Dental Material

POLYMERS
‫ عباس ابراهيم حسين‬.‫م د‬
polymer is a chemical compound consisting of giant molecule

formed by the union of many (poly) smaller repeatingn parts
(mers).
Monomer (one part): It is a molecule that forms the basic unit for
polymers, and can combine with others of the same kind to form a
polymer (homopolymer).
Copolymer: It is a polymer made by reaction of two different

monomers. Have better physical property.
Terpolymer: It is a polymer synthesized from three different
monomers.
• Mers connected in a linear sequence => linear polymers

• Mers arranged in a branched fashion => branched polymer
• Mers chains that are cross connected by permanant links
between them => cross linked polymer (network polymer).
This restricting the motion of the chains and improve the
rigidity of polymer, icrease thermal and wear resistances and
decrease water sorption and solubility.
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
The molecular weight of the polymer molecule equals the
molecular weight of the various mers multiplied by the number of
the mers. The higher the molecular weight of the polymer, the
higher the degree of polymerization.
The term POLYMERIZATION is the chemical process by which
the monomers convert into polymers, but the DEGREE OF
POLYMERIZATION is defined as the total number of mers in a
polymer molecule. The higher the degree of polymerization, the
better will be the physical properties and increasing the strength
of the resin and its resistance to solubility.
POLYMERIZATION types:
1. ADDITION POLYMERIZATION (Free-Radical Polymerization)
Most dental resins are polymerized by addition polymerization
which simply involves the joining together of monomer molecules
to form polymers chain with no change in composition of the
monomers. In this type of reaction, no byproduct is obtained.
The reaction takes place in three CHEMICAL STAGES:
1- Activation and initiation stage
The addition polymerization process is start when free radicals are
present. (Free radicals are very reactive chemical species that
have an unpaired electron).
The free radicals are produced by reactive agents called initiators.
Initiators are molecules which contain one weak bond which is able
to undergo decomposition to form two reactive species (free
radical), the decomposition of bond of initiator need source of
energy (activator) such as heat, chemical compound, light,
electromagnetic radiation.
Initiator is used extensively in dental polymers is (Benzoyl
peroxide).
Addition polymerization reaction is initiated when the free radical
reacts with monomer molecules producing another active free
radical species which is capable of further reaction.
2- Propagation stage
The initiation stage is followed by the rapid addition of other
monomer molecules to the free radical and the shifting of the free
electron to the end of the growing chain.
3- Termination stage
This propagation reaction continues until the growing free radical
is terminated either by: a- Reaction of two growing chains to form
one dead chain b- Reaction of growing chains with inhibitors as
(hydroquinone, eugenol, impurities, or large amounts of oxygen).
2. CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
A condensation reaction involves two different molecules reacting
together to form a third, large molecule with production of
byproduct such as water, halogen, acid, and ammonia.
Condensation reaction progresses by the same mechanism of
chemical reaction between two or more simple molecules.
Factors control the structure and the properties of

polymers:
1- The molecular structure of repeating units including the use of
copolymer.
2- Molecular weight or chain length.
3- The degree of chain branching (Linear, network, 3D).
4- The presence of cross-linking agent.
5- Presence of plasticizers or fillers.
Uses of polymers in dentistry:

Polymers are either natural or synthetic.
1- Denture base, special tray, record base.
2- Artificial teeth.
3- Obturators for cleft palate.
4- Composite tooth restoration.
5- Orthodontic space maintainer and brackets.
6- Crown and bridge.
7- rubber dams.
8- Impressions.
9- Maxillofacial prosthesis.
10- Dies.
11- Endodontic filling material.
12- Splints and stents. 13- Athletic mouth protectors. 14- Cements.
15- bonding agents.
16- relining materials and tissue conditioners.
Denture base materials

1- Metallic denture base
a. Cobalt chromium
b. Gold alloys
c. Aluminium
d. Stainless steel
2- Non-metallic denture base
a. Cellulose products
b. Phenol formaldehyde
c. Vinyl resin
d. Vulcanite rubber
e. Acrylic resin (poly methyl methacrylate PMMA)
This is the material of choice nowadays as denture base
material due to its good esthetic qualities, easy
manipulation and processing and cheap prices.
DENTURE BASE RESINS

The following list indicates the requirements for a clinically
acceptable denture base material:
1- High strength, stiffness, hardness, toughness, and durability.
2- Good thermal conductivity.
3- Processing accuracy and dimensional stability. 4- Chemical
stability (unprocessed as well as processed material).
5- Insolubility in and low sorption of oral fluids.
6- Absence of taste and odor.
7- Biocompatible.
8- Natural appearance.
9- Color stability.
10- Adhesion to plastics, metals, and porcelain.
11- Ease of fabrication and repair.
12- Moderate cost.
13- Accurate reproduction of surface detail.
14- Resistance to bacterial growth.
15- Radiopaque.
16- Easy to clean.
17- light in weight.

18- good shelf life.
Types:
1- Heat cured resin.
2- Cold cured resin.
3- Visible light cured resin.
4- Microwave activated resin.
HEAT CURED ACRYLIC & COLD CURED

ACRYLIC)
COMPOSITION:
POWDER
1- Poly methyl methacrylate granules. With only chemical cured
acrylic the granules are smaller in size and have a lower
molecular weight.
2- Initiator as benzoyl peroxide to initiate the polymerization of the
monomer
3- Pigments as cadmium sulfate is used to obtain the various
tissue-like shades.
4- Titanium oxides are used as opacifiers.
5- Nylon or acrylic fibers are usually added to simulate the minute
blood vessels of oral mucosa=> natural appearance.
LIQUID
1- Methyl methacrylate monomer: it is clear, colorless, low
viscosity liquid, boiling point is 100.3°C, and distinct odor
exaggerated by a high vapor pressure at room temperature. Care
should be taken to avoid breathing the monomer vapor. Animal
studies have shown that the monomer can affect respiration,
cardiac function, and blood pressure.
2- Hydroquinone inhibitors are added to give the liquid an
adequate shelf life. The inhibitor is a chemical material added to
prevent polymerization during storage and in order to provide
enough working time.
3- Plasticizers are sometimes added to produce a softer, more
resilient polymer. They are relatively low-molecular weight esters,
such as dibutyl phthalate.
4- If a cross-linked polymer is desired, organic compounds such
as Ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) are added to the
monomer, using cross-linking agents (chemical bonds between
different chains) provides greater resistance to minute surface
cracking, termed crazing, and may decrease solubility and water
sorption.
5- With only chemical cured acrylic an accelerator is included in
the liquid. These accelerators are tertiary amines (N,N-
dimethylpara-toluidine). These acrylics also called self-curing,
cold-curing, or autopolymerizing resins.
POLYMER/MONOMER INTERACTION
The liquid placed in clean, dry mixing jar followed by slow addition
of powder, allowing each powder particle to become wetted by
monomer. After mixing the powder with liquid the mixture is left until
it reaches a consistency suitable for packing. During this period, a
lid should be placed on the mixing jar to prevent evaporation of
monomer. The type of reaction is addition polymerization reaction.
The resultant mixture will pass into 5 STAGES:
(1) Sandy stage.
The polymer gradually settles into the monomer forming a fluid,
incoherent mass.
(2) Stringy or sticky stage.
The monomer attacks the polymer by penetrating into the
polymer. The mass is sticky and stringy (cobweb like) when
touched or pulled apart.
(3) Dough stage.
As the monomer diffuses further into the polymer, it becomes
smooth and dough like. It does not adhere to the wall of the jar. It
consists of undissolved polymer particles suspended in a plastic
matrix of monomer and dissolved polymer. The mass is plastic
and homogenous and can be packed into the mold at this stage.
(4) Rubbery stage.
The monomer disappears by further penetration into the polymer
and/or evaporation. The mass is rubber like, non-plastic, and
cannot be molded.
(5) Stiff stage. on standing for a period, the mixture becomes stiff
and very dry.
Working time: the time that a denture base material

remains in dough like stage to remain moldable for at least 5
minutes.
FOLLOWING ARE THE RECOMMENDED CURING CYCLES:
• LONG CYCLE: heat the flask in water at 60-70 °C for 9 hours.
• SHORT CYCLE: heat the flask in water at 74 °C for 90 minutes
In comparison to heat cured acrylic; The cold cured

acrylic has:
1. Lower molecular weight
2. Processed denture has more residual monomer => allergy
and toxicity
3. Shorter working time
4. Lower dimensional change ( lower shrinkage )
5. Lower hardness, impact strength, compression strength and
tensile strength
6. Lower modulus of elasticity ( lower stiffness )
7. Lower color stability
LIGHT CURED DENTURE PLASTICS
It consists of:
1- Urethane dimethacrylate matrix.
2- Acrylic copolymer.
3- Microfine silica filler.
4- Camphoroquinone-amine photo initiator system.
5- inhibitors
It is supplied in premixed sheets (single component) having clay
like consistency. It is provided in opaque light-tight packages to
avoid premature polymerization. The denture base material is
adapted to the cast while it is in a plastic state. It is polymerized in
a light chamber (curing unit) with blue light of 400-500 nm from high
intensity quartz-halogen bulbs. The denture is rotated continuously
in the chamber to provide uniform exposure to the light source.
Microwave polymerized polymer
Using specially formed acrylic resin processed in microwave by
using non-metallic flask. The advantages of this process are
cleaner and faster , shorter processing time and better accuracy
and properties tha that of heat cured material
Flexible dentures (thermoplastic

polymer)
Is a plastic becomes moldable above a specific temparature and
returns to a solid state upon cooling.
Types:
1. Thermoplastic acetal
2. Thermoplastic acrylic
3. Thermoplastic polycarbonate
4. Thermoplastic nylon : because of its flexibility it is indicated in
every case has an undercut, tilted teeth, patient has allergy to
acrylic monomer and/on nickel, reduced mouth opening and
when high esthetic is in demand.
Properties of flexible dentures:

1. High strength
2. Excellant flexibility and ductility
3. Semi translucent and provides excellent esthetic since
no metal clasps appearrance on the tooth surface
4. Biocompatible because of free of monomer and metal
that cause allergic reaction
5. High fracture resistance and impact properties,
unbreakable even if thrown from height
6. Lower water sorption than PMMA resin
7. Good resistance to most chemicals but affected by
strong acids and alcohols
8. Light weight
9. Apply minimal stress on abutments and underlying bone
10. Difficult to adjust, polish and repair
11. Aprone to creep
12. Minimal bonding strength to artificial teeth and to relining
materials
13. Tendency to deteriorate, stain and develop a rough
surface after short period of time
Processing errors
1. Porosity
Presence of bubbles in/on the surface of resin lead to: a.
Unsightly appearance of the denture base
b. Improper cleaning of the denture => denture and
oral hygiene are suffered
c. Weaken the denture base Types:
Internal porosity External porosity
voids or bubbles within the White color voids localized on

mass of polymerized acrylic surface and subsurface
confined to the thick portion of
denture base.
Due to vaporization of monomer Due to:
when the temp.of resin 1. Lack of homogenity, this
increases above the boiling result from inadequate
point of monomer (100.8C) in mixing of powder and
thick portion liquid components lead to
not homogeous dough at
time of polymerization=>
more shrinkage
2. Lack of adequate
pressure during
polymerization or
inadequate amount of
dough in mold during final
closure=> irregular
bubbles
Avoided by using long low Avoided by:
temp.curing cycle for thick 1. using proper powder/liquid
dentures ratio and mixing it well to
be more homogenousin
dough stage
2. Using the required amount
of dough in flask and
check for exess during
closure.
2.Crazing
Is formation of surface cracks on the denture base. These lead to:
Reduce esthetic quality and Weaken the denture and can cause
fracture .
Causes:
a.Mechanical stresses
b.Attack by solvent (alcohol)
c.Incorporation of water during processing
3.Denture warpage
Is the deformation of denture or change in shapethat affect the fit
of the denture.
Causes:
A.Release of stresses in denture during processing are curing
shrinkage, rapid cooling, packing of acrylic in rubber stage or
improper deflasking
b.Rise in temp.during polishing
c.Recuring of denture after addition of relining material
d.Repeated wetting and drying of denture
care of acrylic denture
stored in water when not used

brushed carefully with soft brush
no hot water used
no abrasive toothpaste or houshold cleansers used

