Land and Water Degradation

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(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ENVIRONMENT
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UNCCD's Land Desertification

definition Degrada- can be
of Land explained as:
includes:
It is land
long-term degradation in
Terrestrial bio-
reduction or loss arid, semi-arid and
productive system
of at least one of dry sub-humid
that comprises soil
the following areas
Can be caused by
Vegetation and biological climatic variation
other biota productivity or direct human
activities
the ecological and Extent of Land

ecological
hydrological Degradation:
integrity
processes According to FAO,
one-quarter of
world's land area
and more than
one-quarter of
also includes agricultural land
human value to are classified as
settlements and humans severely
infrastructure degraded.
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Loss of
vegetation
cover leads to
loss of nutrition
Land-use & organic Water and Wind
changes and content erosion leads to
unsustainable loss of most
land fertile top layer
management of the soil
Acidification, a Causes Salinity /

decline of soil Alkalinity is
or process aggravated by
pH. Caused by
excessive use of Land excessive
of synthetic Degradation irrigation in dry
climate
fertilizers, etc.
Forest heating: Waterlogging

is the process of in flood prone
formation of ice areas,
beneath the soil. unplanned
It leads to soil drainage
degradation systems, etc.
Mass
movement may
remove fertile
and organic top
soil due to
gravity
1900 2000
Land use 46.5%
Crop and grazing lands;
sedimented, logged
change. and afforested lands
According 6.9%
Urban and peri-urban
to land; transport, mining,
energy and water
27.2% infrastructure
Global Crop and grazing
lands; sedimented, 27.8%
18.7%
Land 70.1%
logged and
afforested lands Natural and Mountains, deserts,
Natural and secondary secondary tundra, sloping lands
Outlook forests; mountains;
2.7%
forests and those unsuitable
for agriculture
deserts; tundra, sloping
lands and those Urban and
by UNCCD unsuitable for agriculture peri-urban land
46.5%
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Impact of Land Degradation
Impacts on Response on/through Results in
Ecosystem Provisioning Ex.– conversion of Though it increases food availability, it results

services services forest into farmland in a reduction of both biodiversity and carbon
sinks.
Regulating Ex.– water regulation Flooding, drought
services services impact
Cultural EX.– recreation and Directly impacted

services tourism
Supporting Ex.–deforestation Degradation of natural habitat

services and expansion of
extensive agriculture
Climate Carbon sink Land degradation results in the escape of carbon

from carbon sinks.
Release of non-CO2 greenhouse Through increased rice cultivation, ruminant
gases stocks and manure disposal results in the higher
release of CH4, N20, and NH3 gases.
Albedo change Increased grazing, deforestation, and forest

fires result in albedo change and thus impacting
the global radiative balance, as a result, it leads
to net climate cooling/warming.
Food security Agricultural productivity Annual productivity decline undermines

and poverty sustainable development, food, and water
security, and results in human migration and
even civil conflict. It affects the weak and the
poor disproportionately.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) It has a direct negative and strong impact which
is difficult to directly account for. The economic
cost in terms of loss of ecosystem goods and
services is estimated to be US$ 6.3 trillion a year
equivalent to 8.3% of global GDP in 2016.
Gender and It affects the women and children Children missing schools, a higher dropout rate,
education disproportionately and results in reduced child care time, reduced time for other
increased timing requirements of work and for leisure activities. Women have to
food production, fuelwood collection. travel long distances to get water.
Human health Indirect impact Through climate change, biodiversity loss, loss
in agricultural productivity, etc.
Direct impact Can cause chronic bronchitis and respiratory

illness.
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INDIA
Accounts for 2.4%
of world's total land
area and 18% of its 60% of the land is
total population. under cultivation,
with agriculture
contributing 14%
According to the
of its GDP.
State of India’s
Environment 2019, Land degradation is
30% of India’s total highly concentrated
geographical area is in some regions.
affected by land 9 states accounting
degradation for 82% of
degradation.
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 (Life on

