Oil and Gas Sub-Mod 2

BASICS OF OIL AND GAS Nakawa VTC 2024
SUB-MODULE 2:
 Oil and gas source rock
 Oil and gas reservoir rocks,
 oil and gas trap,
 coaled methane,
 shale gas
Introduction
Both crude oil and natural gas occur naturally in subsurface deposits.
Crude oil is a black liquid that is sold to refineries to be refined into products
such as gasoline and lubricating oil. Natural gas is a colorless, odorless gas
that is sold to gas pipelines to be transported and burned for its heat content.
There are many different types of crude oils and natural gases, some more
valuable than others. Heavy crude oils are very thick and viscous and are
difficult or impossible to produce. Light crude oils are very fluid, relatively
easy to produce, rich in gasoline, and more valuable.
Some natural gases burn with more heat than others and are more valuable.
Some natural gases also contain almost pure liquid gasoline called condensate
that separates from the gas when it is produced. Condensate is almost as
valuable as crude oil. Sulfur is a bad impurity in both natural gas and crude
oil. Sour crude oils contain sulfur, and sour natural gases contain hydrogen
sulfide and are less valuable. The crust of the earth in oil- and gas-producing
areas is composed of sedimentary rock layers. Sedimentary rocks can be
source and reservoir rocks for gas and oil.
These rocks are called sedimentary rocks because they are composed of
sediments that were formerly loose particles such as sand grains, mud, and
seashells or salts that precipitated out of water. Sedimentary rocks are millions
of years old and were deposited when the sea level rose and covered the land
many times in the past. These sediments are relatively simple materials such
as sands deposited along beaches, mud deposited on the sea bottom, and
beds of seashells. Ancient sediments, piled layer upon layer, form the
sedimentary rocks that are now sandstones composed of sand grains, shales
composed of mud particles, and limestone composed of seashells. These are
drilled to find and produce oil and gas.
The source of gas and oil is the organic matter (dead plant and animal
material) that is buried and preserved in some ancient sedimentary rocks.
They rise due to buoyancy through fractures in the subsurface rocks. The
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rising gas and oil can intersect reservoir rock, which is a sedimentary rock
layer that contains billions of tiny spaces called pores.
A common reservoir rock is sandstone, composed of sand grains like those

on a beach. Sand grains are like spheres, there is no way the grains will fit
together perfectly. There are pore spaces between the sand grains on a beach
and in a sandstone rock. Porosity is the percent of reservoir rock that is pore
space, and it is commonly 10 to 30%. The gas and oil flow into the pores of
the reservoir rock layer. Because the reservoir rock also contains water, the
gas and oil will continue to rise by flowing from pore to pore to pore up.
The movement of gas and oil up the angle of the reservoir rock toward the
surface is called migration. As the gas and oil migrates up along the
reservoir rock, it can encounter a trap. A trap is a high point in the reservoir
rock where the gas or oil is stopped and concentrated.
In the trap, the fluids separate according to their density. The gas is the
lightest and goes to the top of the trap to fill the pores of the reservoir rock
and form the free gas cap.
The oil goes to the middle to fill the pores and form the oil reservoir. The
saltwater, the heaviest, goes to the bottom. To complete the trap, a caprock
must overlie the reservoir rock. The caprock is a seal that does not allow
fluids to flow through it. Without a caprock, the oil and gas would leak up to
the surface. Two common sedimentary rocks that can be caprocks are shale
and salt.
Fig.1. Source, Reservoir and Cap Rocks
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Most gas and oil deposits are located in basins where sedimentary rocks are
relatively thick. Subsurface deposits of gas and oil are found by locating traps.
In some areas, the rock layers that crop out on the surface can be projected
into the subsurface to discover traps. Today, these surface rocks can be
mapped using photographs from airplanes and satellites. In the subsurface,
the rocks in different wells that have already been drilled are matched by
correlation to make cross sections, and maps of the depths to the top of
subsurface reservoir rocks and their thickness are drawn.
SOURCE ROCK
A source rock is a rock that can generate natural gas and/or crude oil. Gas
and oil form from ancient organic matter preserved in sedimentary rocks. As
sediments are deposited, both inorganic mineral grains, such as sands and
mud, and organic matter (dead plants and animals) are mixed. Most organic
matter is lost on the surface by decay, a process of oxidation. The decaying
organic matter on land gets oxygen from the air, and the decaying organic
matter on the ocean bottom gets the oxygen from out of the water. Some
organic matter, however, is preserved. It was either rapidly buried by other
sediments before it decayed or was deposited on the bottom of a sea with
stagnant, oxygen-free waters.
The black color in sedimentary rocks comes primarily from its organic content.
Black-colored, organic-rich sedimentary rocks include coal, shale, and some
limestones. When woody plant material is buried, it is transformed into coal
and methane gas (CH4) by temperature and time. This is why coal mines are
dangerous; they contain methane gas and sometimes explode. Coal deposits
are drilled to produce coal seam or coal bed gas, which is pure methane gas.
Shale is the most common sedimentary rock, and many are black. Black shale
commonly has 1 to 3% organic matter by weight and can have up to 20%.
Green or gray shale has only about 0.5% organic matter. Black shales contain
a large variety of organic matter that includes single-celled plants and animals
that live floating in the ocean, algae, spores, pollen and bacteria. They have
the right chemical composition to generate both natural gas and crude oil.
The first factor to be assessed in an exploration play in an area yet to be

drilled is whether a source rock is present. If so, then we ask, “How good is
it? Will it generate oil or gas? Has it generated hydrocarbons already?” To
answer these questions, we must know the basics of what constitutes a
source rock, how to classify source rocks, and how to estimate potential.
This article provides a background in these fundamentals.
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DEFINITIONS OF SOURCE ROCK TYPES
Source rocks can be divided into at least four major categories:
1. Potential
2. Effective
3. Relic effective
4. Spent
These categories and their definitions are shown in the table below
Type Definition
Potential Rock which contains organic matter in sufficient quantity to generate

source rock and expel hydrocarbons if subjected to increased thermal maturation.
Effective Rock which contains organic matter and is presently generating and/or
source rock expelling hydrocarbons to form commercial accumulations.
Relic effective An effective source rock which has ceased generating and expelling
source rock hydrocarbons due to a thermal cooling event
such as uplift or erosion before exhausting its organic matter supply.
Spent source An active source rock which has exhausted its ability to generate and
rock expel hydrocarbons either through lack of sufficient organic matter or
due to reaching an overmature state.
CHARACTERIZING SOURCE ROCKS
To be a source rock, a rock must have three features:
 Quantity of organic matter

 Quality capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbons
 Thermal maturity
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The first two components are products of the depositional setting. The third
is a function of the structural and tectonic history of the province.
DETERMINING SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL
The quantity of organic matter is commonly assessed by a measure of

the total organic carbon (TOC) contained in a rock. Quality is measured by
determining the types of kerogen contained in the organic matter. Thermal
maturity is most often estimated by using vitrinite reflectance measurements
and data from pyrolysis analyses.
The table below shows the most common methods used to determine the
potential of a source rock.
To determine… Measure…
Quantity of source rock Total organic carbon (TOC) present in the source rock
Quality of source rock  Proportions of individual kerogens

 Prevalence of long-chain hydrocarbons
Thermal maturity of source rock  Vitrinite reflectance

 Pyrolysis Tmax
TYPES OF SOURCE ROCKS
Source rocks are classified from the types of kerogen that they contain, which
in turn governs the type of hydrocarbons that will be generated.
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A. Type 1 source rocks

These are formed from algal remains deposited under anoxic
conditions in deep lakes: they tend to generate waxy crude oils when
submitted to thermal stress during deep burial.
B. Type 2 source rocks
These are formed from marine planktonic and bacterial remains
preserved under anoxic conditions in marine environments: they
produce both oil and gas when thermally cracked during deep burial.
C. Type 3 source rocks
These are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been
decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic or sub-oxic conditions:
they tend to generate mostly gas with associated light oils when
thermally cracked during deep burial. Most coals and coaly shales are
generally Type 3 source rocks.
WORLD CLASS SOURCE ROCK
Certain source rocks are referred to as "world class", meaning that they are
not only of very high quality but are also thick and of wide geographical
distribution.
Examples include:
 Middle Devonian to lower Mississippian widespread marine anoxic oil

and gas source beds in the Mid-Continent and Appalachia: (e.g. the
Bakken Formation of the Williston Basin, the Antrim Shale of the
Michigan Basin, the Marcellus Shale of the Appalachian Basin ).
 Kimmeridge Clay – This upper Jurassic marine mudstone or its
stratigraphic equivalents generated most of the oil found in the North
Sea and the Norwegian Sea.
 La Luna Shale – This late Cretaceous Turonian formation generated
most of the oil in Venezuela.
 Late Carboniferous coals – Coals of this age generated most of the
gas in the southern North Sea, the Netherlands Basin and the
northwest German Basin.
 Hanifa Formation – This upper Jurassic laminated carbonate-rich
unit has sourced the oil in the giant Ghawar field in Saudi Arabia.
RESERVOIR ROCK
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Reservoir Rocks are the rocks that have ability to store fluids inside its
pores, so that the fluids (water, oil and gas) can be
accumulated. In petroleum geology, reservoir is one of the elements of
petroleum system that can accumulate hydrocarbons (oil or gas).
Reservoir rock must be having good porosity and permeability to
accumulate and drain oil in economical quantities.
A fundamental property of a reservoir rock is its porosity. However, for it to be an

effective reservoir rock, the fundamental property is permeability. Both porosity and
permeability are geometric properties of a rock and both are the result of its
lithologic (composition) character. The physical composition of a rock and the textural
properties (geometric properties such as the sizes and shapes of the constituent
grains, the manner of their packing) are what is important when discussing
reservoir rocks and not so much the age of the rock.
THE PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
According to Society of Petroleum Engineers Glossary, a reservoir rock is a

rock containing porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon accumulation
and a sealing mechanism to form a reservoir from which commercial flows of
hydrocarbons can be produced. Porosity and permeability are the reservoir
rock most significant physical properties.
A fundamental property of a reservoir rock between them is porosity.

