(DATA COLLECTION&PRESENTATION PDF)

Flashcard 1: Definition of Statistics

 Statistics (Plural): A set of numerical data.

 Statistics (Singular): The science of collecting, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data.

Flashcard 2: Divisions of Statistics

 Descriptive Statistics: Describes and analyzes data without drawing conclusions for a larger set.
 Inferential Statistics: Uses sample data to make predictions or inferences about a larger population.

Flashcard 3: Population and Sample

 Population: All elements considered in a statistical study.

 Sample: A subset of the population used to collect information.
 Census: is a survey of an entire population.

Flashcard 4: Parameter vs Statistic

 Parameter: Numerical characteristic of the population.

 Statistic: Numerical characteristic of the sample.

Flashcard 5: Variables and Measurement

 Variable: A characteristic that can vary from person to person or object to object.
 Measurement: The process of determining the value of a variable for an experimental unit.

Flashcard 6: Types of Variables

 Qualitative Variable: Categorical responses (e.g., occupation).

 Quantitative Variable: Numerical values.
o Discrete Variable: Finite or countable values.
o Continuous Variable: Infinite values on a continuous scale.

Flashcard 7: Levels of Measurement

 1. Nominal: Categorization (e.g., gender).
2. Ordinal: Ranking (e.g., teaching ratings).
3. Interval: Distances between numbers are meaningful, no true zero (e.g., temperature).
4. Ratio: True zero exists (e.g., weight).

Flashcard 8: Data Collection Methods

1. Survey: Information via questionnaires or interviews.

2. Observation: Recording behavior as it occurs.
3. Experimental: Determines cause and effect under controlled conditions.
4. Existing Studies: Uses pre-existing data (e.g., census).
5. Registration: Uses registration data (e.g., hospital admission).

Flashcard 9: Data Presentation Methods

1. Textual Presentation: Data included in text paragraphs.

2. Tabular Presentation: Organized in rows and columns.
3. Graphical Presentation: Visual representation using charts or graphs.

Flashcard 10: Common Types of Graphs

1. Line Chart: Shows trends over time.

2. Pie Chart: Illustrates the distribution of a total quantity.
3. Bar Chart: Represents data with rectangular bars.
4. Pictorial Unit Chart: Each symbol represents a uniform value.

(2-STATISTICS PDF)

Flashcard 1: Statistics Definition

 Statistics: The collection, organization, summarization, presentation, and interpretation of data.

Flashcard 2: Statistical Terms

 Population: The entire group under study.

 Sample: A subset of the population used for analysis.
 Parameter: A value calculated using data from a population.
  Statistic: A value calculated from a sample.

Flashcard 3: Variables

- A characteristic that can take different values.

o Qualitative Variable: Categorized into groups.

o Quantitative Variable: Expressed in numerical values.
 Discrete: Countable values.
 Continuous: Can take any value within a range.

Flashcard 4: Levels of Measurement

- The level of measurement refers to the nature of data and dictates the types of statistical analysis that can
be performed. There are four primary levels:

1. Nominal: Variables are names or labels.

2. Ordinal: Categories with a meaningful order.
3. Interval: Ordered values with meaningful distances, no true zero.
4. Ratio: Includes a true zero, ratios have meaning.

Flashcard 5: Graphical Representation of Data

- Refers to the visual display of data using charts, plots, and graphs to help identify patterns, trends, and
relationships.

 Line Graph: Shows trends over time.

 Bar Graph: Compares quantities.
 Pie Chart: Displays parts of a whole.
 Pictograph: Uses images to represent data.

Flashcard 6: Measures of Center

- Refers to values that describe the center or typical value of a dataset. The main measures include:

 Mode: Most frequent value.

 Median: Middle value in ordered data.
 Mean: Average of all data points.

Flashcard 7: Measures of Dispersion

 - Refers to the extent to which data values are spread out or vary from the central point (like the mean or
median).

 Range: Difference between maximum and minimum values.

 Standard Deviation: Average deviation of data from the mean.
 Variance: Square of the standard deviation.

Flashcard 8: Measures of Relative Position

- Describes where a particular data point lies in relation to the rest of the dataset.