Land), is of direct relevance to land degradation.
Ta r g e t 1 5 . 3 s p e c i fi c a l l y a d d r e s s e s L a n d
Degradation Neutrality (LDN).
Methods of land reclamation and

conservation:
Under this the

Natural
quality of land
resource
remains stable
management
or increases
1. Sustainable Land 2. Land Support of

Management Degradation ecosystem
Soil and water (SLM) Neutrality (LDN) services
conservation
measures remains
stable
Degraded Within specified

landscape temporal and
management spatial scales.
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SLM includes: Steps taken in India to achieve LDN:
Reforestation Comprehensive National Plan to Combat Desertification

Agroforestry launched in 2001 for 20 years, talks about community-based
approach.
Te r r a c e c u l t i v a t i o n i n h i l l y a n d
mountainous areas Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas (2016) by
ISRO & others.
Sand dunes fixation prevents movement
Adopted Bonn Challenge to restore 13-million-hectare of
of sand
degraded land by 2020 & 8 million more by 2030.
Windbreaks, linear planting of trees and
Government of India in collaboration with Global
shrubs, to prevent erosion by wind.
environment facility launched Sustainable Land and
Firebreaks act as barrier in progress of Ecosystem Management (SLEM) programme.
wildfires National Green Mission
Zai technique Involves digging a pit in soil Integrated Watershed Management Programme
to catch water and concentrate compost. At UNCCD COP 14 (New Delhi) 2019, Delhi declaration was
adopted. Pledge to restore 26 million hectares till 2030 & to
set up a Centre of Excellence at Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun.
Focusing on micro-watershed
Adoption of watershed
Government' approach towards addressing land degradation
approach Using technologies such as remote

sensing and focus on spatial planning.
Govt. launched Integrated Watershed

Management Programme (IWMP)
Use of contouring, gully plugging, vegetative

as well as engineering-based solution
Integrated treatment
Fodder and Feed Development Scheme
Involves interrelated, integrating &

sustainable approach in farm management
Synergy between cropping, animal
Integrated farming husbandry, fishery, forestry, etc.
based approach
Eg. National Afforestation Programme,
National Mission for Green India.
Focus on water Aquifer recharge, water budgeting, crop

management planning, building check dams, etc.
Command Area Development and Water

Management (CADWM) programme
Focus on social Eg. Constitution of Watershed Committee

aspects under the Gram Sabha, Social Audit under
MGNREGA, joint forest management and
social fencing by involving local communities
Other aspects of the government's approach for addressing the problem of land
degradation includes 1. ) incorporation of livelihood-related activities (through the
development of micro-enterprises, SHGs, Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Yojana for
capacity building of women farmers, etc.)
2.) Adoption of climate-adaption related solution.
3.) Increasing role of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
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Schemes addressing desertification:
Schemes Ministry Results in

Objectives
Drought Prone Areas Ministry of Rural To minimise the adverse effects of drought on the production
programme (DRAP) Development of crops, livestock, and productivity of land, water, and human
resources ultimately leading to drought proofing of the
affected areas.
Desert Development Ministry of Rural To minimise the adverse effect of drought and control
Programme (DDP) Development desertification through rejuvenation of natural resource base
of the identified desert areas.
National Watershed Ministry of To strengthen people’s participation in project planning,

Development Program Agriculture implementation, and monitoring by generating awareness on
for Rainfed Areas the programme measures of the schemes so as to transform
(NWDPRA) watershed management as people’s movement with tapering
departmental support.
Global policy responses to land