However, for explorationists, an effective reservoir rock, the most
fundamental reservoir rock property is its permeability. Both of them are
geometric properties are the result of its lithological, structural and
compositional behavior (composition). These physical compositions of a rock
and the textural properties are geometric such as sizes and shapes of the
rock grains, their arrangement system and packaging.
The efficiency of reservoir rock account on different important properties,

however in this paper discussing on reservoir rocks properties, porosity and
permeability are main topics to focus on. A petroleum system is made of
different elements which encompass reservoir rock. Moreover, it is found in a
sedimentary basin whereby explorationists are able to study its stratigraphy
and its sedimentology (rock history) to determine if there is a likeliness of the
existence of petroleum system.
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After they (explorationists) come up with concluding the existence of a

petroleum system, they go for further scientific tests-collecting different data
and analyzing them to be able to decide about drilling and completion of a
petroleum system. Significant part of their scientific studies on particular
petroleum system is on estimating the possible quantity of hydrocarbons
(crude oil) that may be present there. The reservoir content is estimated by
means studying rock properties which can be determined in a direct way or
indirectly.
The indirect are done through laboratory measurements on core samples of

reservoir rock of interest which constitutes direct methods of porosity data
acquisition. This is done by measuring a bulk and their pore (empty spaces in
a rock). Its bulk volume is gravimetrically determined when a core-sample is
having an irregular shape. A petroleum system may have one or more
reservoir rocks, and reservoir rocks may have different property basing on
their types. Types of reservoir rock depend on kinds of their contents,
composition, morphology and sedimentology.
Fig. 2. Scheme of classification of reservoir rocks. (Adapted from

Nichols,2009, from lecture handout by Alamsyah).
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TYPES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS.
As a rock to be named a reservoir has to be a porous and permeable

lithological structure. It encompasses sedimentary rocks. These
sedimentary rocks may be made of sandstones (quartz sand or arksosic
sandstone), carbonates mud or dolomite. Dolomites mostly form good
reservoirs because the common reason behind it is that there is Mg, 13%
smaller than Ca in a way that during dolomitization, there is a total
decrease in volume of the material by 13%, here by 13% porosity is
gained.
SANDSTONE RESERVOIR ROCKS
The term sand refers to a specific grain with sizes between (62 µm – 2
mm). The performance of the sandstone as a reservoir rock is described
by its combination of porosity and permeability depending on the degree
to which the sand dominates its. The favorable texture is depicted by
packaging of similar sized grains, not a combination of coarse- a n d
f i n e - g r a i n e d composition. The best sandstone reservoirs are those
that are composed mainly of quartz grains of sand size of nearly equal
sizes or silica cement, with minimal fragmented particles. Sandstone
reservoirs are generally 25 meters thick.
CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS.
The most fascinating aspects of carbonate reservoir rocks are their

content. Carbonates are usually made of fossils which “range from the
very small single cell to the larger shelled animals”. Most carbonate rocks
are deposited at or in very close neighborhood to their site of creation.
The "best-sorted" carbonate rocks are Oolites in which encompass grains
of the same size and shapes even though Oolites are poorly sorted.
SILICICLASTIC RESERVOIR
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are the most abundant of the sedimentary rock. They are formed from the
detritus left over from the weathering of igneous, metamorphic, and older sedimentary rocks.
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Fig. 3. Depositional environment and grain size.
SHALLOW AND DEEP MARINE RESERVOIR
According to type of sedimentary rock, hydrocarbon reservoir can be divided

into two groups. There are clastic sedimentary rock and non clastic
sedimentary rock. On the clastic sedimentary, contained some precipitation
area, as one in marine area. Rock Type can be formed in deposition marine
areas such as shelf sandstone and turbidity sandstone.
Shelf sandstones: formed from precipitating in the shallow marine area.

Sands transported by water current from river to shallow marine area.
Because of that process, has been formed sands body around the grow delta
and maybe form the fan like in delta.
Turbidity sandstones: rock formed in deep marine area with rotation force
existing rotation deep current so as formed the coarse layer which has
interaction with shale layer in the deep marine. Shape from deposition of
turbidity sandstones can be like a lens, duct, or fans.
LACUSTRINE RESERVOIR
This type of reservoir formed in basin containing water surrounded by land

and initially formed by tectonic processes, volcanic, rifting, soil movement,
and the erosion by the wind on the coast or in land. The texture of
sedimentary rocks in the environments usually granules grained and the size
between 2 mm – 4 mm.
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EOLIAN RESERVOIR
Formed in large areas with the accumulation of sand deposition. The

sediment resulting from wind-blown sand. The clastic texture of the
environment is granules (2 mm – 4 mm) and coarse (over 2 mm).
FLUVIAL RESERVOIR
Type reservoir generated by the flow of the river where the process is
formed by 3the erosion, transport and deposition of forming depositional
formation.
DELTAIC RESERVOIR
On this type of reservoir, it was formed by the accumulation of lacustrine

sediments. Very fine grain sediment rocks.
Fig.6. Diagrammatic cross sections of depositional units within deltas. (A) Delta
Concept of Gilbert (1885) showing topset, foreset, and bottomset beds; (B) Deltaic and
neritic facies from Frazier (1967); (C) Sediment types and depositional units of an
idealized delta.
CARBONATE RESERVOIR
Carbonate rocks is a sedimentary rock with carbonate fraction more than

50%. Carbonate rocks can be used as a reservoir because of its porosity
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and permeability. Carbonate rocks can be classified to clastic and non-

clastic sediment. Its environmental formation is Tropic Ocean. The porosity
concept of a carbonate rock might be a little bit more complex than other
rocks, because of its vary secondary porous, from carbonate dissolution
made from skeletal remain and microbe with cement. Almost all of
carbonate reservoir type accumulated as a shallow marine sedimentary,
except on a pelagic chalk and deep marine re-
sediment reservoir carbonate in Mexico seas. Carbonate reservoir rocks
can be found as a clastic limestone, carbonate framework (reef), and
dolomite
Fig. 7. Depositional environment of marine carbonate.
REEF RESERVOIR
Reef is a framework made of sea organism containing skeletal, grow in

shallow clean water where sunlight can reach as nutrition. Reef distribution is
varies, some on the edge of the shelf and become a barrier, some scattered
called patch reef. Patch reef can reach a few kilometer sizes while barrier can
be elongated along the edge and limit the exposure with basin. Meanwhile the
shape of a reef can be a pole (pinnacle) or lengthened (fringing). Both can
become a good reservoir. Reef is a non-clastic carbonate rocks without
transportation process on its formation.
Fig. 8. Reef habitat in the shallow sea.
CLASTIC LIMESTONE
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Clastic limestone usually associated with oolit and become a pretty good
reservoir. Limestone associated with oolit often referred to as calcarenite. The
Deposition is in shallow marine environments along the coast with high
energy (strong wave currents). Porosity may be extremely high because of
the dissolution, but permeability is not far from 5 milidarcy. It is called clastic
because oolit associated with limestone is present through the transport
process before finally deposited.
DOLOMITE
Dolomite formed by processes of calcite dolomitization from other carbonates

(e.g. limestone). Dolomitization occurred not long after the process of
sedimentation. Dolomitization process can be reviewed as the secretion of
magnesium contained in sea water into the compounds associated with
carbonate Dolomite production begins from the Pre-Cambrium, continued
from Paleozoic to Mesozoic, up to Tertiary time. Calcite will be replaced with
the dolomite compound that has smaller volume, so that the space between
the pores of the rock grew wide.
This resulted in the cavities. Calcite that has not been dolomitized will dissolve
quickly and arising secondary pores, sometimes with very large size. Dolomite
has its price of porosity as high as limestone porosity, which is about 20-30%.
However, permeability is very high, reaching up to 5 mills Darcy to 2
Darcy. Hence, dolomite carbonate reservoirs has higher production of
hydrocarbon than limestone. According Zenger (1980) estimates that 80% of
carbonate reservoirs in the USA contains dolomite, while the 20% rest of it
contains limestone.
AFANITIC LIMESTONE
Afanitic limestone formed in shallow ocean areas with low levels of energy,
such as for example in the lagoon. This limestone has a very fine grain size
and tight. However, the porosity and permeability were appeared by the
events of dissolution and cracking that causing this type of limestone have
secondary porosity. Thus, it can be a reservoir of oil.
ANOTHER TYPE OF RESERVOIR
Although the porosity and permeability are poor, shale, silt stone, limestone
can even act as reservoir due to fractures in the rock body (secondary
porosity – secondary permeability). For example, an oil field in Florence,
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Colorado which is having shale (Lower – Upper Cretaceous) as reservoir

rock.
Then, it shows that for other than sedimentary rocks (igneous –

metamorphic) could be reservoir rock if there are in fracturing state.
Volcanic rocks are igneous rocks that formed on the earth surface (extrusive
igneous rock). Volcanic rock can be formed from mafic minerals such as
olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite, or felsic minerals such as feldspar,
muscovite, and quartz.[7] For example, oil obtained in Jatibarang (West Java,
Indonesia), produced from fractures that occur in volcanic rock
(tuff). Oil production from volcanic rock reservoir shows higher
production in initially, and then shows a rapid decline in production.
RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES, INTERPRETATIONS AND THEIR