PREVENTIVE MATERIALS Dr. Abbas Ibrahim Hussein
Fluoride was documented as a chemotherapeutic measure providing

resistance in tooth enamel to in vivo demineralization.
Fluoride can also be provided systemically as a dietary supplement to
inhibit caries where drinking water is not fluoridated.
For patients who are at high risk for the development of caries in spite of
systemic fluoride administration, various means of topical application
have been developed to increase caries protection, such as tooth pastes,
mouth rinses, gels, and varnishes.
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS Toothpaste

The major function of toothpaste is to enhance cleaning of the exposed
tooth surfaces and removal of pellicle, plaque, and debris left from
salivary deposits and the mastication of food.
As a secondary function, toothpaste can be used as a carrier for fluorides,
detergents, abrasives, and whitening agents to improve the quality and
esthetics of erupted teeth.
COMPOSITION
The general composition of most tooth pastes include the following:
1- Colloidal binding agent
This agent acts as a carrier for the more active ingredients. Sodium
alginate or methylcellulose will thicken the vehicle and prevent
separation of the components in the tube during storage.
2- Humectants
An example is glycerin, which is used to stabilize the composition and
reduce water loss by evaporation.
3- Preservatives
Preservatives are used to inhibit bacterial growth within the material.
4- Flavoring agents
Peppermint, wintergreen, and cinnamon are added to enhance consumer
appeal and to combat oral malodors.
5- Abrasives
Abrasives are incorporated into all pastes to aid in the removal of heavy
plaque, adhered stains, and calculus deposits. Calcium pyrophosphate,
dicalcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, hydrated silica, and sodium
bicarbonate are used in varying amounts to obtain this effect.
6- Detergents
An example is sodium lauryl sulfate, which is used to reduce surface
tension and enhance the removal of debris from the tooth surface.
7- Therapeutic agents
The use of stannous fluorides has been demonstrated effective in the
uptake of the fluoride ion and improved resistance of fluorapatite to acid
demineralization in the initiation of carious lesions.
8- Other chemicals
Minor miscellaneous ingredients are included to reduce tube corrosion,
stabilize viscosity, and provide pleasing coloration. Minor amounts of
peroxides are included in some pastes, with marketing claims that they
will remove innate discolorations and improve esthetics.
Mouthwash
Mouthwash is a liquid solution that is applied as a rinse on a regular
basis to enhance oral health, esthetics, and breath freshening.
Mouthwashes are most effective when applied in the morning or the
evening following mechanical cleansing of the tooth surfaces with a
brush and toothpaste.
COMPOSITION
Mouthwashes are composed of three main ingredients.
1- An active agent is selected for a specific health care benefit, such as
anticaries activity (fluoride), antimicrobial effect (Chlorhexidine 0.1%
and 0.2%), and reduction of plaque adhesion.
2- Surfactants are also added to most mouthwashes to help remove
debris from the teeth and dissolve other ingredients, like sodium lauryl
sulfate.
3- Flavoring agents added for breath freshening include eucalyptol,
menthol, thymol, and methyl salicylate.
Fluoride varnishes
Fluoride containing varnishes provide an additional means of delivering
fluoride topically to the surfaces of teeth in patients at risk for caries. The
one advantage of the varnish mode of application is the extended time of
exposure for the active fluoride ingredient against the tooth surface; it
may be hours before a varnish wears off, instead of seconds, as with a
mouthwash.
Pit and fissure sealants

Pits and fissures in the occlusal surfaces of permanent teeth are
particularly susceptible to decay, and fluoride treatments have been least
effective in preventing caries in these areas.
RESIN SEALANTS
The most common sealants are based on Bis-GMA resin and are light
cured, although some self-cured products are still available. Also Glass
Ionomer sealants are available.
MANIPULATIONOF SEALANTS Enamel Surface Preparation

The wettability of the enamel by the sealant is improved by etching (with
a solution or a gel of 35% to 40% phosphoric acid), and some advocate
pretreatment with silanes in a volatile solvent.
Sealant Application
The sealant may best be applied with a thin brush, a ball applicator, or a
syringe. Take care to avoid the buildup of excess material that could
interfere with developing occlusion.
Athletic mouth protectors

The use of athletic mouth protectors in contact sports has increased
rapidly; they are routinely used in football, soccer, ice hockey,
basketball, wrestling, field hockey, softball, and other sports. Injuries
to teeth from trauma caused by athletic activity have involved pulpitis,
pulpal necrosis, resorption, replacement resorption, internal
hemorrhage, pulp canal obliteration, and inflammatory resorption.
FABRICATIONOF CUSTOM-MADE PROTECTORS

The fabrication of a custom-made mouth protector involves the following
general steps:
1- Making an alginate impression of the maxillary arch. 2-
Pouring a dental stone or high-strength stone model into the
impression, minus the palate.
3- Vacuum-forminga heated thermoplastic sheet.
4- Trimming the excess around the model.
5- Smoothing the edges of the mouth protector.
OTHER APPLICATIONSFOR VACUUM-FORMING
In addition to athletic mouth protectors, vacuum forming is used to
prepare trays for: impression materials, fluoride treatments, bleaching
procedures, surgical splints, and orthodontic retainer.
‫المصادر‬:
1. PHILLIPS SCIENCE OF DENTAL MATERIALS-KENNETH
J.ANUSAVICE,D.M.D,Ph.D.
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT G. GRAIG, Ph.D.

RELINING MATERIALS Dr. Abbas Ibrahim Hussein
Relining is the procedure used to resurface the tissue-side of the denture

with new base material to make it fit more accurately.
Classification
1-Tissue conditioner.
2- Soft liners.
3- Hard reline materials.
Tissue conditioner
They are soft plastic materials used primarily to treat irritated mucosa
supporting the denture. They are used for short term application and
should be replaced every 3 days.
The purpose of using tissue conditioners is to absorb some of the energy
produced by the impact of masticatory forces. It serves as shock absorber
between the occlusal surface of the denture and the underlying oral tissue
therefore they promote healing of the inflamed tissue.
INDICATION AND USES:

1- It allows the patient to adapt to the new denture with minimum
discomfort.
2- Tissue conditioning before denture fabrication.
3- Record base stabilization.
4- Improve soft tissue healing underneath the denture.
5- Functional impression.
COMPOSITION:
I- Powder (Polyethyl methacrylate).
II- Liquid (Ester plasticizer as butyl phthalate, butyl gluconate, and
ethyl alcohol up to 30 %).
They are mixed and placed in the inner side of the denture and seated in
the patient mouth. The mix passes into several phases from mixing to
gelation to elastic phase which lasts for several days then become hard
and rough as the plasticizer and alcohol are leached rapidly and water is
absorbed. There is weight loss of 4-9 % after 24 hours.
Soft liner
REQUIREMENTS:
1- High bond strength to the denture base.
2- Dimensional stability of the liner during and after processing.
3- Low solubility and water absorption.
4- Permanent softness and resiliency.
5- Color stability.
6- Easy manipulation and process.
7- Biocompatible to tissue.
8- Absence of odor and taste.
Soft liners are classified into two types:

a- Silicon elastomer (autopolymerized or heat polymerized). b-
Soft acrylic (autopolymerized or heat polymerized).
SOFT ELASTOMER LINER:

It is the most successful material for soft liners, they are not dependent on
leachable plasticizer therefore, they retain resiliency for prolonged period
they are well tolerated by oral mucosa, odorless, tasteless, excellent
elastic properties but they have poor adhesion to polymethyl methacrylate
denture.
Autocured silicon is supplied as paste and liquid.
Composition:
I- Paste (Hydroxyl terminated polydimethyl siloxane).
II- Liquid (Tetraethyl silicate and dibutyl tindilurate).
Setting is condensation reaction. Heat cured silicon liner is supplied as
one component system.
SOFT ACRYLIC LINER:

They are composed of plasticized acrylic polymers or copolymers which
could be chemically activated or heat activated. Self-cure type is supplied
as powder and liquid.
Composition:
I- Powder (Polymethyl or polyethyl methacrylate and peroxide initiator).
II- Liquid (Ester such as dibutyl phthalate and methyl methacrylate and
tertiary amine activator).
They are similar to tissue conditioner but they are not as soft as them and
retain their softness for longer time.
USES OF SOFT LINERS:

1- Improve the comfort or fit of old denture until the new denture is made
for a period of several weeks.
2- Provide comfort for patients who cannot tolerate occlusal pressure
such as in case of (alveolar ridge resorption, knife edge ridge, and
sharp lingual mylohyoid ridge when surgery is contraindicated),
chronic soreness because of (heavy bruxism, poor health, vitamin
deficiency, with oral cancer).
3- Treatment of congenital or acquired defects of palate.
• None of soft liners is permanent; it may last 6 months.

Dr.Abbas Ibrahim Hussein ‫الثانيةالمرحلة‬
Temporary filling material
1- It should be non-toxic, and non-irritant to pulp and tissue. 2- It

should be insoluble in saliva and liquid.
3- Mechanical properties must meet the requirements for their particular application.
4- Protection of the pulp:
• Thermal insulation.
• Chemical protection. Electrical insulation.
5_Optical properties.
6- Cements should be adhesive to tooth structures and restorations, but not to dental
instruments.
7- Should be bacteriostatic.
. 11 '
8- Should have soothing effect on the pulp.

9- The luting cement should have low viscosity to give a low film thickness.
ZINC OXIDE EUGENOL
PROPERTIES
1 - It has a sedative effect on exposed dentin. It is the least irritating of all dental
cements.
2- It has reasonable sealing of the cavity.

~- It is the cement of low strength, low abrasive resistance, and low flow after setting, so
placement of zinc oxide eugenol temporary filling should not be more than few days,
maximum few weeks. The strength and abrasive resistance could be improved by
adding 20-40 % weight of fine polymer particles and treating the surface of zinc oxide
particles with carboxylic acid (reinforced zinc oxide eugenol type).
4- Sufficient powder should be added to the liquid to achieve putty consistency.
5- It is the material of choice as temporary filling.
~COMPOSITION
POWDER
,. Zinc oxide (principal ingredient).
~' Zinc stearate (accelerator, plasticizer).
~' Zinc acetate (accelerator, improve strength).
,. White rosin (to reduce brittleness of set cement). LIQUID
,. Eugenol (react with zinc oxide). ,. Olive oil
(plasticizer).
o Setting time 4-10 minutes (zinc oxide eugenol cement sets quickly in the mouth due to
moisture and heat).
o Powder/liquid ratio (4/l to 6/1 by weight).
FACTORS AFFECTING THE REACTION
1- Particle size: smaller particles set faster.
2- Heat: cool the glass slab slows the reaction.
3- Powder /liquid ratio: higher the ratio, faster the setting reaction. 4- Water acts as
accelerator.
5- Glycerin acts as retarder.
APPLICATION
1- Luting of restorations (cementation).

2- High strength bases.
3- Temporary restoration.
4- Luting of orthodontic bands.
PROPERTIES
1- Has higher strength and abrasive resistance than zinc oxide eugenol, and has a
relatively low solubility in oral fluids, but still has low abrasive resistance in area
subjected to high load of mastication.
2- Higher powder/ liquid ratio is required for low acidity and high strength.
3- Reinforced zinc phosphate is more durable and could be used when longer time for
temporary filling is required.
COMPOSITIO~
Powder
Zinc oxide (principal constituent).
Magnesium oxide (aids in sintering).
Calcium oxide (improves smoothness of mix).
Silica (filler).
liquid
Phosphoric acid (react with zinc oxide).
Water (control rate of reaction).
Aluminum phosphate (buffers, to reduce rate of reaction).
Aluminum (cohesive).
o Mixing time 15 seconds (maximum 1 minute). o Setting

time 5-9 minutes.
Factors affecting the reaction

Temperature: higher temperature will accelerate the reaction. Powder/liquid ratio: (1.4
g/0.5 ml) more the liquid, slower the reaction.
Rate of addition of powder is incorporated slowly.