 Z-Score: Number of standard deviations a data point is from the mean.

 Percentile: Value below which a certain percentage of data falls.
 Quartiles: Divide data into four parts (Q1, Median, Q3).

Flashcard 9: Normal Distribution

- The majority of the data points cluster around the mean (average).

 Shape: Symmetric, bell-shaped distribution of data.

 Center: Locates at the highest point of normal distribution.
 Spread: The distribution continues infinitely on both directions.
 Area Under the Curve: The AUTC is equal to 1.
 Standard Normal Distribution: The percentage & probability of z values lie in the interval from a to b.
 Empirical Rule:
o 68% of data lie within 1 standard deviation.
o 95% lie within 2 standard deviations.
o 99.7% lie within 3 standard deviations.

Flashcard 10: Statistical Hypotheses

- Is simply a conjecture about a characteristic or set of facts.

 Null Hypothesis (H0): No effect or no difference.

 Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Indicates the presence of an effect or difference.
 Z-Test: Used when population standard deviation is known or sample size is large.
 T-Test: Used for small samples when population standard deviation is unknown.

Flashcard 11: ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

 ANOVA: Tests differences among multiple group means.

 Post Hoc Tests: Performed if ANOVA rejects the null hypothesis (e.g., Tukey’s, Duncan’s).
Flashcard 12: Linear Regression and Correlation

 Linear Regression: Models the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent
variables.
 Correlation Coefficient (r): Measures the strength of a linear relationship between two variables.

(CHAPTER 5 PROBABILITY PDF)

Flashcard 1: Probability Definition

 Probability: The likelihood or chance of an event occurring, expressed as a number between 0 and 1.

Flashcard 2: Random Experiments

 Random Experiment: A process of observation where the outcome cannot be predicted (e.g., rolling a
die, flipping a coin).
 Sample Space (S): The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment.

Flashcard 3: Event

 Event: A subset of the sample space. If the outcome is in the event, the event occurs.
 Simple Event: An event consisting of a single outcome.

Flashcard 4: Operations with Events

Union (A ∪ B): Either event A, B, or both occur.

1. Intersection (A ∩ B): Events A and B both occur.
2.
3. Complement (A'): Events not in A occur.
4. Mutually Exclusive Events: Events A and B cannot both occur.

Flashcard 5: Theorems of Counting

 Permutation: The arrangement of objects where order matters.

o n! (Factorial): The number of ways to arrange n distinct objects.
 Combination: Selection of objects where order does not matter.
Flashcard 6: Axioms of Probability

1. Axiom 1: P(A)≥0P(A) \geq 0P(A)≥0 for every event A.

2. Axiom 2: The probability of the sample space, P(S)=1P(S) = 1P(S)=1.
3. Axiom 3: For mutually exclusive events A1,A2,…A_1, A_2, \dotsA1,A2,…,

∪…)=P(A1)+P(A2)+….
P(A1∪A2∪… )=P(A1)+P(A2)+…P(A_1 \cup A_2 \cup \dots) = P(A_1) + P(A_2) + \dotsP(A1∪A2

Flashcard 7: Additive Rules

 If events A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B)P(A∪B)=P(A)

+P(B).

Flashcard 8: Multiplicative Rules

 General Multiplicative Rule: For independent events A and B, P(A∩B)=P(A)⋅P(B)P(A \cap B) = P(A)
\cdot P(B)P(A∩B)=P(A)⋅P(B).

Flashcard 9: Conditional Probability

 Conditional Probability (P(B|A)): The probability of event B occurring given that A has occurred.
o Formula: P(B∣A)=P(A∩B)P(A)P(B|A) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(A)}P(B∣A)=P(A)P(A∩B).