SIGNIFICANCE ON A PETROLEUM SYSTEM.
 Porosity of reservoir is the property that tells how porous a rock is. It is
also defined as a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain
or store fluids. The porosity is genetically classified basing on standard
sedimentologic description of reservoir rock; there are primary and
secondary porosity.
1. The primary porosity types ar-8e:
I. Inter-particle- In this type by which rock content was
quickly lost in muds and carbonate sands through
compaction and cementation respectively. This type is
mostly found as siliciclastic sands.
II. Intra particle porosity by which the porosity is made of
interiors of carbonate skeletal grains.
2. Secondary porosity
It is the porosity formed after deposition leads to other couple of

reservoirs types:
I. Dissolution porosity type is made of carbonate dissolution and

leaching. It is also called carbonate reservoirs.
II. Fracture porosity which is characterized by not being voluminous.
Porosity can also be classified basing on rock morphology. There are three
types of morphologies to the pore spaces which are:
A. Caternary in which the pore open to more than one throat passage.
B. Cul-de-sac in which the pore open to only one throat passage.
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C. Closed pore in which there is no connection with other pores.
 Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its

porous medium. Permeability is one of important to determine the
effective reservoir. Porosity and permeability are two properties
describing the reservoir rock capacity with regard to the fluid
continence. Moreover, a reservoir rock can be porous without being
permeable. For example it is said to be permeable if and only if the
pores “communicate”. Hence for explorationists, knowing reservoir
rock permeability is a key mile stone because it is important for being
used to determine if it really has sufficient commercial accumulation of
oil, indeed measuring it is very difficult. The measuring of permeability
can differently be understood basing on two different ways. When the
porous medium is completely saturated by a single fluid, the
permeability will be described absolute, become described as
effective permeability when its porous medium is occupied by more
than one fluid
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE VOLUME OF THE RESERVOIR ROCKS.
1. Grain size and pattern arrangement: Apart from the arrangement

pattern of grains size which effect rock properties, the actual size of
the grains does not affects the permeability of a neither reservoir
rock nor porosity.
2. Shape of the grains: grains with high sphericity tend to pack
themselves well to make a minimum pore space, the fact which
increases angularity and hence pore space volume increases.
3. Sorting or uniformity of size of the grains: size of grains has an effect
on reservoir properties; the more uniform the grains are sized, the
great proper volume of voids spaces. Thereby mixing grains of
different sizes tends to decrease total volume of void space.
4. Subsequent action to the sediments (compaction): The more grains
are compacted, more the volume of void spaces decreases. However
the compaction of sand is less effective than the way clay does.
5. How the grains were formed.
6.
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METHODS FOR DETERMINING ROCK PROPERTIES.
Reservoir rock properties such as porosity and permeability are directly

or indirectly measured. The direct methods consist of measuring the core
sample taken from the parallel lithological area of the reservoir rock to
assess them while the indirect methods consist of using data collection,
well logs, seismic, production tests, etc., the porosity data are used in
the basic reservoir to evaluate volumetric calculation of fluids in the
reservoir and calculating fluid saturations and geologic characterization
of the reservoir
RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES CALCULATION FORMULA.
Porosity: ф= , Vp=VB-VS ,
Ф symbolizes porosity, Vp (volume of all pores), Vs represents volume

occupied by other particles (Matrix materials), VB represents the total
volume, ƿ represents their respective densities.
Permeability: the permeability of a reservoir reckons on the

determining the flow of a fluid which depends on constan, k, Darsey
constant. With q representing flow rate, A the area section of pores, µ
represents viscosity constant of fluid and dp/ dL represents the
infinitesimal change of flowing pressure.
RESERVOIR POROSITY
Porosity is the void space in a rock that can store the fluids. It is measured as
either a volume percentage or a fraction (expressed as a decimal). In the
subsurface this volume may be filled with petroleum (oil and gas), water, a
range of non hydrocarbon gasses (CO2, H2S, N2), or some combination of
these.[1]
Porosity is symbolized in phi (ϕ) and its value is expressed in
percentage. Porosity value calculation:
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Porosity divided into two types, absolute porosity and effective porosity.
Absolute porosity is the ratio of the total pore volume in the rock to bulk
volume, obtained by the calculation:
Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected pore volume to bulk volume,
obtained by calculation:
Based on the way of its formation, there are two types of

porosity: Primary porosity is porosity that formed while
sedimentary rock deposited.
Secondary porosity is porosity that formed after the sedimentary rock deposited.
RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY
Permeability is an intrinsic property of a material that determines how easily a

fluid can pass through it. In the petroleum industry, the Darcy (D) is the
standard unit of permeability, but milidarcies (1 mD = 10-3 D) are more
commonly used. A Darcy is defined as a flow rate of 10-2 ms-1 for a fluid of 1
cp (centipoise) under a pressure of 10-4atm m-2. Permeability in reservoir
rocks may range from 0.1 mD to more than 10 D.
CAP ROCKS
Cap rock is a rock that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain
temperature and pressure and geochemical conditions.
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Fig .11. Cap Rocks
For a long time, the only force causing the movement of oil and gas in the
subsurface was believed to be buoyancy. If so, then to form oil and gas
accumulation, their migration paths must have been stopped by a roof, i.e.,
caprock (seal). Clays, shales, carbonates, evaporites, and their combinations
can form caprocks.
The same rocks react differently to different fluids. In some cases, rocks serve
as satisfactory or good conduits for water, but form barriers for oil or gas
movement. In some other situations rocks yield oil but stop gas movement,
etc. This is determined by capillary forces, the magnitude of which depends
on fluid and rock properties (fluid density, fluid viscosity, rock structure, rock
wettability) and pore size (capillary forces almost disappear when the pore
diameter exceeds 0.5mm).
All aforementioned rock and fluid properties are strongly affected by the
subsurface temperature and pressure and geochemical environment. Caprock
is a rock that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain temperature and
pressure and geochemical conditions. Therefore, the necessary properties of a
rock to act as a seal will be different for different fluids. The same rock with
different fluids may or may not have sealing properties up to a complete
inversion (caprock - reservoir). The caprocks can be categorized into three
types.
TYPES OF CAP ROCK IN PETROLEUM SYSTEM

TYPE I
Caprocks are typical for argillaceous sequences in a state of continuing

compaction; they are developed in areas of young subsidence of Earth‟s
crust, with abnormally high pore water pressure. Sealing properties of these
rocks are determined by the amount of capillary pressure at the contact of the
reservoir and caprock, the pore pressure of water saturating the caprock,
initial pressure gradient of water and the variation of hydraulic forces in the
section.
Oil and gas accumulations have higher potential energy than that of the
formation water. These accumulations can be stable only if this energy is
equal to or less than the caprock breakthrough energy. Pore water pressure
in compacting argillaceous beds is always greater than the pressure in the
adjacent reservoir beds.
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As a result, sealing capability of the Type I caprocks is determined by

hydraulic sealing, by the amount of capillary pressure, and by the pressure at
which water begins to flow through caprocks. Just the capillary pressure
alone in such caprocks may exceed 100kg/cm2. This means that the Type I
caprocks is capable of confining an oil accumulation having almost any
column height. It appears that sealing capability of argillaceous caprocks does
not depend on their thickness describes only the aforementioned caprock
type.
TYPE II
Caprocks are associated with rocks compacted beyond the plasticity limit and
having lost ability to swell on contact with water. Such rocks do not contain
swelling clay minerals, and interstitial water contains surfactants.
Consequently, pore water in these rocks does not have initial pressure
gradient.
This type of caprocks is encountered mostly in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic

sediments of young and old platforms. There are no clear-cut overpressure
environments there, but there is a relatively clear hydrodynamic subdivision in
the section. the hydrodynamic environment may improve or lower the sealing
capability of caprocks. In an extreme case, the water potential in the reservoir
may exceed the water potential of the bed overlying the caprock by the value
of capillary pressure.In such a situation, the caprock will be open for the
vertical flow of hydrocarbons, and the trap will not exist even when potential
distribution in the reservoir bed is favorable.
TYPE III
Caprocks are typical for rocks with a rigid matrix and intense fracturing. Such
caprocks are mainly developed over the old platforms in regions of low
tectonic mobility, with no detectable hydrodynamic breakdown of the section.
Formation water potential in such regions is practically equal throughout the
section and corresponds to the calculated hydrostatic potential.
The correlation between clay mineralogy and their sealing properties are as
follows "The permanency in the composition of the silicate layer is a
characteristic of the kaolinite group minerals. As a result, replacements
within the lattice are very rare and the charges within a layer are
compensated.
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The connection between silicate layers in the C-axis direction is implemented

through hydrogen atoms, which prevents the lattice from expanding, ruling
out the penetration of water and polar organic liquids. The silicate layer in the
montmorillonite mineral group is variable due to a common isomorphic
replacement in octahedral and narrower tetrahedral sheets. This replacement
results in the disruption of the lattice neutrality.
Extra charge that occurs with such replacements is compensated by exchange

ions. Ion properties that maintain lattice neutrality in montmorillonite minerals
(valence, size of the ion radius, polarization, etc.) define the capability of the
lattice to expand along the C-axis. As a result, water and polar organic liquids
can penetrate the interlayer spaces. This, in turn, leads to an increase in the
volume, which drastically lowers permeability and some other properties, but
at the same time improves sealing capabilities.
The silicate layer of the illite mineral group is similar to the montmorillonite
one. However, the excessive negative charge of the lattice is due mainly to
the isomorphic replacements within tetrahedral sheets. The proximity
between the source of negative charge and basal surfaces causes a stronger
connection between the silicate layers of illite group compared to
montmorillonite‟s."
Admixture of sand and silt degrades the sealing properties of clays. Especially
important are the textural changes due to this admixture. Not only the
mineral composition of a rock and organic matter content, but also the pore
water are important in forming the major sealing properties of clays, such as
degree of swelling and compressibility.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAPROCK
A large amount of expertise regarding caprock performance is available from