Mixing time: the longer mixing time (within practical limits), the slower is
the rate of reaction.
They are adhesive teeth colored anticariogenic cements. It was named glass ionomer
because, the powder is glass and the setting reaction and adhesive bonding to tooth
structure is due to ionic bond.
APPLICATION
1- Anterior esthetic restorative material for class III cavities.
2- For eroded areas and class V restorations.
3_As luting agent.
4- As liners and bases.
It is not recommended for class II and class IV restorations, since they lack fracture
toughness and are susceptible to wear.
COMPOSITIO
powder
Silica.
Alumina
Aluminum florid (AIF3). ~
Calcium florid (CaF2). } Act as ceramic flux.
Sodium florid (NaF).
Aluminum phosphate (A1Po4). Barium (provide

radiopacity).
Liquid
Polyacrylic acid (increase reaction, decrease viscosity). ,.
Tartaric acid (increase working time).

Water (it is the medium of reaction and it hydrates the reaction products). o Setting
time 5-7 minutes.
MANPULATION
1- Conditioning of the tooth surface.
2- Proper manipulation.
3_ Protection of cement during setting.
4- Finishing.
acid from liquid component glass core matrix

attacks glass urface of glass reacts releasing
cations eg calcium and aluminium) and fluoride
cations cross-link polyacid molecules giving

salt matrix and unreacted glass cores
POLYCARBOXYLATECEME~
This cement contains two main reactive ingredients, zinc oxide and polyacrylic acid and
both are in the powder; the bottle is filled with water by the dentist. Powder and water are
dispensed onto the mixing pad and mixed
with a spatula.
In other products the powder contains only the zinc oxide and the liquid is an aqueous
solution of polyacid.
Figure (7-3 ):
Polycarboxyla te cement.
APPLICATION
1- Primary for luting permanent restorations. 2- As liners
and bases.
3_Used in cementation of orthodontic bands.
4- Also used as root canal fillings in endodontics.
COMPOSITION
POWDER
Zinc oxide (basic ingredient). ,.
Magnesium oxide (modifier).
Stannous fluoride (increase strength; anticariogenic ).
LIQUID
Polyacrylic acid.
Unsaturated carboxylic acid (iticonic acid, maleic acid).
o Mixing time 30-40 seconds. o Setling time 7-9 minutes (can be increased by
cooling the glass slab). o Powder/ Uquid ratio l .5 powder: 1 liquid by weight.
A chemically active resin luting cement which is used to bond laboratory
made dental appliances and restorations to teeth.
APPLICATION
1 - Cementation of crowns and bridges (etched cast

restorations).
2- Cementation of porcelain veneers and inlay. 3- For
bonding of orthodontic brackets to acid etched enamel.
COMPOSITION
POWDER
Resin matrix.
Inorganic fillers.
Coupling agent.
,. Chemical or photo initiators and activators.
LIQUID
Chemically by peroxide-amine system.
By light activation.
Dual cure (by both chemical and light activation).
MANIPULATION
1- Etching the restoration.
2- Etching the tooth surface.
3- Cementing the restoration.
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE CEMENT (DYCAL[
This material is provided as two pastes. Approximately equal amounts of each paste are
dispensed onto the mixing pad and mixed with a spatula. One of the active ingredients is a
salicylate compound which has a very
distinctive 'medicated' odor.
APPLICATION
1- Direct and indirect pulp capping.
2- As bases beneath composite restoration for pulp protection.
3_ Apexification procedure in young permanent teeth where root formation is incomplete.
COMPOSITION BASE
Glycol salicylate (react with CaOH2).
Titanium dioxide (inert filler, pigment).
Barium sulfate (radiopacity).
Calcium sulfate. CATALYST
Zinc oxide.
Zinc stearate (accelerator).
Sulfonamide (oily compound act as carrier). ,.
Ethylene toluene.
o Setling time 2.5-5.5 minutes.
I'
Factors affecting setling time: The reaction is accelerated by moisture and accelerators. It
therefore sets fast in the oral cavity.
o Effect on pulp: The cement is alkaline in nature. The high pH is due to the
presence of free CaOH2 in the set cement. The pH ranges from (9.2 to 11.7). o Formation
of secondary dentin: The high alkaline and antibacterial and protein lysing effect helps in
the formation of reparative dentin.
MANIPULATION
Equal length of the two pastes are dispensed on a paper and mixed to a uniform color, then
use dycal applicator (a ball ended instrument) to carry the mixed material and apply to deep
area of the cavity or directly over mildly exposed pulp (contraindicated if there is active
bleeding).
CAVITY LINER AND VARNISH

A cavity liner and cavity varnish is used to provide a barrier against the passage of irritants
from cements or other restorative materials and to reduce the sensitivity of freshly cut
dentin, and to reduce microleakage.
It is a suspension of calcium hydroxide in a volatile solvent upon the evaporation of the

solvent, the liner form a thin film on the prepared tooth surface.
A variety of fonnulation e.g. glass ionomer cement liner, zinc oxide eugenol liner.
Supplied as solution, powder and liquid, or light cured paste in tube.
CAVITY VARNISH
It is a solution of one or more resins which applied onto the cavity wall, evaporates leaving
a thin resin film, that serve as a barrier between the restoration and the dentinal tubules.
Supplied as liquid in dark colored tightly capped bottles.
Waxes Dr. Abbas Ibrahim
The primary use of waxes in dentistry is to make a pattern of
appliances prior to casting as many dental restorations are
made by lost-wax technique, in which a pattern is made in
wax and put in the mold (investment materials). After setting,
the wax is burnt out and the space is filled with molten metal or
plastic acrylic.
Chemically waxes are polymers consisting of hydrocarbon
and their derivatives like ester and alcohol. Dental waxes are
mixture of natural and synthetic waxes gums, fat, oils, natural and
synthetic resins and coloring agents.

Requirements of dental waxes
1. Must conform to the exact size and shape and contour
of the appliance which is to be made.
2. Should have enough flow when melted to reproduce the
fine details.
3. No dimensional changes should takes place once it is
formed.
4. Boiling out of the wax without any residue.
5. Easily carved and smooth surface can be produce.
6. Definite contrast in color to facilitate proper finishing of the
margins.
Classification of waxes:
According to origin :
1. Mineral:
a. Paraffin: Refined from crude oil, has relatively low
melting point (50-70°C) and relatively brittle.
b. Ceresin: Refined from petroleum, has medium melting
range (60°C).
2.
Plants:
a. Carnauba: Obtained from palm trees, it is hard, tough, and
has high melting point (80-85°C).
b. Candelilla: It is hard, tough, and has high melting point
(80-85°C), used to increase the melting point and reduce
flow at mouth temperature.

3.
Animal:
a. Stearin: Obtained from beef fat, has low melting point
(50 C).
b. Bees: Obtained from honey-comb, consist of
partially crystalline natural polyester. It is brittle, has
medium melting temperature (60-70°C).

4.
Synthetic:
They are used to modify some properties of natural
waxes like polyethylene.
According to use:
1. Pattern wax
a. Inlay wax: It should be hard and brittle in order to fracture
rather than to distort when removal from undercut areas.
The wax is blue in color. They are used to make
inlays, crowns and pontic replicas.
They are mostly paraffin with carnauba wax. There are
two types:
Type 1: for direct technique.

5.
Type 2: for indirect technique.
b. Denture casting wax: It is used to produce the metal
components of cobalt/chromium partial denture. It is
based on paraffin wax with bees wax to give softness
necessary for molding and stickiness necessary to ensure
adhering to an investment cast material of
refractory cast. It is green in color.

c. Denture base plate wax: It is used to form the base of the
denture and in setting of teeth. It is pink in color.
2. Processing wax
Waxes are used during processing of the appliance.
a. Beading: It is used to make beading around the
impression before pouring gypsum to protect the
margins of the cast.

b. Boxing: It is used to make box around the impression to
make pouring gypsum into the impression easier and
more perfect.
c. Block out: It is used to block out undercut areas on cast
during processing of co/cr metal framework.
d. White: It is used to make pattern simulate veneer facing
in crowns.
e. Sticky: It is used to join and stabilize temporary
broken pieces of the broken denture before repair.
3. Imprassion wax
They are previously used to make impression, but they
distort when removal from undercut areas, they have high flow.
a. Impression wax: It is used to make the impression.
b. Corrective wax: It is used to record selected areas of
soft tissues in edentulous arches.

Properties
1. They are thermoplastic materials that are soft when heated
and are solid at room temperature.
2. They have high coefficient of thermal expansion and
contraction. They are the highest of dental materials; it
is about 300*10-6 to 1000*10-6 cm/cm C. The shrinkage
of wax from liquid to solid at room temperature is 0.4 %.
Thermal contraction of wax is compensated by expansion
of investment.
3. They are poor thermal conductivity. After softening of
the wax, it is allowed to cool, which accompanied by
contraction because of poor thermal conductivity only the
outer layer solidify and the inner solidify later which will
produce internal stress. Relief of the stresses accrues later
especially when temperature increases, greater stresses
may be incorporated if the wax is not properly softened. The
best way to soften the wax is to be held in the warm raising
air above the flame and not in the flame itself.
4. They should have high flow when softened, but should little
or no flow at room temperature or mouth temperature in
order not to distort.
5. Inlay should be brittle in order to fracture rather than
distort when removed from undercut of the cavity.

Dr.Abbas Ibrahim DENTAL CEMENT ‫المرحلة‬
‫الثانية‬
Temporary filling material
1- It should be non-toxic, and non-irritant to pulp and tissue.

2- It should be insoluble in saliva and liquid.
3- Mechanical properties must meet the requirements for their particular application.
4- Protection of the pulp:
• Thermal insulation.
• Chemical protection. Electrical insulation.
5_Optical properties.
6- Cements should be adhesive to tooth structures and restorations, but not to dental
instruments.
7- Should be bacteriostatic.
. 11 '
8- Should have soothing effect on the pulp.

9- The luting cement should have low viscosity to give a low film thickness.
ZINC OXIDE EUGENOL
PROPERTIES
1 - It has a sedative effect on exposed dentin. It is the least irritating of all dental
cements.
2- It has reasonable sealing of the cavity.

~- It is the cement of low strength, low abrasive resistance, and low flow after setting, so
placement of zinc oxide eugenol temporary filling should not be more than few days,
maximum few weeks. The strength and abrasive resistance could be improved by
adding 20-40 % weight of fine polymer particles and treating the surface of zinc oxide
particles with carboxylic acid (reinforced zinc oxide eugenol type).
4- Sufficient powder should be added to the liquid to achieve putty consistency.
5- It is the material of choice as temporary filling.
~OMPOSITION
POWDER
,. Zinc oxide (principal ingredient).
~' Zinc stearate (accelerator, plasticizer).
~' Zinc acetate (accelerator, improve strength).
,. White rosin (to reduce brittleness of set cement). LIQUID
,. Eugenol (react with zinc oxide). ,. Olive oil
(plasticizer).
o Setting time 4-10 minutes (zinc oxide eugenol cement sets quickly in the mouth due to
moisture and heat).
o Powder/liquid ratio (4/l to 6/1 by weight).
FACTORS AFFECTING THE REACTION
1- Particle size: smaller particles set faster.
2- Heat: cool the glass slab slows the reaction.
3- Powder /liquid ratio: higher the ratio, faster the setting reaction.
4- Water acts as accelerator.
5- Glycerin acts as retarder.
APPLICATION
1- Luting of restorations (cementation).