degradation:
During the Stockholm UN Conference on the Human United Nations Convention to Combat
Environment in 1972 first effort on tackling land degradation
Desertification (UNCCD)
was made.
It was established in 1994. UNCCD is the sole legally
In 1992 at the Rio Summit land degradation was recognised binding international agreement linking environment
as a major challenge to sustainable development. and development to sustainable land management. It is
one of the conventions adopted during the World Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+) Aims to encourage developing The convention focuses on arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-
countries to contribute to climate change mitigation efforts humid areas, known as the drylands.
by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It focuses on The convention aims at achieving targets of sustainable
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of development goals and poverty reduction by means of
forest carbon stocks. arresting and diverting Land degradation.
The convention is particularly committed to a bottom-up
approach, by engaging people at the local level in
The Johannesburg World Summit on sustainable
combating desertification and land degradation.
development WSSD in 2002 designated the global
environment facility as the funding agency for the India became a signatory to UNCCD on October 14,
implementation of UNCCD. 1994, and ratified it on December 17, 1996.
Global land outlook is a publication of UNCCD.
The Land for Life Programme was launched at the UNCCD
Conference of the Parties (CoP) 10 to confront the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF)
challenges of land degradation and desertification.
It is a global partnership of governments, businesses,
The Born Challenge is a global effort to bring 150 million civil society, and indigenous people’s organizations.
hectares of the world's deforested and degraded land into Its focus on reducing emissions from deforestation and
restoration by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030. forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation,
sustainable management of forests, and the
The UN General Assembly declared the UN Decade on enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing
Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030 (which is co-led by FAO countries, activities commonly referred to as REDD+
and UNEP), which is expected to shine an additional spotlight FCPF supports REDD+ efforts through two separate but
on land restoration and mobilise financial resources. complementary funds, the FCPF Readiness Fund and the
FCPF Carbon Fund.
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Desertification The Green Revolution, based on the use of flood

and Drought irrigation and chemical fertilizers, has resulted in land
day is observed degradation and soil salinity. M S Swaminathan the
father of the Green Revolution in India calls for an
by United
“Evergreen Revolution”, which involves the integration
Nations and of ecological principles, and technological development
celebrated and dissemination, which can result in improvement in
each year productivity and at the same time can ensure ecological
on 17th June. sustainability and social well-being.
Water Degradation
Distribution of water on the Earth's surface:
Water covers 71% of the Earth’s

surface. Out of this only 2.5% is
f r e s h w a t e r. 6 8 . 6 % o f t h e
freshwater is locked up in ice and
glaciers and 30.1% is in the
ground. 1.3% of the freshwater is
in lakes, rivers, streams, and
clouds, etc.
Global circulation of water / Hydrological cycle:
Phase change of liquid water into vapour or

gas on heating is called evaporation 90% of
The vapour is this comes from evaporation from water
carried upward bodies and about 10% is from the process
by the rising air evaporation
of transpiration.
currents. Higher and evapotran-
up water vapour spiration
condenses to
form droplets. Transpiration is the process through which
When droplets plants lose large quantities of water
grow insufficient through their leaves.
size it results in
surface
precipitation. precipitation Water also reaches atmosphere through
runoff the process of sublimation, which is when
water changes from solid state directly
into vapour without going through liquid
state.
Precipitation over the

Some of the precipitation that falls on the surface
oceans is greater than the enters the ground and is stored as groundwater the
continents. rest moves as surface run-off into streams and rivers
and ultimately flows into the oceans.
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Decreased The water table is an underground boundary

Effect of Decreased
water between the soil surface and the area where
water water
quantity groundwater saturates spaces between
degradation: quality sediments and cracks in rock. Water pressure
or flow
and atmospheric pressure are equal at this
boundary.
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STATUS OF WATER IN INDIA
As per Composite Dependency on India faces a paradoxical