hydrocarbon exploration, production, and storage operations. However, while
there are many similarities in seal performance criteria, there are also key
differences that must be considered when storage of CO2 is being evaluated,
as a caprock that is adequate for hydrocarbon storage may not be adequate
for CO2 storage. For example, in terms of seal capacity and resistance to
fracturing, the most effective sedimentary seals for hydrocarbons are gas
hydrates followed by evaporites In comparison, methane gas hydrates should
not under any circumstances be considered as a potential seal for CO2
storage reservoirs due to the high probability of an exchange reaction
occurring, indeed they should be classed as a geohazard and avoided
20 |
To form an effective seal for CO2 storage purposes the sealing lithology
needs to be:
 impermeable to CO2
 unfaulted and relatively ductile (resistance to fracturing)
 laterally continuous, maintaining a constancy of properties over a large area
Fig. 12. Preferred seals for CO2 storage reservoirs in comparison to hydrocarbon
reservoir seals
Differing ability to form a hydrocarbon seal is related to inherent ductility in

the subsurface. For CO2 storage additional factors must be taken into account
- most notably potential chemical interactions with methane hydrates and
carbonates.
Caprocks considered suitable for CO2 storage operations include evaporites

(e.g. halite or anhydrite), shales and mudstones (e.g. Bachu, 2005). In their
site selection framework, also include carbonates. These caprock types are
discussed below in relation to their ability to form an effective seal for CO 2
storage purposes.
Summary
1- SOURCE ROCK:
21 |
Is a rock that is capable of generating or that has generated movable

quantities of hydrocarbons.
Source rocks can be divided into at least four major categories:
 Potential
 Effective
 Relic effective
 Spent
To be a source rock, a rock must have three features:
 Quantity of organic matter

 Quality capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbons
 Thermal maturity
There are several of types of source rock
 Type 1 source rocks are formed from algal remains deposited under a
 Type 2 source rocks are formed from marine planktonic and
bacterial remains preserved under anoxic conditions in marine
environments.
 Type 3 source rocks are formed from terrestrial plant material that
has been decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic or sub-oxic
conditions.
2- RESERVOIR ROCK
Reservoir Rocks are the rocks that have ability to store fluids inside its pores,
so that the fluids (water, oil and gas) can be accumulated. Reservoir rock is a
rock containing porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon accumulation
and a sealing mechanism to form a reservoir from which commercial flows of
hydrocarbons can be produced. There are several types of reservoir rock:
Sandstone reservoir rocks, carbonates reservoir rock, Siliciclastic Reservoir .
Porosity of reservoir is the property that tells how porous a rock is. It is also
defined as a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store
fluids.
The primary porosity types are:
i) Inter-particle
ii) Intra-particle
22 |
Secondary porosity, the porosity formed after deposition leads to other

couple of reservoirs types.
A. Dissolution
porosity
B. Fractured porosity
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its porous

medium. Permeability is one of important to determine the effective reservoir.
3- CAP ROCK
Cap rock is a rock that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain
temperature and pressure and geochemical conditions.
There are several types of cap rock:
 Type1: caprocks are typical for argillaceous sequences in a state of

continuing compaction
 Type2: caprocks are associated with rocks compacted beyond the
plasticity limit and having lost ability to swell on contact with water.
Such rocks do not contain swelling clay minerals.
 Type3: caprocks are typical for rocks with a rigid matrix and intense
fracturing. Such caprocks are mainly developed over the old platforms
in regions of low tectonic mobility.
PETROLUEM TRAP
The trap is the element that holds the oil and gas in place in a pool.
Most geologists think of the trap as the shape of reservoir rock element that
permits a petroleum pool to accumulate under-ground.
Rocks trap are formed from a wide variety of combinations of structural and
stratigraphic features of the reservoir rocks. A trap generally consists of an
impervious cover the roof rock overlying and sealing a porous and permeable rock
that contains the oil and gas.
Two Major genetic groups of traps have been agreed upon: upon structure and
stratigraphic. A third group, combination traps, is caused by a combination of
23 |
processes. Agreement breaks down, however, when attempts are made to

subdivide these groups.
Structural traps are those traps whose geometry was formed by tectonic processes
after the deposition of the beds involved. According to, a structural trap is" one
whose upper boundary has been made concave, as viewed from below, by some
local deformation, such as folding, or faulting or, both of the reservoir rock. The
edges of a pool occurring in a structural trap are determined wholly, or in part, by
the intersection of the underlying water table with the roof rock overlying the
deformed reservoir rocks". Basically, therefore, structural traps are caused by
folding and faulting.
A second group of traps is caused by diapirs, where salt or mud have moved
upward and domed the overlying strata, causing many individual types of traps.
Arguably, diapirie traps are a variety of structural traps, but since they are caused
by local lithostatic movement, not regional tectonic forces, they should perhaps be
differentiated.
Stratigraphic traps are those traps whose geometry is formed by changes in

lithology. The lithological variations may be depositional (e.g., channels, reefs,
and bars) or post depositional (e.g., truncation and diagentic changes).
Hydrodynamic traps occur where the downward movement of water prevents the
upward movement of oil without normal structure or stratigraphic closure. Such
traps are rare. The final group, combination traps, is formed by a combination of
two or more of the previously defined genetic processes.
TYPES OF TRAPS
STRUCTURAL TRAP
Structural traps are formed by a deformation in the rock layer that contains the
hydrocarbons. Domes, anticlines, and folds are common structures. Fault- related
features also may be classified as structural traps if Closure is present.
Structural traps are the easiest to locate by surface and subsurface geological and
geophysical studies. They are the most numerous among traps and have received
a greater amount of attention in the search for oil than all other types of traps. An
example of this kind of trap starts when salt is deposited by shallow. Seas, Later, a
sinking seafloor deposits organic-rich shale over the salt, which is in turn covered
with layers of sandstone and shale. Deeply buried salt tends to rise unevenly in
swells or salt domes» and any Oil generated within the sediments is Trapped
where the sandstones are pushed up over or adjacent to the salt.
24 |
TRAPS FORMED BY COMPRESSIVE TECTONIC PROCESSES:
Compressive tectonic regimes commonly lead to the development of large scale

constractional folds and thrust such contraction most common at convergent plate
boundaries and transpressional strike-slip plate boundaries.
TRAPS FORMED BY EXTENSIONAL TECTONIC PROCESSES:
Traps formed by the extensional tectonics are very common in the rift basins.
Structural features generated by the gravity effects will be examined in following
section.
TRAPS FORMED BY DIAPIRIC PROCESSES:
The specific gravity of salt is about 2.2gcm-3. In consequence, salt is buoyant relative
to the most other sediment and sedimentary rocks. Over geologic timescales, salt is
also able to deforms plastically. The onset of salt movement
may be caused by a variety of initial condition. Clearly diapiric movement of both

salt and mud can create anticlinal structures that could form petroleum traps.
However, the opportunities for traps formation in association with the salt or mud
movement are much more diverse than simple domal anticline formation (Fig.2).
TRAPS FORMED BY COMPACTIONAL PROCESSES:
Differential compaction across basement highs, titled fault blocks, carbonate shelf
rims, reef or isolated sand bodies in mud can lead to the development of relatively
simple anticlinal traps.
TRAPS FORMED BY GRAVITY PROCESSES

Traps formed by gravity driven processes are particularly important in large recent deltas. The gravity
structures form independently of basement tectonics(either extension or compression). They owe their
existence to shallow detachment along a low angle, basin ward-dipping plane. The drive mechanism is
provided by the weight of sediment deposited by the delta shelfslop break or on the slop itself.
Many producing anticlines are faulted according to the stress patterns that formed
them. Most anticlines are associated with some types of faulting in their
Deformational histories, whether they are normal or thrust fault related faulted
anticlines are usually asymmetrical.
Over thrust anticlines produce abundantly from fields in over thrust belt Provinces.
25 |
In some cases, producing beds in over thrust anticlines are thrust against source
beds of different ages not normally associated with the reservoirs. Over thrust
anticlines are normally asymmetrical and complexly faulted. Typical over thrust
belts do not significantly involve crystalline basement rock in potentially productive
structure. However compressive foreland blocks detach the crystalline basement
and often thrust it over prospective sediment.
Faulting and tilting of crustal produces a variety of trapping mechanisms. A

single fault can provide a seal to prevent petroleum migration. Multiply faulted
blocks create traps which are often connected, but can conversely be entirely
independent of each other. Petroleum production usually comes from the fault-
sealed up thrown block. Enough petroleum comes from downthrown blocks to
consider them important exploration objectives.
Simple fault traps involve up-dip Closure of a reservoir bed against a sealing fault.
A plunging anticline faulted up-plunge is good example of a trap involving partial
closure. Where a reservoir is multiply faulted, a complex fault trap occurs. Multiply
faulted anticlines form complex fault traps.
Sub thrust traps occur in over thrust belt where the deformed reservoir forms a
trap below a thrust fault. Some sub thrust traps are complexly faulted, and others
are quite simple and relatively un-deformed.
Salt structure formation can produce several different types of traps described by
varying deformational intensities. Most salt structures are faulted in response to
the degree of deformation. Traps related to salt deformation do not usually produce
from the salt itself. They produce from beds deformed by the salt tectonic instead.
Salt dome traps are important in several areas of the world. The traps of many
types have produced hydrocarbons from Tertiary sediment deformed by salt dome
activity.
MODELS OF STRUCTURAL TRAPS:
CRESTS 0F TITLED BLOCKS (FIG. 3A)
Reservoirs are located either in the pre-rift series or in the Lower Miocene. The
seals are the Globigerina marls or the evaporites.
Importance of secondary crests: the culmination of titled blocks is in fact very

often eroded, frequently down —to-the basement, whilst secondary, more deeply
buried crest, located on the homocline flank, generally have had their reservoir
26 |
preserved from erosion and the likelihood of finding a sealed trap could be higher
(Fig.3b)
Down -faulted wedges (Fig.4b)
These are down —faulted compartments bounding major longitudinal faults.