2- High strength bases.
3- Temporary restoration.
4- Luting of orthodontic bands.
PROPERTIES
1- Has higher strength and abrasive resistance than zinc oxide eugenol, and has a
relatively low solubility in oral fluids, but still has low abrasive resistance in area
subjected to high load of mastication.
2- Higher powder/ liquid ratio is required for low acidity and high strength.
3- Reinforced zinc phosphate is more durable and could be used when longer time for
temporary filling is required.
COMPOSITIO~
Powder
Zinc oxide (principal constituent).
Magnesium oxide (aids in sintering).
Calcium oxide (improves smoothness of mix).
Silica (filler).
liquid
Phosphoric acid (react with zinc oxide).
Water (control rate of reaction).
Aluminum phosphate (buffers, to reduce rate of reaction).
Aluminum (cohesive).
o Mixing time 15 seconds (maximum 1 minute). o Setting

time 5-9 minutes.
Factors affecting the reaction

Temperature: higher temperature will accelerate the reaction. Powder/liquid ratio: (1.4
g/0.5 ml) more the liquid, slower the reaction.
Rate of addition of powder is incorporated slowly.

Mixing time: the longer mixing time (within practical limits), the slower is
the rate of reaction.
They are adhesive teeth colored anticariogenic cements. It was named glass ionomer
because, the powder is glass and the setting reaction and adhesive bonding to tooth
structure is due to ionic bond.
APPLICATION
1- Anterior esthetic restorative material for class III cavities.
2- For eroded areas and class V restorations.
3_As luting agent.
It is not recommended for class II and class IV restorations, since they lack fracture
toughness and are susceptible to wear.
COMPOSITIO
powder
Silica.
Alumina
Aluminum florid (AIF3). ~
Calcium florid (CaF2). } Act as ceramic flux.
Sodium florid (NaF).
Aluminum phosphate (A1Po4). Barium (provide

radiopacity).
Liquid
Polyacrylic acid (increase reaction, decrease viscosity). ,.
Tartaric acid (increase working time).

Water (it is the medium of reaction and it hydrates the reaction products). o Setting
time 5-7 minutes.
MANPULATION
1- Conditioning of the tooth surface.
2- Proper manipulation.
3_ Protection of cement during setting.
4- Finishing.
acid from liquid component glass core matrix

attacks glass urface of glass reacts releasing
cations eg calcium and aluminium) and fluoride
cations cross-link polyacid molecules giving

salt matrix and unreacted glass cores
POLYCARBOXYLATECEME~
This cement contains two main reactive ingredients, zinc oxide and polyacrylic acid and
both are in the powder; the bottle is filled with water by the dentist. Powder and water are
dispensed onto the mixing pad and mixed
with a spatula.
In other products the powder contains only the zinc oxide and the liquid is an aqueous
solution of polyacid.
Figure (7-3 ):
Polycarboxyla te cement.
APPLICATION
1- Primary for luting permanent restorations.
3_Used in cementation of orthodontic bands.
4- Also used as root canal fillings in endodontics.
COMPOSITION
POWDER
Zinc oxide (basic ingredient). ,.
Magnesium oxide (modifier).
Stannous fluoride (increase strength; anticariogenic ).
LIQUID
Polyacrylic acid.
Unsaturated carboxylic acid (iticonic acid, maleic acid).
o Mixing time 30-40 seconds. o Setling time 7-9 minutes (can be increased by
cooling the glass slab). o Powder/ Uquid ratio l .5 powder: 1 liquid by weight.
A chemically active resin luting cement which is used to bond laboratory
made dental appliances and restorations to teeth.
APPLICATION
1 - Cementation of crowns and bridges (etched cast

restorations).
2- Cementation of porcelain veneers and inlay. 3- For
bonding of orthodontic brackets to acid etched enamel.
COMPOSITION
POWDER
Resin matrix.
Inorganic fillers.
Coupling agent.
,. Chemical or photo initiators and activators.
LIQUID
Chemically by peroxide-amine system.
By light activation.
Dual cure (by both chemical and light activation).
MANIPULATION
1- Etching the restoration.
2- Etching the tooth surface.
3- Cementing the restoration.
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE CEMENT (DYCAL[
This material is provided as two pastes. Approximately equal amounts of each paste are
dispensed onto the mixing pad and mixed with a spatula. One of the active ingredients is a
salicylate compound which has a very
distinctive 'medicated' odor.
APPLICATION
1- Direct and indirect pulp capping.
2- As bases beneath composite restoration for pulp protection.
3_ Apexification procedure in young permanent teeth where root formation is incomplete.
COMPOSITION BASE
Glycol salicylate (react with CaOH2).
Titanium dioxide (inert filler, pigment).
Barium sulfate (radiopacity).
Calcium sulfate. CATALYST
Zinc oxide.
Zinc stearate (accelerator).
Sulfonamide (oily compound act as carrier). ,.
Ethylene toluene.
o Setling time 2.5-5.5 minutes.
I'
Factors affecting setling time: The reaction is accelerated by moisture and accelerators. It
therefore sets fast in the oral cavity.
o Effect on pulp: The cement is alkaline in nature. The high pH is due to the
presence of free CaOH2 in the set cement. The pH ranges from (9.2 to 11.7). o Formation
of secondary dentin: The high alkaline and antibacterial and protein lysing effect helps in
the formation of reparative dentin.
MANIPULATION
Equal length of the two pastes are dispensed on a paper and mixed to a uniform color, then
use dycal applicator (a ball ended instrument) to carry the mixed material and apply to deep
area of the cavity or directly over mildly exposed pulp (contraindicated if there is active
bleeding).
CAVITY LINER AND VARNISH

A cavity liner and cavity varnish is used to provide a barrier against the passage of irritants
from cements or other restorative materials and to reduce the sensitivity of freshly cut
dentin, and to reduce microleakage.
It is a suspension of calcium hydroxide in a volatile solvent upon the evaporation of the

solvent, the liner forms a thin film on the prepared tooth surface.
A variety of fonnulation e.g. glass ionomer cement liner, zinc oxide eugenol liner.
Supplied as solution, powder and liquid, or light cured paste in tube.
CAVITY VARNISH
It is a solution of one or more resins which applied onto the cavity wall, evaporates leaving
a thin resin film, that serve as a barrier between the restoration and the dentinal tubules.
Supplied as liquid in dark colored tightly capped bottles.
1. PHILLIPS SCIENCE OF DENTAL
MATERIALS-KENNETH
2. RESTORATIVEDENTAL MATERIALS-
ROBERT G. GRAIG, Ph.D.
2nd class Dental Amalgam
Dr.Abbas Ibraahim Husssein
Dental amalgam is a powder of silver-tin alloy mixed with mercury.
Composition of the Conventional amalgam
(Traditional).
Silver (Ag) 65%:
Advantages: increasing strength, promoting setting when mixed with mercury(increasing the
setting time ,reducing the flow and resisting the tarnish and corrosion .
Disadvantage: high degree of setting expansion.
b- Tin (Sn) 25-29%:
Advantages aids in amalgamation process because it has great affinity to mercury and decrease
expansion within practical limit.
Disadvantage: Large amount of tin cause decrease strength, prolong the setting
time ,decrease corrosion resistance and increase flow of amalgam. c- Copper
(Cu) 6%: increase strength and hardness and setting expansion but decrease
flow d- Zinc (Zn) 0-2 %:
Its presence is not essential, advantage: It prevents oxidation
during alloy ingot manufacture.
Disadvantage: It gives rise to delayed or secondary expansion if zinc containing alloys are
contaminated with moisture. e-Palladium: 0-1 %: It improves the corrosion resistance and
the mechanical properties. fIndium: 0-4 %: In high copper alloy it enhances the clinical
performance of amalgam restoration as it reduces the evaporation of mercury and the
amount of mercury required to wet the alloy particles.
Property Ingredient
Sliver Tim Copper Zinc
Strength Increases Decreases Increases
Expansion Increases Decreases Increases
Flow Decreases Increases Decreases
Setting time Decreases Increases Decreases
Corrosion Decreases Increases Decreases
Workability Increases Increases
Classifications of the types of the amalgam according to :

I-Shape of the particles:
1-Lath-cut particles alloys( fig a) 2-S.u,herical particles alloys (fig b)
3- admixed particles alloys (Disperse alloy): mixture of lathe-cut with spherical alloy(fig-c) II-Zinc
present
1- Zinc- containing alloys ---------------Alloy which contain more than 0.01 %
2- Zinc free; non zinc alloys). ------Alloy which contain less than 0.01% (Require inert atmosphere
during manufacturing)
III-Amount of copper
1-Low copper (conventional amalgam) 2- High
copper amalgam:
1
The copper content is increase from 6% up to 10-30%. It is of different types: a-
Fig -1- scanning electron micrographs A, lathe-cut , B,spherical, c,admixed amalgam alloys
Setting Reaction(amalgamation process):

It is a surface-reaction and take place when alloy powder and mercury is mixed, mercury wetted the
particles then diffused in side the alloy particles. The reaction products crystallize ;the subsequent
growth of the crystals causes amalgam to be hardened. A considerable amount of initial alloy remains
un reacted.
The reaction of conventional amalgam is given by this equation:
Ag3Sn +Hg •· Ag2Hg3 + Sn1Hg + Ag3Sn gamma + Hg •· gamma 1 +
gamma 2 + gamma
For high copper amalgam:
Ag3Sn + Cu + Hg •· Ag2Hg3 + Cusxns + Ag3Sn gamma + Cu +
Hg gamma 1 + Cue'Sns + gamma Advantages :
1- Easy to inset; are not technique sensitive . 2- Maintain
anatomical form .
3- Have relatively long service life.
4- It has an adequate compressive strength :- around 45- 70,000 psi while for
the enamel 58000 psi for the dentine 43000 psi for the composite 30-40000 psi
this strength develops slowly it may takes 24hr after mixing and affected by type
of alloy, shape and size of particles(faster with high cupper, small size,
spherical), amount of mercury and the manipulation Gamma: strongest phase of
hardened amalgam.
Gamma-1: second strong.
Gamma-2: least strong. Voids-have drastic effect on the strength
Gamma-2 is considered to increase corrosion and reduced the strength; to resolve this problem: a-
produce amalgam with little matrix by mixing little mercury as possible b-the mixed amalgam should
be compressed into cavity so that the un reacted core of particles are packed closely together and
mercury rich material being brought to the surface as layer of excess material which then removed
c-production of high copper alloy 5-In soluble in oral fluids .
6-Adaptability to cavity walls .
7-Compatible with the living tissues (it is not irritant).
8Easly removed because of it's color
Disadvantage
1-Weakness in tensile and shear strength:-so that why it should be supported by tooth structure, and we
must have adequate bulk of amalgam whenever stress may be applied.
2- In harmonious color.
3- Creep:- A plastic permanent deformation of amalgam under static loud
Creep causes protrusion of amalgam out of the cavity , the protruded edges are unsupported and
weak and may be further weakened by corrosion this lead to fracture , as a result a ditch will
happened around the margin of amalgam restoration which will cause a gap and microleakage
(Ditching of amalgam)
The gamma 2 phase is primarily responsible for high value of creep in conventional amalgam but it
is not the only factor involved, while high copper amalgam has lower value of creep because it has
a little or no gamma 2 phase .
4- High thermal and electrical conductivity:- so protective cement is required
2
The Coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction is three times greater than that of dentine
this cause more expansion and contraction of the restoration than the surrounding tooth when
patient takes cold and hot food and drinks. This leads to microleakagc around the filling. So
replacement of the restoration is a must every 5 years
5- Susceptible to tarnish and corrosion :- tarnish :discoloration at the surface of the amalgam by
chemical attack from component in food or saliva.
Corrosion: roughness and pitting of the surface of amalgam as a result of chemical attack from
component in food or saliva.
Tarnish and corrosion may by the result of galvanism
The gamma 2 phase of conventional amalgam is the most electrochemically reactive. For higher
copper amalgam the Cu6Sn3 phase forms the anode but less corrosion occurs than conventional
amalgam because absence of gamma 2 phase.
The rate of corrosion is accelerated when the amalgam filling is contact with gold or old
restorations. Corrosion will cause roughness of the amalgam which may lead to plaque and
bacterial accumulation and inflammation of the soft tissue also will cause poor appearance of the
filling surface and may affect the mechanical properties of amalgam.
Level of corrosion may be minimized by polishing the surface of restoration.
Corrosion has one advantage that corrosion products thought to be gathered at the restoration - tooth
interface (seal the gap) to prevent or decrease microleakage.
6- Delayed expansion:- for zinc containing amalgam when contaminated with moisture during
condensation zinc will react with water, hydrogen will produced as products of such reaction,
hydrogen will be collected internally(voids), this cause pressure which may cause expansion which
cause pain. This occurs after 3-4 days and may be after a month. This confirms the need for
adequate moisture control when using this material
Contamination of amalgam with moisture during manipulation will cause :
auncontrolled expansion of amalgam. b-marginal discrepancies. c-pitted surface.
dcompression of surrounded tooth structures. e-dental pain . f-recurrent caries .
gfracture of the restoration .
To solve these problem ;we most do complete isolation and \or using of zinc-free alloy.
However ,the contamination of any type of amalgam will lead to amalgam with inferior physical
properties
Factors which affect a final expansion or contraction:
a- Type of alloy b- Particle size and shape. c- Pressure used to condensed amalgam.
A standard test permit a slight expansion typically (0.2%) max. or slight contraction of. 0.1 % max.
a large contraction would result in a marginal gap down which fluids could penetrate. A large
expansion would result in the protrusion of the filling from the cavity.
7- Adhesion :- amalgam has no adhesion to enamel or dentin; therefore a potential micro spaces
between the restoration and tooth result. Micro leakage may be reduced in the early life
of restoration by coating the cavity walls with varnish. Studies suggests that the use of bonding
agents with amalgam restoration provide several advantage among these: enhancement of the
retention and decrease the micro leakage so the postoperative sensitivity and recurrent caries will
decreased. Also fracture resistance of the tooth will increase.
8- Mercury toxicity:- highly toxic, Improper handling is health hazard.
The mercury has a bad effect on CNS also may cause contact dermatitis.
A) Freshly mixed amalgam and mercury should not be touched by hands, because mercury will
be absorbed by skin.
3
B) Dentist: and assistant subjected to the vapor of mercury in atmosphere which increases with
increasing temp, especially when sterilizing the instruments with mercury contamination. So
Instruments should be cleaned well.
C) Wearing a mask and gloves will protect the dentist and the assistant from mercury toxicity.
Increased Hg means increased matrix which means increased Gamma-2;the content of Hg in the
final restoration is of great importance ; if it is high ;the compressive strength of the amalgam will
be decreased and the setting time increased ;which will result in a great risk of fracture of the
restoration in the early stage of setting. Also the corrosion tendency and creep will be increased.
MATERIALS-KENNETHJ.ANUSAVICE,D.M.D,Ph.D.
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT G.

