must be as low as possible
• The losses in the system must be as low as possible

Fig 3: Combined Process of a Power System

These all objectives are met by using different sets of generating stations, transmission
systems, distribution systems and the enhanced quality of safety equipment.
At any instant, our load varies in different magnitudes. Therefore, for following the
demand, the generation must change and catch up the demand. For this purpose, there are many
control mechanisms like governing valve in thermal plants, control rods in nuclear plants, which
changes the amount of power, which is being generated. And, for this purpose, there is a set of
arrangements made to communicate the demand to the generating station. They are PLC, SCADA,
Fiber optical communication, GSM communication etc.
• Related Post: Internet of Things (IOT) and Its Applications in Electrical Power Industry
In addition, some state estimation techniques are being used in a power system to predict the load
demand at different instant of times. It helps in determining the amount of power to be generated
at the right time. Now, with the advent of new techniques, a very promising technique is using
‘Soft Computing techniques’ for the control of the operation of power system. In addition, it is
accompanied by various software and numerical techniques. Therefore, it can be stated that the
steps in which a power system operates are following: -
• Load demand variation
• Communication between substation and generating station
• Control operations at the generating stations
 • Continuous evaluation at the substation for changes in demand
Modern power system operates and literally handles such a great amount of power supply
by these four basic steps. The more controlled the power delivered, the more will be the quality of
power because the quality of power is simply the maintenance of the rated value of voltage and
frequency at every place. This objective is obtained, only when the entire system operates in
continuous coordination and effectiveness.
• Related Post: Design and Installation of EHV/EHV and EHV/HV Substations
As our load varies from lightly loaded condition to heavily loaded condition, the substation
communicates to generating station to increase the power generation and it keeps checking the
requirement so that the continuous delivery of power happens.
The communication is done according to the load magnitude and the cost involved in the
process. Moreover, this increase in demand is then acknowledged by the generating station by
varying its power input to the generator. In addition, from the generating station to load centers,
various levels (viz. Transmission and Distribution) are there.
Therefore, for the power quality and reliability, there are many devices are employed to
efficiently perform the various control mechanisms that consists the fault management systems,
the power factor improvement systems, the measurement systems etc.
All these operations are being done continuously in any power system around the world
to make the power delivery possible and efficient. With the increase demand, there happened the
increase in the inventions of various devices.
In addition, the revenue collected from the power distribution made it possible to have
further invention and the use of new technologies. This enables us to use energy in such simple
form whereas, in reality, many complex operations are being done constantly.
below is a complete typical AC electric power supply system scheme, in other words, the above
whole story in below fig 4.

Fig 4: Typical Electric Power Supply Systems Scheme (Generation, Transmission & Distribution
of Electrical Energy)
Elements of a Distribution System
Secondary distribution may be divided into three parts as follow.

1. Feeders
2. Distributors
3. Service Lines or Service Mains

Fig 5: Elements of a Distribution System

Feeders
Those electric power lines which connect generating station (power station) or
sub station to distributors are called feeders. Remember that current in feeders (in each
point) is constant while the level of voltage may be different. The current flowing in the feeders
depends on the size of conductor. Fig 5.

Distributors

Those taping which extracted for electric power supply to the consumers or the lines, from
where consumers get direct electric power supply is known as distributors as shown in fig 5.
Current is different in each section of the distributors while voltage may be same. The selection of
distributors depends on voltage drop and may be design according different level of voltage
drops. It is because consumers should get the rated voltage according to the rules and design.
Service Lines or Service Mains

The normal cable which is connected between Distributors and Consumer

load terminal called Service Line or Service Mains. in other words, the cable which has
been connected to the 11kV power lines (taken from step down transformer) to get three phase or
single-phase power supply. Phase or Live to Neutral power is 230V AC (120V or 240V etc in
US) and 440V AC (208V, 240V, 277V or 480V etc in US) in three phase (phase to phase)
system.

Design of Grounding / Earthing System in a Substation Grid

In high and medium voltage[1]Air Insulated Substations (AIS) the electromagnetic

field, which causes are the static charges of bare cable and conductors and by the atmospheric
conditions (surges), induce voltages at no-live parts of the installation that
create potential differences between metallic parts and ground and also between different
points of the ground.
Similar situations can occur when there are faults between live parts of the installation
and no-live parts, for example in phase-to-earth short circuit.

These potential differences give origin to step potential and touch potential, or
a combination of both, that can lead to circulation of an electric current through the
human body, that can cause hazardous to people.
Touch voltage (Et) can be defined as the maximum potential difference that exists
between an earthed metallic structure capable to be touched by the hand and any point of the
ground, when a fault current flows. It is usual to consider a distance of 1 m between the metallic
structure and the point on the ground.
Step voltage (Es) is defined as the maximum potential difference that exists between
the feet when a fault current flows. It is usual to consider a distance of 1 m between the feet. A
particular case of step voltage is the Transferred voltage (Etrrd): where a voltage is transferred
into or out of the substation from or to a remote point external to the substation site.