Trapping possibilities in the pre-rift or lower Miocene series are controlled by the
dip of the strata; should the dips be opposite to the fault, the down –faulted block
may be a good trap. Conversely, if the dip of the strata and the fault are in same
direction, the sealing properties of the fault will determine the trap.
In general, this sealing quality is poor because of the nearly continuous activity of the
clysmic fault form the beginning of the Miocene to the present time.
The structural complexity of these traps is due to dip—slip gliding along the fault
scarp. These subtle trapping mechanisms are exemplified in the surface geology
although no oil pools have been reported producing from them in the Gulf.
However, their exploration is difficult due to the quality of seismic at depth.
HANGING WALL OF SYNTHETIC FAULTS (FIG.4C)
This is another possible model of structural trap present the Gulf but where no
hydrocarbon accumulations have yet been discovered. This kind 0f trap forms in
down- faulted compartment along the homocline flank of titled blocks .The
trapping mechanism is a function of the throw of the normal synthetic fault; it has
to be sufficient to completely offset reservoirs across the fault located in
favourable position relative to hydrocarbon migration from the deepest part of the
half-grabens . Such traps cold contain huge accumulations and should be a target
in future rounds of exploration.
DRAPING OVER- FAULT BOUNDARIES (FIG.53)
Such features, created by the differential sediment compaction over the crests of
blocks are common in the syn- rift formations; flanks are steeper at depth and the
structure usually dies out in the younger sediments. Symmetrical anticlines are
less common than asymmetrical ones overlying a faulted high with hinge- line or
associated flexure.
TWIST ZONES (FIG. 5B)
The twist zones are defined as flat lying areas (saddles) between two graben or
two horst feature. They are not properly structural traps but could have trapping
possibilities when combined with stratigraphic pinch outs or transverse faults.
27 |
ROLL-OVER FOLDS (FIG. 5C)
These traps are created by dip—slip of the hanging wall of major clysmic faults
along the fault scrap. Numerous examples can be recognized in the Gulf of Suez,
but they are generally deep prospects, and Miocene reservoirs are unlikely to be
present.
HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS
In these traps hydrodynamic movement of water is essential to prevent the

upward movement of oil or gas.
The basic argument is that oil or gas will generally move upward along permeable
carrier beds to the earth‘s surface except where they encounter a permeability
barrier, structural or stratigraphic, beneath which they may be tapped.
Where water is moving hydro dynamically down permeable beds, it may

encounter upward-moving oil. When the hydrodynamic force of the water is
greater than the force due to the buoyancy of the oil droplets, the oil will be
restrained from upward movement and will trapped within the bed without any
permeability barrier.
28 |
Fig (2) Structural traps. (a) Titled fault blocks in an extensional region. (b) A
rollover anticline on a thrust. (c) The lateral seal of a trap against a salt diaper and
a compositional drape trap over the diaper crest. (d) A trap associated with
diaperic mudstone, with a lateral seal against the mud-wall. (e) A compactional
drape over a basement block commonly creates enormous low relief traps. (f)
Gravity generated trapping commonly occurs in deltaic sequences.
29 |
Fig (3) models of structural traps (EGPC & BEICIP,1988)
Fig (4) models of structural traps, cont'd (EGPC & BEICIP, 1988)
Fig (5) models of structural traps, cont'd (EGPC & BEICIP, 1988)
Fig (6) Hydrodynamic traps
30 |
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
Stratigraphic traps are traps that result when the reservoir bed is sealed by other beds or by
a change in porosity or permeability within the reservoir bed itself. There are many different
kinds of stratigraphic traps. In one type, a tilted or inclined layer of petroleum—bearing rock
is cutoff or truncated by an essentially horizontal, impermeable rock layer. Or sometimes a
petroleum- bearing formation pinches out; that is, the formation is gradually cut off by an
overlying layer. Another stratigraphic trap occurs when a porous and permeable reservoir
bed is surrounded by impermeable rock. Still another type occurs when there is a change in
porosity and permeability in the reservoir itself. The upper reaches of the reservoir may be
impermeable and nonporous, while the lower part is permeable and porous and contains
hydrocarbons.
There are two main groups of the stratigraphic traps:
Primary stratigraphic traps result from variations in facies that developed during
sedimentation. These include features such as lenses, pinch-outs, and appropriate facies
changes.
Secondary stratigraphic traps result from variations that developed after

sedimentation, mainly because of diagenesis. These include variations due to porosity
enhancement by dissolution or loss by cementation.
Sand Body traps. Inasmuch as there are numerous types of finite sand bodies, many different
trap types are possible. Some trap types are modifications of each other because of changes
in depositional environments. However; there are several well-defined types of sand bodies
that form traps in many places. Channel sands form traps enclosed in shale in many
locations in the mid- continent and rocky Mountain.
These deposits have limited lateral extent but may persist linearly for several miles of
production. Delta reservoir traps consist mainly of channels enclosed by floodplain and
swamp deposits. Traps of this type are well -developed in the Gulf coast. Delta deposits are
common on divergent continental margins where rapid sediment progradation occurs.
Beach or barrier bar trap are relatively narrow linear deposits that become traps when
enclosed by shale. These occur in the geologic column of the gulf coast where they are
being formed under present condition as well. Changes in porosity and permeability can be
caused by variety of depositional and diagenetic factors. Sand stone loses its permeability as
it grades laterally into shale. Finely crystalline limestone becomes significantly more
permeable when dolomized.
A trap often develops where sand loses permeability or pinches out entirely whether by non-
depositional or erosion. Traps in dolomite are often sealed by Up-dip contact with
impermeable limestone. Wherever the permeability of reservoir rock of any lithology
becomes reduced up dip, the possibility of trap is manifest. This can occur as a result of
changes in facies, erosion, or non - deposition.
31 |
TRAPS FORMED BY DEPOSITIONAL PINCHOUT
From the trap to the bottom of a system tract, each depositional environment is capable of
producing a juxtaposition of permeable and impermeable sediments which might one day
form a stratigraphic trap for petroleum. In practice, the reservoir geometry becomes the trap
geometry. Examples include aeolian dunes encased in lacustrine mudstone, sand- filled
fluvial channels cut into mud rich over bank deposits, shallow marine bar sandstones
surrounded by marine shales, carbonate reefs isolated by inclosing marls, and Submarine-
fan sands trapped within the domain of pelagic mud (Fjg.7).
TRAPS FORMED BY UNCONFORMITIES
Attenuation of the up-dip portions of potential reservoir interval by an unconformity

can create truly massive traps with enormous petroleum catchments areas. Most of
the unconformity traps described above depends on a combination of trapping
mechanisms, which rely in large part on a planar or gently folded unconformity.
Unconformities do of course in a variety of the shapes (fig8, 9).
TRAPS FORMED BY DIGENETIC PROCESSES: -
Mineral precipitation tends to reduce reservoir quality. In exceptional circumstances,