GRAIG, Ph.D.
4
The science of dental materials involves a study of the composition and
properties of materials and the way in which they interact with the
environment in which they are placed.
General Properties of Dental Materials

All materials have physical properties like color, weight, solubility ,
thermal conductivity , and others , also mechanical properties like
hardness or softness , strength or weakness .There is no material till know
has ideal physical or mechanical properties . Most materials have some
good and bad properties and sometimes a property that is bad in one
material may be good or acceptable in another .
Physical properties:
1-Color
Many dental restorative materials have to look like natural teeth and
should not stain or change color by time .The anterior filling and artificial
tooth material should be translucent. Translucence is the optical property
that allows the light to go short way in the material before being reflected
out again . Also should like natural tooth substance at different Light
conditions, such as day light and artificial light, ex, an artificial tooth may
be acceptable in ordinary light but may be discovered by the relative
darkness of the material in fluorescent light. For denture the material should
have the same appearance of natural gum acrylic material can be made
with various shades of pink to look as natural gum.
2- LINER COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

As the temperature rises, a solid material will expand and on cooling it will
contract, this is measured by the liner coefficient of thermal expansion
and contraction which is the change in length per unit length of a material
for a 1°C change in temperature.
Hard tooth structure has the smallest coefficient, metals are intermediate ,
1
polymers have the largest. Tooth =11*10-6 cm/cm. °��
Gold= 14 *10-6 cm/cm. °��
Impression compound = 250*10-6 cm/cm. °��
Filling material should have the same coefficient as the tooth, if it does
not, it will press too hard against the cavity wall on expansion and may
cause pressure on the pulp or pull away from the wall when chilled by cold
water. The later effect may cause the filling to leak temporarily, which
may in turn may lead to further carries.
3-DIMENTIONAL STABILITY:
Many materials change shape when they set or harden. Impression
materials should not change dimensions when set. Also dental materials
should have no dimensional changes when set.
Amalgam is a filling material for posterior teeth, it may sometimes change
shape permanently as a result of a heavy biting force. This is bad property
, on the other hand , the investment materials that forms the gold for dental
casting should expand for a certain amount to compensate for the
contraction of the molten metal after it is cooled from the molten stage.
4-DENSITY
Lightness is nearly always an advantage in restorative materials, but
sometimes tin or lead is used inside full lower denture to make it heavy in
order to control its mobility. Density of gold = 14gm/cm
Acrylic = 1.2 gm/cm
Cromium /cobalt = 8.3gm/cm
Water = 1gm/cm
5- SOLUBILITY
Restorative materials should not dissolve in the mouth , and if it is
dissolves, it should not release toxic substance.
Solubility of silicate = 0.7 -1.6%
Solubility of composite = 0.01 %
6-ABSORPTION OF FLOUIDS:
Some materials will absorb water or other fluids. If it is too much or
continued for long time, this will result in serious d dimensional changes
and the material will also be un hygienic. On the other hand, some
materials like acrylic will absorb water for a day and stop after that, so it is
acceptable
2
7-TISSUE REACTION
Some restorative materials are damaging to the living tissues which are in
contact with, like silicate filling and zinc phosphate cement which is acid
and may kill the dental pulp unless a protective lining is used. Dental
materials should not show any allergic reaction to the tissues and also
should not provide good culture for the growth of bacteria and candida
infection, like soft lining materials.
8-THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Generally metals are better heat conductors than non-metals. Metal filling
materials like amalgam sometimes cause pulp pain by transmitting heat or
cold more than natural tooth especially in deep cavities, thus they require
heat insulating layer between the filling and the pulp. Here is undesirable
property on the other hand the thermal conductivity of metallic denture
base is an advantage as it gives feeling closer to normal condition and the
patient will feel normal also it will protect him from drinking very hot
drinks which may burn his mouth.
9-ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY
It is the ability of metal to ionize by losing electrons. If there is a high
difference in the electrode potentials of metals in contact with the same
solution like gold and aluminum an electric cell may develop and the
patient may fell discomfort.
The presence of metallic restorations in the mouth may cause a

phenomenon called galvanic action, or galvanism. This results from a
difference in potential between dissimilar fillings in opposing or adjacent
teeth. These fillings, in conjunction with saliva or bone fluids such as
electrolytes, make up an electric cell. This cell short-circuited, and if the
flow of current occurs through the pulp, the patient experiences pain and
the more anodic restoration may corrode, like gold with amalgam.
3
10- ADHESION AND COHESION
Adhesion is the force which causes two different substances to attach
when they are brought in contact with one another. When the molecules of
the same substance hold together; the forces are said to be cohesion.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
One of the most important properties of dental materials of dental
materials is the ability to withstand the various mechanical forces placed
on them during use as restoration, impression , models, appliances and
tools.
STRESS
Is the force per unit area induced in a body in
response to some externally applied force. It is force\area measured in
kg\cm2 or pound\inch2 or Pascal.
STRENGTH Is the measurement of the resistance of

the material externally applied force. There are many types of stresses
according to the direction of the applied force, each type of stress is
accompanied by the same type of strain.
STRAIN Is the change in dimension per unit dimension

caused by e externally applied force.
Strain
4
Percentage of elongation = strain × 100%
1-Tensile stress
It is the force per unit area induced in the body in response to externally
applied force which tends to elongate or stretch the body, it is
accompanied by tensile strain.
2-Compressive strain
applied force which tends to compress or shorten the body, it is
accompanied by compressive strain. Investment materials, restorative
materials and models should have high compressive strength.
3-SHEAR STRESS
applied force which is applied to one part of the body in one direction and
the rest is being pushed in the opposite direction.
It is the strength of the middle of abeam, which is supported only at its

end. It is important in dental bridges.
It is when the material is constantly subjected to change in shape due to

frequent application of force like clasp arm of partial denture
It is the ability of the material to break on sudden impact. Low impact

strength mean brittle material, like dropping of the denture.
STRESS _ STRAIN CURVE
Proportional limit
When a stress is applied to a material, the material will tend to deform
(change in shape and dimension) in an amount proportional to the
magnitude of applied stress. The greatest stress which may be produced in
the material such that the stress is directly proportional to the strain.
Elastic deformation (elastic limit)
The greatest stress to which the material can be subjected such that it will
return to its original shape and dimension when the stress is removed. If
the strength is increased beyond the elastic limit or the proportional limit
the material will deform and if we remove the stress the material will not
5
return to its dimension. This is called plastic deformation. If the stress is
increased more and more the material will break.
Ultimate strength
Is the greatest stress which break the material.
MODULUS OF ELASTISITY
Is the constant of proportionality. It is when any stress value equal or less
than the proportional limit is devided by corresponding strain value.
Modulus of elasticity = kg \cm2 or PSI or pascal

DUCTILITY
It is the ability of the material to withstand permanent deformation under
tensile stress without fracture ; it depends on plasticity and tensile
strength. It is the ability of the material to be drawn into a fine wire.
MALLIABILITY
It is the ability of the material to withstand permanent deformation under
compressive stress without fracture. It is the ability of the material to be
drawn into a sheet.
TOUGHNESS
It is the total work or energy required to break the material. It is the total
area under the stress – strain curve. It requires strength and plasticity.
BRITTLENESS
It is the opposite of ductility, it requires lack of plasticity.
FLEXIBILITY
The higher the strain which accrues when the material is stressed to its
proportional limit.
RESILIANCE
The amount of energy absorbed by a structure when it is stressed within
the proportional limit.
HARDNESS
It is the resistance of the material to deformation caused by penetrating or
starching the surface.
6
MATERIALS-KENNETH
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT

G. GRAIG, Ph.D.
7
Denture cleansers Dr. Abbas Ibrahim Hussein
The most satisfactory method to keep the denture clean is by regular

cleaning with soft brush, soap and water.Coarse abrasive cause rapid wear
of denture polymer and patient should not use them.
Generally, Denture Cleansers Are of Four Types:

1- Powder and paste: They consist mainly of finely divided chalk, zirconium,
or pumice and flavoring agents; it is quite abrasive and should not be
used vigorously over a period of time.
2- Peroxide cleansers: Powder or tablets, contain sodium perborate mixed

with alkaline materials such as trisodium phosphate also detergent and
flavoring. A solution is made by water and the denture is immersed in it for
a period of time.
3. Dilute hypochlorite solution (chlorine): It should not be used with

metals, causing tarnish. If high concentration is used it may bleach the
polymers if immersed regularly in it.
4. Dilute hydrochloric acid: This dissolves calcified deposits; it is applied
locally to heavily contaminated areas of denture.
House hold cleansers, bathroom abrasives, and dentifrices with

chloroform are contraindicated.
How often should I clean my dentures?
It is important to treat your dentures like you would treat your natural teeth.
You should keep them as clean as possible so that you don’t lose any more
teeth, or have inflamed gums or bacterial and fungal infections. We usually
recommend that you clean them thoroughly at least once a day, and after
eating if you need to.
How should clean the dentures?