India accounts for
Water groundwater
around 17% of world's situation of floods and
Management Index
popula droughts. Every year
(CWMI) report,
only 4% of world’s 2018 published by many areas get
freshwater resources NITI Aayog. summarized during the
monsoon and on the
60% irrigation other hand roads have
needs, 85% of rural become common
drinking water phenomenon in India.
needs and 50% of Fr o m 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 1 5
India’s a water urban needs are nearly 19,000,00 7.5
India is undergoing
stressed country met by
the worst water million people annually
and according to groundwater.
crisis in its history were simultaneously
estimates, the
and nearly 600 affected by floods and
demand will exceed million people are droughts, respectively.
supply by a factor of facing high to
two by 2030. extreme water
stress. India uses the
largest amount of
groundwater and is
also the third “Day zero situation,”
largest exporter of is when a city's tap
According to census
21 major cities will groundwater. dries out and people
estimates (1951-
reach zero have to stand in long
2011), Per-capita
groundwater levels l i n e s f o r w a t e r.
water availability
by 2020 Example – “Day Zero”
has reduced by
situation in Cape
about 70% in 60
India exports Town in South Africa.
years.
groundwater
through virtual
water trade through
70% of India's agricultural exports.
surface water is Example it
About 82% of rural contaminated exported more than
households in India 10 trillion liters
do not have through Basmati rice
individual piped export in 2014-15
water supply & 63 alone.
million live without
access to clean
water in their
vicinity.
MSPs on water intensive crop and subsidies in electricity
consumption has resulted in unsustainable exploitation
of groundwater resources by agricultural sector.
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Implications of water degradation

It will result in social unrest and political instability
Social and political risks and in some cases can even lead to civil &
international conflict.
Risk to food security Groundwater accounts for 62% of water

used in irrigation. The rapid depletion of
groundwater has created a risk to food
Risk to water security in urban areas
security because of heavy dependence of
agriculture on groundwater resources.
Urban population is expected to reach 600 million

Economic risks by 2030. Only 35% of urban households have piped
water supply.
It has resulted in threat to livelihoods of millions, the commodity prices

have increased.
Industrial water requirement is estimated to quadruple between 2005
and 2030.
It is expected to affect textiles, paper, and beverages sector
disproportionately. 39% of the portfolio of Indian banks is exposed to
sectors that face a high level of operational water risk.
70% of India’s thermal power plant are

expected to face high water stress by
Risk of energy shortages 2030. Thermal power constitutes more
than 80% of total utility power
generation and 90% of them rely on fresh
water sources for cooling. This may result
into power shortages.
Water degradation results in direct

Environmental Risks destruction of biodiversity. Building
dams and linking rivers have direct
impact on environment and biodiversity.
Risk of desertification
Extensive groundwater extraction contributes to loss of vegetation

cover which eventually leads to desertification.
Water erosion due to surface run-off is responsible for around 11% of
desertification in India making it the biggest cause.
Land degradation further cost around 2% of India’s GDP.
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Methods of water conservation:
Surface Methods of rainwater harvesting

water
storage In urban areas In rural areas
Recycle Rain
water water Roof top rainwater/run- Rainwater harvesting
harvesting off harvesting through through
Recharge pit Gully plug

Recharge trench Contour bund
Conservation Tube well Gabion structure
Change Ground
Techniques water Recharge well Percolation tank
in
Agriculture recharge Check Dam/Cement plug
Recharge shaft
Subsurface dyke
Interbasin Catchment
transfer Area
of water Protection
Catchment Area Protection and

Watershed Management
Catchment area protection includes actions,

Catchment Area procedures or installations undertaken to prevent PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana and World
Protection (CAP) or reduce harm to environmental integrity of Bank assisted Neeranchal Watershed
drainage areas used to catch water, such as Program are designed for CAP
reservoirs or basins.
Is a process of implementing land use practices and It involves management of those land
Watershed water management practices to protect and and water resources in a comprehensive
Management improve the quality of water and other natural manner
resources within watershed.
Traditional water conservation systems in various states

Water conservation
system State and region Type
Jhalaras Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Stepwell
Talab Bandhi Bundelkhand (UP), Udaipur (Rajasthan) Lake
Bawaris Rajasthan Stepwell
Taanka Thar desert region of Rajasthan Cylindrical paved underground pit
Ahars are reservoirs with embarkments on three