porosity impairment may be so severe that it is destroyed completely. Such tight rocks act
as seals and trap petroleum. Mineral cements are known to form top, lateral, and even
bottom seals to reservoirs. Examples in carbonate systems are more numerous than those in
elastic systems.
MODELS OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS :-( fiG.10)
TRUNCATION BELOW UNCONFORMITY: -
Numerous examples of truncation traps are recognized in the Gulf, in pre- rift strata (Nubia
sandstone, cretaceous, or Eocene limestones cut by the basal rift unconformity) or Miocene
sediment (Rudeis sandstones cut by intra-Miocene unconformities).
ON-LAP PINCH-OUT
This mainly occurs where the Nukhul sandstones are overlain by the transgressive Globigerina
shales, on the flanks of titled blocks.
UP-DIP PINCH-OUT OF SAND LENSES: -
32 |
They are common in the sand bodies developed mainly in the lower Miocene Kareem and
Rudies formation. It is noteworthy that such sand bodies are generally developed at their
best on the flanks rather than the crests of blocks.
REEFAL BUILDUPS OVER BLOCK CRESTS: -
Carbonate reefs grew on the crests of some blocks that remained high during Miocene
deposition. They generally have good petrophysical properties related to secondary
diagenesis such as dolomitization, and fracturing.
WEATHERED AND FRACTURED BASEMENT: -
Some block crests were exposed to erosion during the first phases of rifting facilitating
weathering and fracturing of the basement. These rocks may contain oil accumulations.
Fig(7) Examples of stratigraphic trap
33 |
Fig(8) oil trapped below unconformity in pale geo
Fig(9) oil trapped above unconformity in pale geographic lows formed by porous channels
sand graphic highs below shale
Fig (10) models of stratigraphic traps (EGPC, BEICIP, 1988)
COMBINATION TRAPS
These traps show the combined effect of structural and stratigraphical elements, neither
element alone forms a trap but both are essential to it.
A COMBINATION TRAP GENERALLY HAS A TWO-STAGE HISTORY: -
1- Stratigraphic element, often formed early and caused by edge permeability of the
reservoir rock. The stratigraphic element may be lateral variation, truncation, weding out,
unconformable overlap.
2- Structure element, nearly formed after and caused the deformation that completes
the trap. The structure element may be any kind of folding &faulting (fig.11).
In this type of traps, the stratigraphic elements act before the structural elements. In some
other cases the two are formed contemporaneously. In such cases the operating tectonic
events may act as the controlling factor for each trap.
Traps are of the combined stratigraphic structural type, consisting mainly of, fault anticlinical
features induced by generally vertical basement movement, due to periodic rejuvenation of
these horst-type structures, unconformities and gaps, I on lapping wedges and erosional
pinch-out are frequently associated with the culminating areas and form multiple
stratigraphic traps.
34 |
The geometry of a channel deposit is linear. It can trap hydrocarbon laterally as it shales out
into the associated floodplain. However, in the absence of a trapping mechanism the
channel deposits can become a trap if faulted across its longitudinal dimension.
Folding a beach deposit will develop a trap in the same way as faulting achannel. The
intrinsic limiting dimensions of beach provide trapping in one direction. Folding the beach
sand provides trapping in another dimension and effectively closes the features.
Elimination of up-dip porosity by formation of asphalt where an oil-bearing bed crops out
can form an asphalt seal trap. Tilting of the oil-bearing bed causes the oil to migrate up—
dip to the outcrop where it is chemically altered to form the asphalt seal.
So far, the traps delineated by enough wells have found to be combination traps in which
the stratigraphic element plays a major role. This is established by the lenticular nature of
the sands &shales in many of the discoveries so far made, whether commercial or not yet
proven commercial. At the same time,
the finds are confined within structures which owe their presence to earth movement. For
example, the Abu Madi field is a low relief dome, with faulting to form blocks.
Within one and the same structure, the stratigraphical trap- forming element is rather prominent.
The oil field of the Gulf of Suez generally exhibits a great variety of structural 'feature and
structural—strati graphic traps. Purely stratigraphic or purely structural traps are nowhere the
rule due to the close relationship between the structural evolution and deposition of sediments
in the rift sub basins
In the Northern Western desert there are many combination traps involving faulted
unconformity surface which dissected the stratigraphic sequences. Also, the structural
traps are predominant in the North Western desert in the form of titled fault blocks.
Fig (11) example of combination traps.
35 |
BARREN TRAPS:
In many areas, barren (water-filled) traps tend to be the rule rather than the exception. A
number of possible explanations for barren traps are given here. It is assumed that the traps
have been tested thoroughly that it is completely closed and of adequate porosity and
permeability with water filling the reservoir to the top.
1) NO SOURCE MATERIAL:
The absence of potential source material in the sedimentary section may be due to
unfavorable climate, too rapid sedimentation, wrong depositional environments (which
includes a topographically high position on the sea floor), or the destruction of once-present
source material during the biochemical stage.
2) NO GENERATION OF OIL:
Because we don’t know certainly the oil-producing process, we can only guess, what may be
responsible for lack of transformation of organic solid into liquid or gaseous hydrocarbon.
Suggested possibilities in this regard include absence of proper bacteria, absence of the
necessary catalysts, inadequate time, and insufficient cover.
3) OIL FAILED TO REACH TRAPS:

This may be due to down-dip impounding or to diversion. Damming could be caused by
lenticular permeability or by faults. A large anticline lying along the migration pathway would
prevent oil from reaching a smaller up-dip anticline until and unless it was filled to the spill
point.
4) THE OIL HAS ESCAPED:
Regional tilting may have caused the oil to spill out of the trap, after which renewed folding
reproduced the trap. Fissures and faults may have allowed the hydrocarbon to escape
upward to the surface, where they become dissipated. Renewed folding of the Kirkuk
anticline in Iraq caused fracturing of over seals upward drainage of oil. Perhaps this type of
escape has been more common in the past, because no rock is absolutely impervious a
great enough apan of geologic time might permit the more volatile hydrocarbon, at least, to
disperse through the confining rocks without the presence of any fracture system.
5) OIL DESTROYED:
Hydrocarbon in rock can be destroyed in at least three ways:
a) By relatively intense diastrophism.

b) By weathering
36 |
C) By the activity of hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria.
For the last two methods of destruction to become Operative, enough cover must be
removed so that the oil accumulation lies within the zone of oxidation. It is also probable
that the hydrocarbon accumulations have been destroyed (or at least expelled) by
diastrophism where the sedimentary rocks show any degree of metamorphism.
6) TRAP FORMED TOO LATE:

The timing of oil accumulation is of utmost importance. Obviously, a trap is of no value if
it does not come into existence until the hydrocarbons have Ceased movement through
the rocks. In some areas the barren anticlines contain a greater thickness of the
formations lying above the reservoir rocks than in adjacent productive anticlines.
It is also important to emphasize that structures that do not have any closure in the given
stage geotectonic history will catch no oil.
Summery and conclusion:
Hydrocarbon traps form where permeable reservoir rocks (carbonates, sandstones) are
covered by rocks with low permeability (cap rocks) that are capable of preventing the
hydrocarbons from further upward migration.
Typical cap rocks are compacted shales, evaporates, and tightly cemented sandstones and
carbonate rocks. Traps are usually classified according to the mechanism that produces the
hydrocarbon accumulation. The two main groups of traps are those that are formed by
structural deformation of rocks (stiuctural traps), and those that are related to depositional
or diagenetic features in the sedimentary sequence (stratigraphic traps).
Many traps result from both of these factors (combination traps). A common example is
stratigraphic pinch-out (e. g, a sandstone lens wedging into mudstone) that is combined
with tectonic tilting (which allows hydrocarbons to pond in the up-dip part of the sandstone
wedge). Other traps result mainly from fracturing (which creates the reservoir porosity) or
hydrodynamic processes there are many Classifications of hydrocarbon traps in use, but
most have 90% in common.
Structure Traps: Structural traps are primarily the result of folding and (or) faulting, or both.
1- ANTICLINAL (FOLD) AND DOME TRAP:
Necessary conditions: An impervious cap rock and a porous reservoir rock; closure occurs in
all directions to prevent leakage (four-way closure necessary for a dome.
37 |
a) Simple fold traps (anticlinal) with axial culmination (fold axis dipping m two or more
directions). The simplest type of trap is formed when a Sandstone bed that is overlain by
tight (Le. low permeability) shale is folded into an anticline.
b) Salt domes: Strata around the salt dome curve upward creating traps against the sealing
salt layers.
2- FAULT TRAPS:
The fault plane must have a sealing effect so that it functions as a fluid migration barrier for
reservoir rocks. There are several common types of fault trap.
a) Normal faults — commonly associated with graben (rift) structures.
c) Thrust faults — commonly associated with compressional tectonics
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS:
Stratigraphic traps are created by any variation in the stratigraphy that is independent
of structural deformation, although many stratigraphic traps involve a tectonic
component such as tilting of strata.
Two main groups can be recognized:
Primary stratigraphic traps result from variations in facies that developed during
sedimentation. These include features such as lenses, pinch-outs, and appropriate facies
changes.
Secondary stratigraphic traps result from variations that developed after sedimentation,
mainly because of diagenesis. These include variations due to porosity enhancement by
dissolution or loss by cementation.
HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS:
If pore water flow in a sedimentary basin is strong enough, the oil-water contact may
deviate from the horizontal because of the hydrodynamic shear stress that is set up. In
some cases, oil may accumulate without closure. Flow of fresh (meteoric) water down
through oil-bearing rocks commonly results in biodegradation of the oil and formation of
asphalt, which may then form a cap
Combination traps: These traps show the combined effect of. rock for oil structural and
stratigraphic element
COAL BED METHANE (CBM)
38 |
Coal bed methane is a clean-burning energy source well suited as a fuel for production of
electricity, residential and commercial heating, and as a vehicle fuel.
Natural gas is a clean-burning energy source well suited as a boiler fuel, vehicle fuel, and for
heating residences as well as large structures.
CBM is a non-conventional hydrocarbon resource that fundamentally differs in its accumulation

processes and production technology when compared to conventional natural gas resources. The
following paragraphs detail the formation of coal and CBM.
COAL FORMATION
Coal is a sedimentary rock that had its origin on the surface of the earth as an accumulation of
inorganic and organic debris.
Coal is predominantly made up of organic plant material, in particular ancient wood, leaves,
stems, twigs, seeds, spores, pollen, and other parts of aquatic and land plants. When the debris
first begins to pile up it is termed peat; the earth’s crust subsides, and more sediments are piled
on top of the organic material, causing it to sink ever deeper into the sedimentary layer.
Layers of peat may be separated by clay and sand deposited during times of flood or other
breaks in the accumulation cycle. As the peat accumulates, organic processes begin to break the
plant debris down, both physically and chemically.
Physically, small insects, worms, and fungi break the fragments into smaller pieces. As the peat
solidifies, the small fragments formed are termed macerals, and can be identified microscopically
as coming from plant products. At the same time, the peat is squeezed by overlying material,
driving out its water content and compacting the plant debris into rock.
Chemically, the plant material is slowly converted into simpler organic compounds ever richer in
carbon.
These combined processes are called sedimentation, and are illustrated in Figure 2. After
sedimentation, the peat is buried deeper while pressure and heat buildup. It is the heat and
pressure that slowly transforms the peat into coal through the process of maturation. To
generate one foot of coal it took approximately five feet of raw organic material.
39 |
Coals are deposited over a narrow range of sedimentary environments, such as swamps or bogs.
In all cases the fresh, organic plant material needs to be buried quickly and protected from
oxidation. In order for the organic matter to be preserved, the plant debris must accumulate in a
local area of restricted oxygen supply.
COAL CLASSIFICATION
There are two main recognized ways to classify coal – by rank or by grade. Coal rank is a
measure of the degree of coalification or heat content and coal grade is a measure of the coal
purity. For the purposes of the Primer, Rank will be used to describe coal and its relationship to
methane production.
RANK
The degree of coalification or metamorphosis undergone by a coal, as it matures from peat to