1. Dentures may break if you drop them.
2. Always clean your dentures over a bowl of water or a folded towel in
case you drop them.
3. To clean your dentures, the general rule is: brush and soak every day.
Brush your dentures first, to help remove any bits of food. Use a
non-abrasive denture cleaner, not toothpaste. Be careful not to scrub
too hard as this may cause grooves in the surface.
4. Make sure you brush all the surfaces of the dentures, including the
surface that fits against your gums. This is especially important if you use
any kind of denture fixative.
5. Soak your dentures every day in a denture-cleaning solution. This will
help remove any plaque and stubborn stains that are left. It will also help
to disinfect your dentures, leaving them feeling fresher. Always follow
the manufacturer’s instructions.
6. It is important not to use any type of bleaching product to clean your
dentures. Bleaching can lead to weakening of the dentures as well as
making them look unsightly. Do not use very hot water to soak your
dentures. Again, it can weaken the dentures causing them to break.
How should clean the dentures soft lining?

 Some people have sensitive gums and may need a softer lining made
for their dentures.
 If you have one of these special linings, it is important to check with
your dental team before using any cleaning products or fixatives, as
some products can damage the lining.
How should clean the dentures metal denture?

 Some cleaning products can damage metal dentures, so talk to your
dental team about how to clean them.
 If your denture has clasps, you need to take particular care when
cleaning to avoid damage.
Don’t keep your dentures in overnight unless there are specific reasons for
you to keep them in.
Can my dental team clean them?

Some people get a build-up of tartar on their dentures just as they would on
their natural teeth. If plaque is not removed properly, it can react with your
saliva and harden into tartar.As with your own teeth, you will not be able to
remove this tartar completely by yourself, and eventually it can make the
denture uncomfortable and unsightly. Your dental team will be able to
remove this tartar using a professional cleaning machine.
What can I do about staining?

Like natural teeth, dentures can pick up staining every day. This is especially
true if you smoke, or drink a lot of tea, coffee or red wine. In most cases you
should be able to remove this staining with regular cleaning. However, more
stubborn stains may take a little more cleaning, which your dental team
should be able to help with.
Do I still need to see the dentist?

1. It is important to visit your dental team regularly even if you don’t
have any of your natural teeth.
2. Dentists do not check just your teeth, but also the soft parts of the
mouth, including the tongue and cheeks.
3. These examinations are just as important, so the dental team can
spot any infections, mouth conditions or even mouth cancer at the
earliest stages. Your dental team will be able to tell you how often you
should visit.
Denture adhesives
They are pastes, powders or adhesive pads that may be placed in
dentures to help them stay in place. They are self-adjusting product
used to hold a dental prosthesis in position
. ‫المصادر‬:
MATERIALS-KENNETH
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT G.
GRAIG, Ph.D.
Filling materials Dr. Abbas Ibrahim
filling materials are used to replace missing parts of the tooth.

Factors causing loss of the tooth substance:
1- dental caries.
2- trauma.
3- abrasion.
Parts of teeth which require replacement by restorative materials vary in
size of cavity, shape, and location in the mouth no single restorative
material is suitable for all cases. for some situations, the strength and
abrasion resistance of material may be the prime consideration, in other
situation appearance and adhesive properties may become more important.
Requirements of an ideal filling material:
1- working time should be sufficiently long, to enable manipulation and
placement of material before setting.
2- setting time should be short for comfort of both the patient and
clinician.
3- the material must withstand large variation in ph and a variety of
solvents which may be taken into mouth in drink food stuffs and
medicaments.
4- metallic materials should not undergo excessive corrosion, or be
involve in the development of electrical currents which may cause
"galvanic pain".
5- filling should be good thermal insulator, protecting the dental pulp
from the harmful effect of the hot and cold stimuli (low thermal
diffusivity).
6- materials should have values of coefficient of thermal expansion
similar to those of enamel and dentin.
7- materials should have satisfactory mechanical properties to
withstand the force applied, e.g. abrasion resistance, compression and
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity.
8- they should adhere well to the tooth walls and seal the margin
prevent ingress of fluid and bacteria. also reduces the amount of cavity
preparation required in order to achieve retention of the filling. 9- they
should be harmless to the operator and to the patient and should not
irritant to dental pulp and soft tissue.
10- easily polished.
11- should be bacteriostatic and anticariogenic.
12- it should be radiopaque to diagnose the marginal caries.
Classification of filling materials i- metallic

filling materials
• amalgam.
• direct gold filling. ii- non-metallic filling materials
• polymeric o filled resin (composite). o unfilled resin
(acrylic).
• non-polymeric: o silicate cement. o glass ionomer cement.
Other classification i- anterior filling materials (tooth
colored filling).
• silicate cement.
• acrylic.
• composite.
ii- posterior filling materials.

FINISHING AND POLISHING MATERIALS
Dr. Abbas Ibrahim Hussein
Dental restorations are finished and polished before placement in the oral
cavity (except for direct filling ) to provide:
1. Good oral health this is maintained by:
a. Resisting the accumulation of food debris and pathogenic
bacteria by reducing the roughness of the restoration surface.
b. Smooth surfaces are easier to maintain in hygienic state, also
with some metal restoration, tarnish and corrosion activity can be
reduced if the surface is highly polished.
2. Oral function
Function is enhanced because food glides more freely over occlusal
surface and embrasure surface during mastication.
3. Esthetic
Give gloss to the visible surface of restoration.
ABRASIVE MATERIALS
It is a material which is harder than the material which needs to be

abraded (restoration or appliance). The abrasive particles should possess
sharp edges that cut rough surface of the abraded material.
The abrasive particles could be bonded together to form grinding wheel
or may be carried across the surface of bristles of a revolving brush or
buff or bonded to a piece of cloth or paper and rubbed across the surface.
The smoothness of the surface depends on:

1. Hardness and shape of the abrasive particles.
The abrasive particles should be harder than the material which is
abraded and should be strong and its elastic limit should equal to its
maximum strength so that it will fracture cleanly to form new
cutting edges without permanent deformation.
2. Size of the particles.
Large particles have wide cutting edge and cut more than smaller
size, start with large size then fine size.
3. Speed of movement.
The slower speed of movement, the deeper the scratches which are
produces, but in slow speed and in high speed; the total amount of
material removed will be approximately the same (1450-3000 rpm).
To increase the speed of the abrasion, it is suggested to use
compressed air to blast an abrasive powder on to the surface
(sandblasting), it is useful for cobalt/chromium alloy; or to use
ultrasonic frequency vibration.
4. Pressure.
Always, only slight guiding pressure should be applied, high
pressure will lead to increase the rate of wear of the abrasive, also
the heat produced.
5. Lubricant.
Facilitate the movement of the cutting edges into the surface and
carries away the debris besides cooling the restoration. Abrasive
particles
1. Diamond dust:
It could be embedded in porcelain binder which is the most efficient
abrasive for dental use.
2. Sand:
It is an intermediate abrasive for removing the coarse scratches.
3. Quartz particles:
It is obtained by crushing sand stone and bonded to paper.
4. Carbide:
It is extremely hard and brittle, used for cutting tooth surface and
for metal, ceramic and plastic.
5. Garnet:
It is silicate of aluminum, cobalt, or magnesium.
6. Emery:
It is natural oxide of aluminum (carborundum).
7. Pumice:
It is fine abrasive, the powder is obtained by crushing pumice
stone; porous volcanic rock. It is excellent for denture polymer; it
is suitable for gold alloy, tooth surface and amalgam. Pumice
powder is mixed with water and sometimes with glycerin with low
speed.
POLISHING MATERIALS
It is the material which causes the fine scratches to be filled and to

produce smooth surface probably due to that; the rapid movement of the
polishing agent across the surface heats the top layer of the material and
cause it to flow and fill in the scratches.
Polishing materials are:
1. Rouge (iron oxide):
It is red powder or cake, it is rather dirty to handle, but
it produces excellent shine on gold alloy, it is not used
with stainless steel, instead we should use chromic
oxide.
2. Whiting (precipitated chalk):
It is mild abrasive used for softer materials and polymers, it is
mixed with water.
3. Tripoli:
It is obtained from porous rocks.
4. Tin oxide:
It is extremely fine used for polishing teeth and restoration inside
the mouth.
MATERIALS-KENNETH
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS-

GYPSUM PRODUCTS
Dr. Abbas
Ibrahim
A number of gypsum products are used in dentistry as adjuncts to dental
operation.
Types of gypsum products:
1. Type I: Impression plaster.
2. Type II: Dental plaster.
3. Type III: Dental stone (medium strength stone).
4. Type IV: Improved stone (high strength stone) (die stone).
5. Type V: high strength/high expansion stone.
APPLICATION OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS IN DENTISTRY:
1- Impression plaster.
2- Mounting the casts to the articulation.
3- Form casts and dies.
4- Used as a binder for silica.
5- Used as a mold for processing dental polymers.
6- Used for bite registration (record centric jaw relation).
Properties of ideal model material (gypsum products):
1- Dimensional stability, no expansion or contraction during or after setting.
2- High compressive strength to withstand the force applied on it.
3- Hardness, soft material can be easily scratched.
4- Reproduce the fine details.
5- Produce smooth surface.
6- Reasonable setting time.
7- Compatible with the impression material.
8- Can be disinfected without damaging the surface.
MANUFACTURE OF DENTAL PLASTER, STONE, AND DIE STONE
Gypsum products are produced by partial dehydration of mineral gypsum,

which is calcium sulfate di-hydrate ( CaSO4.2H2O ) . They are supplied as
powder when mixed with water they form slurry or paste, which set to form a
rigid mass.
1- Plasters are produced when the gypsum mineral is heated in an open
kettle at a temperature of about 110° to 120°C (dry calcination). The
hemihydrate produced is called Beta-calcium sulfate hemihydrate. Such a
powder is known to have a somewhat irregular shape and is porous in nature.
These plasters are
used in formulating model and lab plasters.
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.½H2O
2- Chemically stone is the same as plaster that is CaSO4.½H2O but it is made

by heating gypsum in wet condition under super heat steam to 125°C (wet
calcination). the crystals are dense and regular and have prismatic shape, they
are called Alpha - calcium sulfate hemihydrate
3- It is produced by boiling gypsum with CaCL2 calcium chloride. The crystals

are also dense , regular and have prismatic shape, called Alpha - calcium sulfate
hemihydrate
SETTING REACTION
When mixing any type of gypsum product (plaster, stone or die stone) with
water, they are converted back to gypsum and set to a hard mass.
The probable sequence is as following:
A- plaster, stone or die stone (CaSO4.½H2O) dissolve in water.