Ahar Pynes South Bihar sides that are built at the end of diversion channels
like pynes. Pynes are artificial rivulets.
Johad Rajasthan, they are called Madaks in Small earthen check dams
Karnataka and Pemghara in Odisha
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Panam Keni Wayanad (Kerala) Special type of well
Khadins Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) Embarkments
Kund Western Rajasthan and Gujarat Saucer-shaped catchment area
Baoli Rajasthan, Delhi, Gujarat Stepwell
Bhandara Phad Maharashtra Check dam
Buldhana Pattern Buldhana district, Maharashtra Storage type
Tamswada pattern Nagpur and Wardha, Maharashtra Storage type
Zings Ladakh Small tanks
Kuhls Himachal Pradesh Channels
Zabo Nagaland Channels
Jackwells Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands Wells
The Ramtek model Maharashtra Tanks
The Pat system Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh Channels
The Eri system Tamil Nadu Tanks
India’s Policy Framework In international policy frameworks such as

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), Paris
Agreement & Sendai Framework have
convergence on water conservation and its
responsible use to ensure sustainable
1.) Creation of a new Ministry of Jal Shakti
development, ensuring livelihood security
for poor and the weak and reduced risks from
This step aims at dealing with all matters disasters.
relating to water in one place in an
integrated manner to enable better
decision making for surface water
projects and allocation.
It aims at improving efficiency in agriculture
using techniques such as micro-irrigation. It is a
2.) Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) co m p r e h e n s i ve s c h e m e a n d d e a l s w i t h
watershed development, afforestation, soil and
moisture conservation, rainwater harvesting,
horticulture, pasture development, etc.
3.) Composite Water Management Index
(CWMI) is published by NITI Aayog to encourage
cooperative and competitive federalism in
water conservation and its management.
The policy advocates rainwater harvesting and
conservation of water. It also focuses on
conservation of river & other water bodies and
4.) National Water Policy 2012 lays emphasis on scientific infrastructure
development.
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It recommends rainwater harvesting for all types

5.) Model Building Byelaws, 2016 of building with plot size 100-meter square or
more.
This scheme emphasizes on Recharge of

6.) Atal Bhujal Yojana 2019 groundwater in seven states. The initiative is in
collaboration with the World Bank.
The guidelines aim to ensure robust

groundwater regulation mechanism in the
7.) Guidelines for groundwater extraction 2019
country through the system of NOC (no objection
certificate)
Introduced the concept of water

CENTRAL GROUND WATER AUTHORITY conservation fees (WCF), recycling
and treating polluted water and
For industry
Central Ground Water Authority has been provides for installing digital flow
constituted under Section 3 (3) of the meters. It makes roof top
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to rainwater harvesting mandatory.
regulate and control development and
management of groundwater resources in Req u e s t f o r N O C s h a l l b e
the country. considered only when water
For drinking
supply department or agency is
Powers & Functions: and domestic use
unable to supply adequate
amount of water in the area.
The Authority has been conferred with the
following powers: Flexibility to States may suggest additional
(i) Exercise of powers under section 5 of the states conditions.
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for
issuing directions and taking such measures
in respect of all the matters referred to in Monthly water level data should
sub-section (2) of section 3 of the said Act. be submitted to Central ground
Monitoring
water authority through web
(ii) To resort to penal provisions contained in portal.
sections 15 to 21 of the said Act.
(ii) To regulate and control, management and
development of ground water in the country Agr i c u l t u r a l u s e r s , u s e r s
and to issue necessary regulatory directions employing non—energized
for the purpose. m e a n s to e x t ra c t wa te r,
Exempted from
individual households, and armed
(iv) Exercise of powers under section 4 of the requirement of
forces establishment during
Environment (Protection) Act,1986 for the NOC
operational deployment or
appointment of officers.
during mobilization in forward
locations.
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Water policy timeline in India