Other concepts are:

• Ground potential rise (GPR): The maximum electrical potential that a substation
grounding grid may attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at the
potential of remote earth. This voltage, GPR, is equal to the maximum grid current times
the grid resistance.
• Mesh voltage (Em): The maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid.
 • Metal-to-metal touch voltage (Emm): The difference in potential between metallic
objects or structures within the substation site that may be bridged by direct hand-to-hand
or hand-to-feet contact.

The diagram in Figure 1 shows the phenomena referred above.

In order to minimize to acceptable values of the currents through the human body,
to ensure electrical safety for people working within or near the installation, and also
to limit any eventual electrical interference with third-party equipment, AIS must be
provided with an earthing (or grounding) system, to which all metallic non-live parts of
the installation must be connected, such as metallic structures, earthing switches, surge
arresters, enclosures of switchboards and motors, transformers rails and metallic fences.
Since earthing has an influence on the levels of power system overvoltages and
fault current, and the definition of protection systems, earthing system must be designed to
ensure that there is proper operation of the protective devices such as protective relaying and
surge arresters.
Design and construction of earthing system must assure that system performs for the
expected life of the installation and it must therefore take into account future additions and the
maximum fault current for the ultimate configuration.
Earthing system is made of a mesh of buried bare copper cable,
with additional earth rods, and shall be calculated, being recommended to use IEEE Std. 80-
2000.

Important formulas for Designing a Substation Grid Earthing System

The cross section of the buried cable should calculated in accordance with the value of
the phase-to-earth short circuit current, but it is common to use the three phase short-
circuit current for this purpose.
For this calculation the following formula must be used:

Where:
• I”K1 is the phase-to-earth short-circuit current [A]
• ts is the duration of the fault [s]
• Δθ is the maximum admissible temperature rise [°C] – for bare copper Δθ = 150 °C

According to the referred IEEE Standard maximum tolerable step and touch
potential and maximum tolerable current through the human body (Ihb) and
the resistance of the earth grid (Rg) are calculated by the formulas:

Maximum tolerable step potential

Maximum tolerable touch potential

Maximum tolerable current through the human body

Resistance of the Earth Grid

Where:
• Cs is the surface layer derating factor and is calculated by the formula:

• ts is the duration of the fault [s]

• ρs is the surface material resistivity [Ω.m] – typical value for wet crushed
rock/gravel: 2,500 Ω.m
• ρ is the resistivity of the earth beneath the surface material [Ω.m]
 • hs is the thickness of the surface material [m]
• A is the area occupied by the ground grid [m2]
• lT is the total buried length of conductor, including the earth rods [m]

If no protective surface layer is used, then Cs =1 and ρs = ρ

These calculations are usually done using specific software.

Substation Earthing Grid

Figure 2 – Earth grid

The most suitable methods for the connection of the earth grid connections are:

a.) Exothermic welding

Figure 3 – Exothermic welding

Exothermic welding is conductors’ permanent connection process that

uses molten metal and molds, which is based in a chemical reaction between metal
oxides (the conductor) and ignited aluminium powder, which acts as fuel, with heat
energy release. This chemical reaction is a pyrotechnic composition known as thermite.
It must be assured that the number of exothermic welding done with each mold will
not exceed the indications of the manufacturer.
b.) C connector:
using a hydraulic crimping tool and matrixes with a size suitable for the size of the
connectors.

Figure 4 – C connector and crimping tool

Close to the control boxes of circuit breakers, switches and isolators it must be
installed a metallic equipotential mat, connected to the earth system, similar to the one
shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 – Metallic equipotential mat

What is the Purpose of Ground Wire in Overhead Transmission Lines? The Role of
Earth Wire or Ground Wire in Overhead Power Lines

Ground wire or earth wire (also known as OPGV) is a bare conductor supported at the top
of transmission towers. They serve to shield the line and intercept lightning stroke before it hits
the current carrying conductors below i.e. power lines.
Ground wires normally do not carry current. Therefore, they are often made of steel. The
ground wires are solidly connected to ground at each tower in transmission and distribution
system.
 In power systems, ground wire is provided in overhead transmission lines having voltages
of 110kV and above. In modern power systems, there are two ground wires on transmission tower
instead of single for better protection. These earth wires has no effect on switching surges and the
coupling effect is higher with low serge impedance as compared to single earth wire.
In case of lightning strikes, the resistance between earth and tower base should be low for
effective protection. when lightning hit the ground wire, the produced waves travel along the line
in opposite direction and reach to the adjoining tower. The tower passes them safely to the earth
which ensures no power outage in case of lightning stroke faults.
The main purpose of ground wire is to protect the power lines conductors from direct
lightning strokes. In HV transmission lines, lightning strokes may cause a voltage rise at the tower
peak before reaching to the ground wire which may back flash-over from the tower to the
conductors and insulators.
To minimize the chances of insulator flash-overs, it is important to reduce the increase in
voltage on the top of the tower as ground wire is not enough to protect the insulator set from flash-
over. The chance of fault may be reduced by proper grounding and earthing of the poles and tower
by deep earthing rods or counterpoise wires.