B-it is react with the water to form gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).
C- gypsum is less soluble in water and the solution becomes super- saturated
(unstable).
D- gypsum crystallizes, allowing more particle to dissolve and to form gypsum.
This will continue until all particles have been converted to
gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O). Each crystal as it is forma becomes nucleus for
crystallization. During this process part of the gypsum form a gel, which act as a
cementing medium between the crystals. Then the rigid mass is formed by the
interlocking network formed by the long needle- like gypsum crystals.
CaSO4.½H2O + H2O CaSO4.2H2O+ HEAT(exothermic reaction)

MANIPULATION
The powder is mixed with water at a certain ratio according to the type of
gypsum product.
W/P ratio for plaster is 0.5 that is 50 ml of water for 100 gm of plaster powder
W/P ratio for stone is 0.3
W/P ratio for die stone is o.2
The differences in W/P ratio is due to the difference in the bulk volume of the
powders. The water is measured and put in a clean rubber bowl then the
powder is added on it gradually, allow the powder to settle then mix with
clean spatula for 1 min. until creamy mix is obtained.
SETTING TIME
Is the time from the beginning of mixing the powder with water until the
material hardens. The time may be measured by GILMOR DEEDLE APPARATUS
or by VICAT APPARATUS in which needle of different weight and thickness is
used, penetration of these needles being measured at various times during
setting.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SETTING TIME:
1-W/P ratio
The more water is used for mixing, the fewer the nuclei there will be per unit
volume, and consequently the setting time will be prolonged.
2-FINESS
The finer the particle size of the hemihydrate, the faster the mix will harden.
The rate of the solution of the hemihydrate will be increased, also the gypsum
nuclei will be more numerous and therefor more rabid crystallization will occur.
3- MIXING
The longer and more rapidly the plaster is mixed, the shorter is the setting time.
When powder is drought into contact with the water some gypsum crystals will
be formed. As mixing begins, more particles will be exposed to water and thus
form more crystals at the same time the crystals are broken up by mixing and
they are distributed thought the mixture and result in the
formation of more nuclei for crystallization thus the setting time is decreased.
4-TEMRATUR
There is little change in the setting time between 0 – 50 °C but if the
temperature exceeds 50 °C the setting time will be retarded. As the
temperature approaches 100°C no setting will take place.
5-IMPURITIES
If the manufacture adds gypsum, the setting time will be shortened because
of the increase in the potential nuclei for crystallization.
6-RETRADERS & ACCELERAROTS
The addition of retarders and accelerators are the most effective and practical
way to control the setting time.
Retarder is the chemical material added to the gypsum product to increase the
setting time ex. Glue, Borax, and Gum Arabic. It will reduce the dissolution of
the hemihydrates and might deposit on the nuclei of crystallization and
effectively reduce the rate of crystallization and so retard setting time.
Accelerator is the chemical material added to the gypsum product to decrease
the setting time ex.Sodium Chloride and Potassium Sulfate in a certain
concentration. These salts increase the rate of hemihydrate dissolution and
thus the saturation of the solution occur more rapidly.
DIMENTIONAL CHANGES ON SETTING (SETTING EXPANSION)

Regardless of type of gypsum product, an expansion of the mass can be
detected during the change from the hemihydrate to the dehydrate after
mixing with water.This expansion could be explained on basis of the
mechanism of crystallization.
There is an outward growth of crystal from nuclei of crystallization, as a result of
growth, there is an enlargement and there is interception between the crystals.
If on crystal intercept another, there will be stress at the point of interception in
the direction of growth that impinging the crystals. If the process is repeated by
thousands of crystals during growth, it is possible that the outward stress or
thrust could produce expansion of the mass. The final structure immediately
after setting is composed of interlocking crystals between which micro process
containing excess water.On drying the excess
water is lost and the total empty space is greatly increased.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SETTING EXPANSION

1-W/P ratio
The higher W/P ratio, the less expansion; because off ewer nuclei of
crystallization per unit volume are present than thicker mixes and since it can be
assumed that space between nuclei will be greater in such a case, it fallow that
there will be less growth interaction of the dehydrate crystals with less
outward thrust result.
2-Addition of chemicals (accelerators and retarders)
Bothe will reduce the setting expansion. The reduction of the expansion is due
to that the initial rate of crystallization is so rapid that subsequent growth is
resisted with accelerators. For the retarders, the crystalline form may be
changed and the crystals may become thick and short so the thrusting between
the crystals is reduced so the expansion is reduced.
Hydroscopic expansion : if the setting process is allowed to occur under water,
the setting expansion may be more than in magnitude, this is called
Hydroscopic expansion. This increased expansion is due to the additional
growth of the crystals permitted and no difference in the chemical reaction.
STRENGTH
The strength of gypsum products is generally expressed in term of compressive
strength also tensile strength is also considered.
1-W/P ratio: The strength or gypsum increases rapidly as the material hardens
after initial setting time. The excess water present in the set mass affect the
strength. Therefore, there is wet strength and dry strength. The wet strength is
when there is excess water left in the mass. The dry strength is when the excess
water has been dried in air or oven in warm temperature, the dry
strength may be two times greater than the wet.
Drying period Compressive strength Kg/cm2

2h 89
8h 118
24h 839
2-Mixing: mixing time also affect the strength. Increasing mixing increase the
strength but over mixing will reduce strength because it will break up crystals
which are formed and will result in less crystal interlocking.
3-Drying: the effect of drying is to remove excess water between crystals. The
excess water reduce cohesion between the crystals themselves. 40% of the
strength is due to cohesive force between the crystals in addition to the
strength which can be attributed to the interlocking of crystals during growth.
4-Chemicals: the addition of accelerators and retarders lower both the wet and
dry strength. This is due to the reduction of inter- crystalline cohesion.
5-Porocity: the set plaster or stone is porous. The greater W/P ratio the greater
the porosity and the fewer the crystals.
STORAGE
Plaster and stone powder absorbs moisture, which causes gradual
deterioration. Hydration begins on the surface of hemihydrate particles forming
fine coat of gypsum and this will act as effective nuclei for
crystallization and thus shorten the setting time.
To avoid deterioration, the plaster and stone powders should be stored in air
tight waterproof containers in a dry region of the laboratory.
Gypsum product Compressive strength Kg/Cm2 Expansion W/P ratio

Plaster 141-89 0.3% 0.5
Stone 891-811 0.2% 0.3
Die stone 351 0.1% 0.2
MATERIALS-KENNETH
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS-

DENTAL METARIALS
Dr. Abbas Ibrahim
Hydrocolloid impression materials the colloids are often

classed as the fourth state of matter known as colloidal state,
they can exist in the form of viscous liquid known as a sol, or a
jelly like elastic semi-solid described as a
gel.
If the particles are suspended in water, the suspension is called
hydrocolloid.
Hydrocolloid impression materials are based on the colloidal

suspension of polysaccharide in water.
• In sol form: there is random arrangement of polysaccharide
chain.
• In gel form: the long polysaccharide chains become aligned
and material becomes viscous and develops elastic properties.
Gelation: it is conversion of sol to gel.
Type of hydrocolloid impression materials based

on the mode of gelation, they are classified as:
1- reversible hydrocolloids set by lowering the temperature

e.g. agar. This makes them
reusable.
2- Irreversible hydrocolloids set by a chemical reaction. Once

set it is usually permanent e.g. alginate.
Agar
agar hydrocolloid was the first successful elastic impression
material to be used in dentistry. It is an organic hydropinghilic
colloid extracted from certain types of seaweed. Although it is an
excellent impression material and yields accurate impressions
presently it has been largely replaced by alginate hydrocolloid
and rubber impression materials.
Uses
1- for cast duplication (during fabrication of cast metal
removable partial denture).
2- for full mouth impressions without deep undercuts.
3- for crown and bridge impressions before elastomers
came to the market.
4- as tissue conditioner.
Supplied as
1- gel in collapsible tubes (for impressions with water
cooled tray).
2- A number of cylinders in a glass jar (syringe material).
3- in bulk containers (for duplication).
Component purpose
Agar (12%) Colloid
It acts as dispersion medium.
To improve the strength of gel.
-2 To ensure proper setting of
%) gypsum cast against agar
(accelerator for cast material)
Preservative.
Thixotropic material (it acts as
plasticizer).
agents (traces
Manipulation
Agar hydrocolloid requires special equipment:

1- hydrocolloid conditioner.
2- Water cooled rim lock tray.
Agar is normally conditioned prior to use by specially designed
conditioning bath (temperature controlled water bath). The
conditioning bath consist of three compartments each hold at
different temperature.
1- Boiling section or liquefaction section

• the tube of the gel converted to viscous liquid after 10 minutes in
boiling water (100°c).
• The sol should be homogenous and free of lumps.
• Every time the material is reliquefied, 3 minutes should be
added. This because it is more difficult to break down the agar
brush heap structure after a previous use. • It
should not be reheated more than 4 times.
2- Storage section
• 65-68°c temperature is ideal when agar can be stored in the sol
condition till needed.
3- Tempering section
• 46°c for about 2 minutes with material loaded in the tray, this is
done to reduce the temperature so that it can be tolerated by the
sensitive oral tissue. It also makes the material viscous.
The tray containing the tempered material is removed from the
bath. The outer surface of the agar sol is scraped off, then the
water supply is connected to the tray and the tray is positioned
in the mouth. water is circulated at 18°c to 21°c through the tray
until gelation occur, rapid cooling (ice cold water) is not
recommended as it can induce distortion.
Alginate alginate was developed as a substitute for agar when it
became scarce due to World War II (japan was a prime source
of agar).
Currently, alginate is more popular than agar for dental
impression, because it has many advantages.
Types
1- fast setting.
2- Normal setting.
Supplied as a powder that is packed in bulk container

(sachets), a plastic scoop is supplied for dispensing the bulk
powder, and a plastic
cylinder, is supplied for measuring the water.
Application
1- it is used for impression making.
• When there are undercuts.
• In mouth with excessive flow of saliva.
• For partial dentures with clasps.
2- for making preliminary impression for complete denture.

3- for impression to make study models and working casts.
4- for duplicating models
Composition
Setting reaction sodium alginate powder (soluble) dissolves

in water to form a sol, that react with calcium sulfate
(reactor) to form calcium alginate (insoluble gel) this
reaction is too fast, there is not enough working time, so the
reaction is
delayed by addition of a retarder (sodium phosphate).
Properties (according to ada specification no. 18 for alginate
hydrocolloids)
1- alginate has a pleasant taste and small.
2- Its flexibility is about 14 % at a stress of 1000 gm/cm2
lower w/p ratio (thick mixes) results in lower flexibility.
3- Alginate is highly elastic, but less than agar. 4- The elastic
recovery is 97.3 %, permanent deformation is less if the
set impression is removed from the mouth
quickly.
5- Detail reproduction is also lower when compared to
agar.
6- Compressive strength is 5000-8000 gm/cm2.
7- Tear strength is 350-700 mg/cm2.
Factors affecting alginate gel strength

• w/p ratio, too much or too little water reduces strength.
• mixing time, over and under mixing both reduce
strength.
• Time of removal of impression, strength increases if the
time of removal is delayed for few minutes after setting.
8- Set alginate has poor dimensional stability due to

evaporation, syneresis, and imbibition. The alginate
impression should be poured immediately. If storage is
unavoidable, keeping in a humid atmosphere of 100 %
relative humidity (wrap with wet paper towel). Even under
these conditions storage should not be done for more than 1
hour.
9- Alginate does not adhere well to the tray. Retention to
the tray is achieved by mechanical locking in the tray (rim
Ingredients % Functions
lock, perforated tray) or by adhesive.
10- The silica particles present in the dust of alginate
powder are health hazard.
11- Shelf life and storage: alginate material
deteriorates rapidly at elevated temperature and humid
environment.
* mixing time: 45-60 seconds.
* Working time: 1-2 minutes.
* setting time (gelation time): 2-4 minutes.
• Control gelation time

1- gelation is best controlled by adding retarders.
(Manufacturer s hands).
2- The dentist can best control the setting time by altering
WT
1- Sodium or potassium or Dissolves in water and

triethanolamine alginate. 2- reacts with calcium ions.
Calcium sulfate (reactor). Reacts with potassium
alginate and forms insoluble
3- Zinc oxide. calcium alginate.
4- Potassium titanium Acts as filler.
fluoride. Gypsum hardener.
5- Diatomaceous earth. Acts as filler.
Reacts preferentially with
traces calcium sulfate.
6- Sodium phosphate
e.g. wintergreen, peppermint
(retarder).
and anise, orange etc.
7- Coloring and flavoring
agents.
the temperature of the water colder the water, longer is the

setting time, even the mixing bowl and spatula can be
cooled.
• Test for set the alginate loses its tackiness and rebound
fully when prodded with a blunt instrument some
alginate are available with (color indicator), which on
mixing is one
color and on setting change to a different color.
Advantages
1- it is easy to mix and manipulate and need minimum
equipment.
2- Flexibility of the set impression.
3- If properly handled, it gives accuracy and good surface
details even in presence of saliva.
4- Low cost.
5- comfortable to the patient.
6- It is hygienic.
Disadvantages 1- it
cannot be corrected.
2- Poor tear strength.
3- Distortion may occur without it being obvious if the
material is not held steady while it is setting.
4- It cannot be stored for long time.
5- because of the above drawbacks and because of
availability of better materials it is not recommended
when high level of accuracy is required e.g. cobalt
chromium
rpd, crown and bridge, etc.
Technical considerations of alginate