2000 2012 2014 2015
Right to National water DDUGJY PMKSY

water policy revamped launched launched
Supreme court Govt. allocates Govt. begins separating Govt. expands efforts
recognizes 'right funds to prepare electricity feeders for to make irrigation more
to water' as a detailed project agriculture, reducing efficient, with a focus
part of right to life reports incentives for excess irrigation on microirrigation
2019 2018 2017
Ministry of Jal Shakti India-Israel water Model Groundwater

established partnership formalized Bill framed
Govt. publishes initial bill Several functions Govt. signs MOU to leverage
asserting state control over consolidated under central Israel's expertise for a National
groundwater extraction Ministry of Water Resources Campaign for water
Conservation in India
Successful Models of
Decentralized Water Management
A multistakeholder Use technology and
Mukhya mantri programme which
Adopts a
jal swavlambhan participatory water focus on creation of
Rajasthan aims to make villages water conservation
management
abhiyan (mjsa) self sufficient
approach structure
in water
Aims at drought- Focus on improving The programme

Neeru-chettu proofing the state and irrigation and focus on use of
Andhra
providing water in scientific technology
Programme Pradesh reduce
and repair and
economic inequalities drought prone areas
renovation.
Aims to make The approach of this The program also

Jalyukt shivar Maharashtra programme focuses harnesses
Maharashtra drought-free with focus on deepening and technologies such as
abhiyan on 5000 water scarce Widening of streams geo-tagging of
villages and construction of water resources.
check dams.
Aims to restore over The programme focus on development of

Mission 46,000 tanks across the minor irrigation structures, promoting
Telangana state and bring over 20
Kakatiya community based irrigation management,
lakh acres land under and restoration of tanks
cultivation

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QUICK REVISION MODULE

(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ENVIRONMENT

UNCCD's Land Desertiﬁcation

the ecological and Extent of Land

Acidiﬁcation, a Causes Salinity /

Forest heating: Waterlogging

Impact of Land Degradation

Impacts on Response on/through Results in

Ecosystem Provisioning Ex.– conversion of Though it increases food availability, it results

Cultural EX.– recreation and Directly impacted

Supporting Ex.–deforestation Degradation of natural habitat

Climate Carbon sink Land degradation results in the escape of carbon

Albedo change Increased grazing, deforestation, and forest

Food security Agricultural productivity Annual productivity decline undermines

Direct impact Can cause chronic bronchitis and respiratory

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 (Life on

Methods of land reclamation and

Under this the

1. Sustainable Land 2. Land Support of

Degraded Within speciﬁed

SLM includes: Steps taken in India to achieve LDN:

Reforestation Comprehensive National Plan to Combat Desertiﬁcation

approach Using technologies such as remote

Govt. launched Integrated Watershed

Use of contouring, gully plugging, vegetative

Involves interrelated, integrating &

Focus on water Aquifer recharge, water budgeting, crop

Command Area Development and Water

Focus on social Eg. Constitution of Watershed Committee

Schemes addressing desertiﬁcation:

Schemes Ministry Results in

National Watershed Ministry of To strengthen people’s participation in project planning,

Global policy responses to land

Desertiﬁcation The Green Revolution, based on the use of ﬂood

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s

Global circulation of water / Hydrological cycle:

Phase change of liquid water into vapour or

Precipitation over the

Decreased The water table is an underground boundary

STATUS OF WATER IN INDIA

As per Composite Dependency on India faces a paradoxical

Implications of water degradation

Risk to food security Groundwater accounts for 62% of water

Urban population is expected to reach 600 million

It has resulted in threat to livelihoods of millions, the commodity prices

70% of India’s thermal power plant are

Water degradation results in direct

Extensive groundwater extraction contributes to loss of vegetation

Methods of water conservation:

Surface Methods of rainwater harvesting

Recharge pit Gully plug

Catchment Area Protection and

Catchment area protection includes actions,

Traditional water conservation systems in various states

Jhalaras Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Stepwell

Talab Bandhi Bundelkhand (UP), Udaipur (Rajasthan) Lake

Bawaris Rajasthan Stepwell

Taanka Thar desert region of Rajasthan Cylindrical paved underground pit

Ahars are reservoirs with embarkments on three

Panam Keni Wayanad (Kerala) Special type of well