anthracite, has a significant bearing on its physical and chemical characteristics, and is referred
to as the 'rank' of the coal. The major ranks of coal from lowest to highest are lignite, sub-
bituminous, bituminous, semianthracite and anthracite. The higher the coal rank the higher the
temperature and pressure of coal formation. The higher coal ranks have a greater percent of
carbon. As moisture and volatiles are driven off during coal maturation carbon is left behind. With
an increase in carbon content there is also an increase in the heat content of the coal. The
earth’s crust exhibits an average geothermal gradient of about 1.5° F for every 100 feet of burial
40 |
depth. As coal seams are depressed ever-deeper into the earth under accumulating sediments,
much of the water and volatile matter are driven away, leaving behind the fixed carbon as well as
residual amounts of ash, sulfur, and tiny amounts of a few assorted trace
elements. The extent of this de-volatilization varies according to the deepest depth of ultimate
burial, resulting in a continuous series of coal grades according to the relative percentages of
fixed carbon they contain.
Lignite is the lowest rank of coal and is characterized as browner and softer. Lignites have a
high oxygen content (up to 30 percent), a relatively low fixed carbon content (20-35 percent),
and a high moisture content (30-70 percent) (WCI). Lignite is not particularly efficient in
producing energy per mass of fuel. These coals are also susceptible to spontaneous combustion.
Sub-bituminous coals usually appear dull black and waxy. Sub-bituminous coals have a fixed
carbon content between 35 to 45 percent and a moisture content of up to 10 percent. These
coals are frequently used for electrical generation.
Bituminous coals are dense black solids, frequently containing bands with brilliant colors. The
carbon content of these coals ranges from 45 to 80 percent and the water content from 1.5 to 7
percent (WCI).
Because of their higher fixed carbon content and lower moisture content, bituminous coals
contain more energy per pound than sub-bituminous coals, which in turn contain more energy
than lignite coal. In the U.S., this heat energy is typically expressed as BTU's (British Thermal
Units) per pound. A typical pound of bituminous coal will yield about 10,500 to 12,000 BTU's of
energy. Figure 3 illustrates the composition changes associated with coal rank.
41 |
Anthracite is dense, hard and shiny and defined as having more than 86% fixed carbon and
less than 14% volatile matter on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis. The rank is divided into semi-
anthracite, anthracite, and meta-anthracite groups on the basis of increasing fixed carbon and
decreasing volatile matter. Anthracite coals are relatively uncommon representing less than 1%
of all world coal reserves. The high carbon and energy content coupled with being a relatively
hard material and clean burning makes anthracite a desired product.
The value-added anthracite products are used in carbon filtration water purification and space
heating. Anthracite is also used as a reductant in metallurgical processing, pulverized coal
injection for steel making, in cooking and heating briquettes, and as fuel used in the manufacture
of cement and generation of electricity.
WHAT IS CBM?
Coal Bed Methane is naturally occurring methane (CH4) with small amounts of other hydrocarbon
and non-hydrocarbon gases contained in coal seams as a result of chemical and physical
processes. It is often produced at shallow depths through a bore-hole that allows gas and large
volumes of water with variable quality to be produced. Shallow aquifers, if present, need to be
protected but in the Rocky Mountain Region, the producing coal bed is often a source of water
for both livestock and human consumption. CBM resources represent valuable volumes of natural
gas within and outside of areas of conventional oil & gas production. Many coal mining areas
currently support CBM production; other areas containing coal resources are expected to produce
significant volumes of natural gas in the near future.
42 |
CBM is intimately associated with coal seams that represent both the source and reservoir.
Significant reserves of coal underlie approximately 13% of the U.S. landmass as shown in Figure
1.
Coals have an immense amount of surface area and can hold enormous quantities of methane.
Since coal seams have large internal surfaces, they can store on the order of six to seven times
more gas than the equivalent volume of rock in a conventional gas reservoir (USGS 1997). CBM
exists in the coal in three basic states: as free gas; as gas dissolved in the water in coal; and as
gas “adsorped” on the solid surface of the coal.
Coal varies considerably in terms of its chemical composition, its permeability, and other
characteristics. Some kinds of organic matter are more suited to produce CBM than are others.
Permeability is a key characteristic, since the coal seam must allow the gas to move once the
water pressure is reduced.
Gas molecules adhere to the surface of the coal. Most of the CBM is stored within the molecular
structure of the coal; some is stored in the fractures or cleats of the coal or dissolved in the
water trapped in the fractures.
Methane attaches to the surface areas of coal and throughout fractures, and is held in place by
water pressure as shown in Figure 4. When the water is released, the gas flows through the
fractures into a well bore or migrates to the surface.
Coals can generally generate more gas than they can absorb and store. Basins that contain
between 500 to 600 standard cubic feet (SCF) of methane per ton are considered to be “very
43 |
favorable for commercial production,” as long as there is sufficient reservoir permeability and rate
of desorption (Murry, 1993).
Desorption is the process by which coals frees methane when the hydrostatic pressure is
reduced.
Some coals have generated more than 8,000 SCF of methane per ton of coal. The most
productive coals are saturated with gas, fractured and highly permeable
WHERE DOES CBM COME FROM?
CBM is generated either through chemical reactions or bacterial action. Chemical action occurs
over time asheat and pressure are applied to coal in a sedimentary basin. This is referred to as
thermogenic production.Bacteria that obtain nutrition from coal produce methane as a by-product
in a method referred to as biogenic. The gas in higher rank coals is a result of thermogenic
production as heat and pressure transform organic material in the coal. Gas in lower rank coals
results from the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria.Typically, the deeper the coal bed,
the less the volume of water in the fractures, but the more saline the waterbecomes. The volume
of gas typically increases; withcoal rank, how far underground the coal bed is located, and the
reservoir pressure (USGS 2000). Natural desorption occurs when the fracture system releases
water, the adsorptive capacity of the coal is exceeded, pressure falls, and the gas trapped in the
coal matrix begins to desorb and move to the empty spaces in the fracture system. The gas
remains stored in the fracture system or in nearby non-coal reservoirs until it is extracted.
As coals mature from peat to anthracite, the associated fluids transform as well. Low rank peat
and lignite have high porosities, high water content, and produce low temperature biogenic
methane and few other fluids. As coals mature into bituminous types, water is expelled, porosity
decreases, and biogenic methane formation decreases, because temperatures rise above the
most favorable range for bacteria. At the same time, heat breaks down complex organic
compounds to release methane and heavier hydrocarbons (ethane and higher). Inorganic gases
may also be generated by the thermal breakdown of coals.
As the coal matures to anthracite, less methane is generated and little porosity or water remains
in the matrix. The chart below (Figure 5) lists the steps in the maturation of coal from peat to
anthracite and the fluid generated and expelled during the maturation process.
Peat, largely unaltered plant debris, and lignite (“brown coal”) can give rise to biogenic methane,
produced by methanogenic bacteria. Minor production of CBM has been reported from lignite in
North Dakota and Louisiana. CBM production in most of the Western U.S. comes from sub-
bituminous and bituminous coals. CBM in the Eastern U.S. originates in higher rank coals.
44 |
WHAT CONTROLS CBM PRODUCTION?
CBM production potential is a product of several factors that vary from basin to basin – fracture
permeability, development, gas migration, coal maturation, coal distribution, geologic
structure, CBM completion options, hydrostatic pressure and produced water
management.
In most areas, naturally developed fracture networks are the most sought after areas for CBM
development. Areas where geologic structures and localized faulting have occurred tend to
induce natural fracturing, which increases the production pathways within the coal seam. This
natural fracturing reduces the cost of bringing the producing wells on line. Most coals contain
methane, but it cannot be economically produced without open fractures present to provide the
pathways for the desorbed gas to migrate to the well. As long as the pressure exerted by the
water table is greater than that of the coal the methane remains trapped in the coal bed matrix.
Coal cleats and fractures are usually saturated with water, and therefore the hydrostatic pressure
45 |
in the coal seam must be lowered before the gas will migrate. Lowering the hydrostatic pressure
in the coal seam accelerates the desorption process. CBM wells initially produce water primarily;
gas production eventually increases, and as it does water production declines. Some wells do not
produce any water and begin producing gas immediately, depending on the nature of the
fracture system. Once the gas is released, it is usually free of any impurities; is of sufficient
quality and can be easily prepared for pipeline delivery.
Some coals may never produce methane if the hydrostatic pressure cannot be efficiently lowered.
Some coal seams may produce gas, but are too deep to economically drill. CBM wells are typically
no more than 5000’ in depth, although some deeper wells have been drilled. Figure 6 illustrates
the relationship between hydrostatic pressure, coal seam depth and well location.
Cleat (Fracture) Development
Coal contains porosity but very little matrix permeability. In order for fluids to be produced out of
coal seams into a well-bore, the coal must possess a system of secondary permeability such as
fractures.
Fractures allow water, and natural gas to migrate from matrix porosity toward the producing
well. Cleat is the term used for the network of natural fractures that form in coal seams as part of
the maturation of coal.
Cleats form as the result of coal dehydration, local and regional stresses, and unloading of
overburden. Cleats largely control the directional permeability of coals and therefore are highly
important for CBM exploitation through well placement and spacing. Two orthogonal sets of
cleats develop in coals perpendicular to bedding. The face cleats are the dominant set that are
46 |
more continuous and more laterally extensive; face cleats form parallel to maximum compressive
stress and perpendicular to fold axes of the coal bed. The butt cleats are secondary and can be
seen to terminate against face cleats. Butt cleats are strain-release fractures that form parallel to
fold axes. Figure 7 shows the cleat orientation. Cleat spacing is related to rank, bed thickness,
maceral composition, and ash content. Coals withwell-developed cleat sets are brittle reflecting
fracture density. In general, cleats are more
tightly spaced with increasing coal rank. Average cleat spacing values for three coal grades
include: subbituminous (2-15 cm), high-volatile bituminous (0.3-2 cm), and mediumto low-
volatile bituminous (<1 cm) (Cardott, 2001). Cleat spacing is tighter in thin coals, in vitrinite-rich
coals, and in low-ash coals.
HOW IS CBM PRODUCED?
CBM wells are completed in several ways, depending upon the type of coal in the basin and fluid
content. Each type of coal (sub-bituminous to bituminous) offers production options that are
different due to the
inherent natural fracturing and competency of the coal seams. The sub-bituminous coals are
softer and less competent than the higher rank low-volatile bituminous coals, and therefore are
typically completed and produced using more conventional vertical well bores. The more
competent higher rank coals lend themselves to completions using horizontal as well as vertical
well bores
SOFT COALS
The well is drilled to the top of the target coal seam and production casing is set and cemented
back to surface. The coal seam is then drilled-out and underreamed to open up more coal face to
production. The borehole and coal face are then cleaned with a slug of formation water pumped
at a high rate (water-flush). In areas where the cleat or natural fracture system is not fully
developed, the coal may be artificially fractured using a low-pressure water fracture treatment.
47 |
These shallow wells are typically drilled with a small mobile rig mounted on a truck. For example,
most wells in the Powder River basin are drilled in under a week and have a residual foot print of
approximately ¼ acre. Spacing between wells is currently 80 acres in the Powder River Basin but
can be as much as 320 acres depending on the coal bed characteristics.
Once the well is completed, a submersible pump is run into the wel on production tubing to
pump the water from the coal seam. By removing the water from the coal seam the formation
water pressure is reduced and the methane is desorbed (released) from the coal, thus initiating
production.
The methane flows up both the casing and tubing of the well and is sent via pipe to a gas/water
separator at the compression station. Th methane is then compressed for shipment to the sales
pipeline. In most western soft coal areas only one coal seam is produced in each well. Attempts
at producing more than one coal seam per
well have been mostly unsuccessful due to the inherent problem of lowering the water level in
each coal seam independent of each other. Size constraints of the production equipment and use
of submersible pumpsmake the use of dual completion complicated and expensive. With CBM
production wells typically being so shallow, it is less expensive and less complicated to drill wells
into each coal seam independently than to use dual or triple completion well systems.
48 |
As water is pumped off the coal aquifer, increasing amounts of methane are produced from the
CBM wells. This relationship is shown in the production plot (Figure 10). The plot uses data
obtained from the CX ranch in the Montana portion of the Powder River Basin. The plot details
the field-wide average water and gas production over time from the date of first production. As
can be seen, the water production is very high during the initial stages of production, but
declines as more wells are installed and the hydrostatic pressure is lowered in the coal seam. As
the hydrostatic pressure is lowered, the gas production increases as new fractures are desorbed
and more methane is released.
Hard Coals
While these coals are very competent and can be completed open hole, these coals are often
drilled and cased to total depth. Wells are then perforated and stimulated to remove damage
caused by drilling and to enhance fracturing near the wellbore.
As such, several coal seams are often perforated in a single bore-hole. Figure 11 provides an
example of vertical well bore completed in multiple coal seams. Hard coals are often exploited by
way of horizontal drain-holes from a single bore-hole. Each individual well may have up to 3,500-
feet of lateral extent within a single coal seam.
Several laterals can be drilled from a single wellbore to exploit several seams or to take
advantage of several cleat (fracture) trends. Each leg would not necessarily be horizontal but
would closely follow the dip of the individual seam. Many of the coal seams are often less than
five-feet thick, requiring the drilling contractor to exercise great care in steering the drill bit.
Figure 12 illustrates an example of this method.
The production of CBM from hard coals is similar to the soft coals except for the use of horizontal
well bores and the extensive use of fracturing to enhance production. With the coals being of
higher rank, the methane content per ton of coal is typically higher, but requires in many areas
additional enhancement to the natural fracture content to maximize production. Production rates
of CBM depend upon local gas content of the coal, local permeability of the coals, hydrostatic
pressure in the coal seam aquifer, completion techniques, and production techniques.
49 |
SHALE GAS
INTRODUCTION
Shale gas is a natural gas (predominantly methane) found in shale rock. Natural gas
produced from shale is often referred to as ‘unconventional’ and this refers to the
type of rock type in which it is found.
‘Conventional’ oil and gas refers to hydrocarbons which have previously sought in
sandstone or limestone, instead of shale or coal which are now the focus of
unconventional exploration. However, the techniques used to extract hydrocarbons
are essentially the same. What has changed are advancements in technology over
the last decade which have made shale gas development economically viable.
FRACKING
Hydraulic fracturing or “fracking” is a technique that uses water, pumped at high