Flashcard 10: Bayes' Rule

 Used to update the probability of an event based on new information: P(Bi∣A)=P(A∣Bi)P(Bi)P(A)P(B_i |

A) = \frac{P(A | B_i) P(B_i)}{P(A)}P(Bi∣A)=P(A)P(A∣Bi)P(Bi)

Flashcard 11: Theorem of Total Probability

 For mutually exclusive events B1,B2,…,BkB_1, B_2, \dots, B_kB1,B2,…,Bk, and any event A:
P(A)=P(B1)P(A∣B1)+P(B2)P(A∣B2)+⋯+P(Bk)P(A∣Bk)P(A) = P(B_1) P(A|B_1) + P(B_2) P(A|B_2) + \
dots + P(B_k) P(A|B_k)P(A)=P(B1)P(A∣B1)+P(B2)P(A∣B2)+⋯+P(Bk)P(A∣Bk)

(CHAPTER 7 HYPOTHESIS TESTING PDF)

Flashcard 1: Definition of Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing refers to formal procedures used by statisticians to reject or not reject statistical hypotheses
based on sample data.

Flashcard 2: Types of Hypotheses

 Null Hypothesis (H0): Assumes no effect or no difference, results are due to chance.
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha): Suggests that the results are due to a specific effect or non-random
cause.

Flashcard 3: Errors in Hypothesis Testing

 Type I Error (α): Rejecting a true null hypothesis.

 Type II Error (β): Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

Flashcard 4: Significance Level (α)

The probability of committing a Type I error. Common values: 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10.

Flashcard 5: p-Value Definition

The p-value measures the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis.

 p < α: Reject the null hypothesis.

 p ≥ α: Do not reject the null hypothesis.

Flashcard 6: Interpreting p-Values

 p < 0.01: Overwhelming evidence for H1.

 0.01 ≤ p < 0.05: Strong evidence for H1.
 0.05 ≤ p < 0.10: Weak evidence for H1.
 p ≥ 0.10: No evidence for H1.

Flashcard 7: Hypothesis Testing Process

1. Formulate null and alternative hypotheses.

2. Determine the significance level (α).
3. Compute the test statistic.
4. Compare the test statistic to the critical value.
5. Make a decision: reject or fail to reject H0.
Flashcard 8: One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Tests

 One-tailed test: Region of rejection is on one side of the distribution.

 Two-tailed test: Region of rejection is on both sides of the distribution.

Flashcard 9: Test Statistic

A numerical value calculated from the sample that is used to make a decision about the null hypothesis. It is
compared to the critical value to determine whether to reject H0.

Flashcard 10: Nonstatistical Hypothesis Testing Example

In a criminal trial:

 H0: The defendant is innocent.

 H1: The defendant is guilty.
Errors:
 Type I: Convicting an innocent person.
 Type II: Acquitting a guilty person.

RESEARCH TITLE

 The Relationship Between Social Media Usage and Mental Health in Adolescents.
 The Difference Between Traditional and Digital Marketing Strategies in Consumer Engagement.
 The Relationship Between Sleep Quality and Academic Performance in College Students.
 The Difference Between Urban and Rural Communities in Accessing Healthcare Services.
 The Relationship Between Exercise Frequency and Stress Levels in Adults.
 The Difference Between Online Learning and In-Person Education on Student Retention Rates.
 The Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Student Achievement in Elementary Schools.
 The Difference Between Organic and Conventional Farming on Soil Health.
 The Relationship Between Employee Satisfaction and Productivity in Remote Work Environments.
 The Difference Between Men and Women in Coping Strategies for Work-Related Stress.

COMPARATIVE RESEARCH TITLE

 A Comparative Study of Online and Offline Learning Outcomes Among University Students.
 A Comparative Study of Renewable Energy Adoption in Urban vs. Rural Areas.
 A Comparative Study of Customer Satisfaction Between Brick-and-Mortar Stores and E-Commerce
Platforms.
 A Comparative Study of Mental Health Support Systems in Public vs. Private Schools.
 A Comparative Study of Traditional vs. Innovative Teaching Methods on Student Engagement.
 A Comparative Study of Health Outcomes in Vegan vs. Omnivorous Diets.
 A Comparative Study of Employee Performance in Remote Work vs. In-Office Settings.
 A Comparative Study of Cultural Attitudes Towards Aging in Eastern vs. Western Societies.
 A Comparative Study of Stress Levels in High School Students Across Different Academic Curricula.
 A Comparative Study of Air Quality in Industrial vs. Residential Areas.