1. Impression should not be exposed to air because some
dehydration will occur and result in shrinkage.
2. Impression should be protected from dehydration by
placing it in a humid atmosphere or wrapping it in a damp
paper towel until a cast can be poured. To prevent volume
change, this should be done within 15 minutes after
removal of the impression from the mouth.
3. Impression should not be immersed in water or
disinfectants, because some imbibition will occur, and
result in expansion.
4. Exudate from hydrocolloid has a retarding effect on the
chemical reaction of gypsum products and results in a
chalky cast surface. This can be prevented by pouring the
cast immediately.
5. When alginate is used, place the measured amount of
water (at 18-20°c) in a clean, dry, rubber mixing bowl. Add
the correct measure of powder. Stir rapidly against the side
of the bowl with a short, stiff spatula. This should be
accomplished in less than (1 minute). The patient should
rinse his or her mouth with cool water to eliminate excess
saliva while the impression material is being mixed
and the tray is being loaded.
6- To prevent internal stresses in the finished impression,
do not allow the tray to move during gelation (hold the tray
immobile for 3 minutes). Do not remove the impression
from the mouth until the impression material
has completely set (releasing the surface tension).
* cast construction the stone cast should not be

separated for at least 45 minutes the cast should not
be left in the alginate
impression for too long a period because:
1- after setting the alginate can act as sponge, deprive
stone from water result in a rough chalky surface.
Dried alginate becomes stiff, so removal of cast can
break the teeth
. ‫المصادر‬:

Method of taking impressions
Dr. Abbas Ibrahim
1- Single mix technique
: spaced special tray. regular body
only.
Method
The paste is mixed and material is loaded onto the tray,
the tray with material is seated over the impression area,
the material is allowed to set.
2-Multiple mix technique

Tray used: spaced special tray.
: (a) heavy body and (b) light body.
Method
The two viscosities are mixed simultaneously but on
separate pads. The heavy body is loaded onto the tray
while the light body is loaded into the syringe. The
syringe material is injected onto the area of impression.
The tray containing the heavy body if then seated over it.
Both materials set together to produce a single
impression.
3- Two stages or putty wash technique
ay used: perforated stock tray.
Viscosity used: (a) putty (b) light body.
Method
First a primary impression is made with putty in the
stock tray. After setting it is kept aside. Light body
is mixed and spread into the putty impression.
The primary impression is then seated over the
impression area and held till it is set.
Automatic dispensing or mixing device
Advantages
1- More uniform mix.

2- Less air bubbles incorporated in mix.
3- Reduced working time.
Addition silicone impression materials packaged with auto-mixed
cartridges, mixing gun, and static mixing tips, and dynamic mechanical
mixer.
2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT G. GRAIG,

Ph.D.
Casting investments Dr. Abbas Ibrahim Hussein
Properties required of an investment:

1- Easily manipulated.
2- Sufficient strength at room temperature: To permit ease in
handling and provide enough strength at higher temperatures to
withstand the impact force of the molten metal.
3- Stability at higher temperatures: Investment must not decompose
to give off gases that could damage the surface of the alloy.
4- Sufficient expansion: Enough to compensate for shrinkage of the
wax pattern and metal that takes place during the casting
procedure.
5- Beneficial casting temperatures: Preferably the thermal expansion
versus temperature curve should have a plateau of the thermal
expansion over a range of casting temperatures.
6- Porosity: Porous enough to permit the air or other gases.
7- Smooth surface.
8- Ease of divestment.
9- Inexpensive.
Composition
In general, an investment is a mixture of three distinct types of

materials:
1- Refractory Material: This material is usually a form of silicon

dioxide, such as quartz, tridymite, or cristobalite, or a mixture
of these.
2- Binder Material: Because the refractory materials alone do not
form a coherent solid mass, some kind of binder is needed.
3- Other Chemicals/modifiers: Usually a mixture of refractory
materials and a binder alone is not enough to produce all the
desirable properties required of an investment material.
Types
Calicium sulfate-bonded or gypsum-bonded investment:

The investments suitable for casting gold alloys contain (65-75
%) quartz or cristobalite, or a blend of the two, in varying
proportions, (25-35 %) of α-calcium sulfate hemihydrate, and
about (2-3 %) chemical modifiers. The calcium sulfate-bonded
investment is usually limited to gold castings, and is not heated
above 700°C. The calcium sulfate portion of the investment
decomposes into sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide at
temperatures over 700°C, tending to embrittle the casting
metal. Therefore, the calcium sulfate type of binder is usually
not used in investments for making castings of palladium or
base metal alloys.
Phosphate-bonded investment:
It is the most common type of investment for casting
highmelting point alloys. This type of investment consists of
three different components. One component contains a
watersoluble phosphate ion (binder). The second component
reacts with phosphate ions at room temperature. The third
component is a refractory, such as silica 80%. Different
materials can be used in each component to develop different
physical properties.
Silica-bonded investment:
Another type of binding material for investments used with
casting highmelting point alloys is a silica bonding ingredient.
This type of investment may derive its silica bond from ethyl
silicate, an aqueous dispersion of colloidal silica, or from
sodium silicate. One such investment consists of a silica
refractory, which is bonded by the hydrolysis of ethyl silicate in
the presence of hydrochloric acid.
Soldering investment
when soldering the parts of a restoration such as clasps on a

removable partial denture, the parts must be surrounded with
a suitable investment material before the heating operation.
These assembled parts are temporarily held together with
sticky wax untill they are surrounded with investment, after
which the wax is softened and removed. The portion to be
soldered is left exposed and free from investment to permit wax
removal and effective heating before it is joined with solder.
These don’t have as fine particle size as the casting investment
because the smoothness of the mass is less important.

Metal and metals alloys Dr. Abbas Ibrahim Hussein
Alloy: It is a metal containing two or more elements, at least one of which

is metal, and all of which are mutually soluble in the molten state.
Noble metals: They are materials resist corrosion in the mouth. (gold,
platinum, palladium, silver, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, osmium).
• Gold: Pure gold is soft, ductile, yellow hue. The density is 19.3
gm/cm3 , melting point is 1063°C, good chemical stability, not
corrode and not tarnish.
• Silver: Whitest metal, its density is 10.4 gm/cm3 , melting point is
961°C.
• Palladium: Its density is 12.02 gm/cm3 , melting point is 1552°C.
• Platinum: its density is 21.65 gm/cm3 , melting point is 1769°C.
Precious metals: This term indicates the intrinsic value of the metal. The
eight noble metals are also precious metal, but all precious metals are not
noble.
Base metals: These are not noble metals, (chromium, cobalt, nickel,
copper,…..etc).
They are important components of dental casting alloy because:
a- Their influence on physical properties. b-

Control of the amount and type of oxidation. c-
Their strengthening effect.
Classification:
According to yield strength:
• Type I: soft
• Type II: medium
• Type III: hard
• Type IV: extra-hard
According to number of alloys’ elements present:
1. Binary (2 elements).
2. Ternary (3 elements).
3. Quaternary (4 elements).
According to use:
1- Alloys for all metal; metal with resin veneer restorations.

2- Alloys for metal ceramic restorations.
3- Alloy for removable dentures.
General requirements of casting alloys:
1- It should not tarnish and corrode in the mouth.

2- It should strong.
3- Biocompatible (non-toxic, non-allergic).
4- It should be easy to fabricate (melt, cast, cut, and grind).
5- It should flow well, and duplicate fine details during casting.
6- It should have minimal shrinkage on cooling after casting.
7- It should easy to solder.
8- It should be light weight.
9- It should have high stiffness (to make the framework thin).
10- It should have good fatigue resistance.
11- It should not react to commercial denture cleanser.
12- Economical consideration.
Alloys for all metal restorations:
1- Gold alloys (composed of gold, copper, silver, platinum,

palladium, and other additives).
2- Silver-palladium alloys.
3- Nickel-chromium alloys.
4- Cobalt-chromium alloys.
Alloys for metal ceramic restorations:
1- Gold-palladium-platinum alloys.
2- Palladium-silver alloys.
3- Nickel-chromium alloys.
HOW DOES PORCELAIN BOND TO THE ALLOY?
Ceramic adheres to metal primarily by chemical bond. A covalent bond is

established by sharing 02 in the elements in the porcelain and the metal
alloy. These elements include silicon dioxide (Si02) in the porcelain, and
oxidizing elements such as silicon, indium, and iridium in the metal alloy.
Alloys for removable dentures:
1. Cobalt-chromium alloy:
Composition:
a- Cobalt (to give hardness, strength, rigidity).
b- Chromium (to ensure corrosion resistance by passivating
effect).
c- Nickel (to decrease fusion temperature and increase ductility).
d- Molybdenum or tungsten (to increase hardness).
e- Iron and copper (to increase hardness).
f- Manganese and silicon (to prevent oxidation). g-
Boron (to increase hardness and deoxidizer). h-
Carbon (to strengthen the alloy).
2. Nickel-chromium alloy:
Composition: a-
Nickel. b-
Chromium. c-
Molybdenum.
d- Other minor additions like aluminum, iron, silicon, copper,
manganese, tin.
The function of each ingredient is discussed previously.

Dental Material

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document informationMaterial used in dental therapy

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dental Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dental Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POLYMERS

‫ عباس ابراهيم حسين‬.‫م د‬

polymer is a chemical compound consisting of giant molecule

Copolymer: It is a polymer made by reaction of two different

• Mers connected in a linear sequence => linear polymers

Factors control the structure and the properties of

Uses of polymers in dentistry:

Denture base materials

DENTURE BASE RESINS

17- light in weight.

HEAT CURED ACRYLIC & COLD CURED

Working time: the time that a denture base material

In comparison to heat cured acrylic; The cold cured

Flexible dentures (thermoplastic

Properties of flexible dentures:

voids or bubbles within the White color voids localized on

c.Incorporation of water during processing

care of acrylic denture

stored in water when not used

no abrasive toothpaste or houshold cleansers used

Fluoride was documented as a chemotherapeutic measure providing

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS Toothpaste

Pit and fissure sealants

MANIPULATIONOF SEALANTS Enamel Surface Preparation

Athletic mouth protectors

FABRICATIONOF CUSTOM-MADE PROTECTORS

2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT G. GRAIG, Ph.D.

Relining is the procedure used to resurface the tissue-side of the denture

INDICATION AND USES:

Soft liners are classified into two types:

SOFT ELASTOMER LINER:

SOFT ACRYLIC LINER:

USES OF SOFT LINERS:

• None of soft liners is permanent; it may last 6 months.

2. RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS- ROBERT G. GRAIG, Ph.D.

Temporary filling material

1- It should be non-toxic, and non-irritant to pulp and tissue. 2- It

8- Should have soothing effect on the pulp.

ZINC OXIDE EUGENOL

2- It has reasonable sealing of the cavity.

1- Luting of restorations (cementation).

o Mixing time 15 seconds (maximum 1 minute). o Setting

Factors affecting the reaction

Rate of addition of powder is incorporated slowly.

the rate of reaction.

Sodium florid (NaF).

Aluminum phosphate (A1Po4). Barium (provide

Tartaric acid (increase working time).

time 5-7 minutes.

acid from liquid component glass core matrix

cations cross-link polyacid molecules giving

A chemically active resin luting cement which is used to bond laboratory

made dental appliances and restorations to teeth.

1 - Cementation of crowns and bridges (etched cast

CALCIUM HYDROXIDE CEMENT (DYCAL[

distinctive 'medicated' odor.

CAVITY LINER AND VARNISH

is about 30010-6 to 100010-6 cm/cm C. The shrinkage