pressure, into the rock to create narrow fractures to allow the gas to flow into the
well bore to be captured.
PRODUCTION OF SHALE GAS
50 |
Shale gas formations are “unconventional” reservoirs – i.e., reservoirs of low

“permeability.” Permeability refers to the capacity of a porous, sediment, soil – or
rock in this case – to transmit a fluid. This contrasts with a “conventional” gas
reservoir produced from sands and carbonates (such as limestone).
The bottom line is that in a conventional reservoir, the gas is in interconnected pore
spaces, much like a kitchen sponge, that allow easier flow to a well; but in an
unconventional reservoir, like shale, the reservoir must be mechanically “stimulated”
to create additional permeability and free the gas for collection. In addition to shale
gas, other types of unconventional reservoirs include tight gas (low-porosity
sandstones and carbonate reservoirs) and coal bed methane (CBM – gas produced
from coal seams).
 For shale gas, hydraulic fracturing of a reservoir is the preferred stimulation

method. This typically involves injecting pressurized fluids to stimulate or
fracture shale formations
and release the natural gas. Sand pumped in with the fluids (often water)
helps to keep the fractures open.
 The type, composition and volume of fluids used depend largely on the
geologic structure, formation pressure and the specific geologic formation
and target for a well. If water is used as the pressurized fluid, as much as 20
percent can return to the surface via the well (known as flow back). This
water can be treated and reused. The reuse of flow back fluids for
subsequent hydraulic fracture treatments can significantly reduce the volume
of wastewater generated by hydraulic fracturing.
51 |

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BASICS OF OIL AND GAS Nakawa VTC 2024

A common reservoir rock is sandstone, composed of sand grains like those

Fig.1. Source, Reservoir and Cap Rocks

The first factor to be assessed in an exploration play in an area yet to be

DEFINITIONS OF SOURCE ROCK TYPES

Source rocks can be divided into at least four major categories:

Potential Rock which contains organic matter in sufficient quantity to generate

CHARACTERIZING SOURCE ROCKS

To be a source rock, a rock must have three features:

 Quantity of organic matter

DETERMINING SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL

The quantity of organic matter is commonly assessed by a measure of

Quality of source rock  Proportions of individual kerogens

Thermal maturity of source rock  Vitrinite reflectance

TYPES OF SOURCE ROCKS

A. Type 1 source rocks

WORLD CLASS SOURCE ROCK

 Middle Devonian to lower Mississippian widespread marine anoxic oil

A fundamental property of a reservoir rock is its porosity. However, for it to be an

THE PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

According to Society of Petroleum Engineers Glossary, a reservoir rock is a

A fundamental property of a reservoir rock between them is porosity.

The efficiency of reservoir rock account on different important properties,

After they (explorationists) come up with concluding the existence of a

The indirect are done through laboratory measurements on core samples of

Fig. 2. Scheme of classification of reservoir rocks. (Adapted from

TYPES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS.

As a rock to be named a reservoir has to be a porous and permeable

SANDSTONE RESERVOIR ROCKS

CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS.

The most fascinating aspects of carbonate reservoir rocks are their

Fig. 3. Depositional environment and grain size.

SHALLOW AND DEEP MARINE RESERVOIR

According to type of sedimentary rock, hydrocarbon reservoir can be divided

Shelf sandstones: formed from precipitating in the shallow marine area.

This type of reservoir formed in basin containing water surrounded by land

Formed in large areas with the accumulation of sand deposition. The

On this type of reservoir, it was formed by the accumulation of lacustrine

Carbonate rocks is a sedimentary rock with carbonate fraction more than

and permeability. Carbonate rocks can be classified to clastic and non-

Fig. 7. Depositional environment of marine carbonate.

Reef is a framework made of sea organism containing skeletal, grow in

Fig. 8. Reef habitat in the shallow sea.

Dolomite formed by processes of calcite dolomitization from other carbonates

ANOTHER TYPE OF RESERVOIR

Colorado which is having shale (Lower – Upper Cretaceous) as reservoir

Then, it shows that for other than sedimentary rocks (igneous –

RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES, INTERPRETATIONS AND THEIR

It is the porosity formed after deposition leads to other couple of

I. Dissolution porosity type is made of carbonate dissolution and

C. Closed pore in which there is no connection with other pores.

 Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE VOLUME OF THE RESERVOIR ROCKS.

1. Grain size and pattern arrangement: Apart from the arrangement

METHODS FOR DETERMINING ROCK PROPERTIES.

Reservoir rock properties such as porosity and permeability are directly

RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES CALCULATION FORMULA.