Research methods in psychology are systematic procedures used to

observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental

processes. They include experiments, surveys, case studies, and
naturalistic observations, ensuring data collection is objective and
reliable to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Hypotheses
Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that
can be verified or disproved by some investigation.

There are four types of hypotheses:

1. Null Hypotheses (H0) – these predict that no difference will be
found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are
written ‘There will be no difference…’

2. Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1)– these predict that there

will be a significant difference in the results between the two
conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.

All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or

two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.

Once the research is conducted and results are found,

psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other.

So, if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the

alternative hypothesis and reject the null. The opposite applies if
no difference is found.
 Sampling Techniques
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the
population under study.

A sample is the participants you select from a target population

(the group you are interested in) to make generalizations about.

Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a

researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.

Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be

applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

 Volunteer sample: where participants pick themselves through

newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.

 Opportunity sampling: also known as convenience sampling,

uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out
and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.

 Random sampling: when every person in the target population

has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random
sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
 Systematic sampling: when a system is used to select
participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible
participants. N = the number of people in the research population
/ the number of people needed for the sample.

 Stratified sampling: when you identify the subgroups and select

participants in proportion to their occurrences.

 Snowball sampling: when researchers find a few participants,

and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.

 Quota sampling: when researchers will be told to ensure the

sample fits certain quotas, for example they might be told to find
90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.

Variables
Experiments always have an independent and dependent
variable.

 The independent variable is the one the experimenter

manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the
participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect
on the dependent variable.

 The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the

results of the experiment.
Operationalization of variables means making them
measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure
that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’, but we can

measure how many times a person smiles within a two-hour
period.

By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to

replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we
can check if our findings are reliable.

Extraneous variables are all variables which are not independent

variable but could affect the results of the experiment.

It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as

intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a
situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that

occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study,
they may begin to behave in a certain way.

For example, in Milgram’s research, critics argued that

participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they
 administered them as they thought this was what was required of
them.

Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect

(confound) the results.

Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a

matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant
variables.

Situational variables are controlled by using standardized

procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is
treated in the same way

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each

condition of the independent variable, such as a control or
experimental group.

All experimental methods involve an IV (independent

variable) and DV (dependent variable).

 Lab Experiments are conducted in a well-controlled

environment, not necessarily a laboratory, and therefore accurate
and objective measurements are possible.

The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at

what time, with which participants, in what circumstances, using
a standardized procedure.
 Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural)
environment of the participants. The experimenter still
manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to
control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult
than in a lab experiment.

 Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is

investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway.
Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event
may only occur rarely.
 Case Study
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group,
event, or community. It uses information from a range of
sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their
family and friends.

Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological

tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally
longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group
over an extended period of time.

Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-
known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud. He conducted
very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients
in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their
illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of
ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from
individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.

Correlational Studies
Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to
which two variables are related. One of the variables can be
regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the
outcome variable.

Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different

measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the
degree of association between the measures.

The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome

variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because
it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable.
 Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as
a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.

 If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an

increase in the other, then this is known as a positive
correlation.

 If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a

decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative
correlation.

 A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between

variables.

The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient. This

is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the
stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be
both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.
 A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically
mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in
the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is
a relationship between variables.

Interview Methods
Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and
unstructured.
 Structured interviews are formal. The interview situation is
standardized as far as possible. Structured interviews are formal,
like job interviews.

A fixed, predetermined set of questions is put to every participant

in the same order and in the same way.

Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the researcher

presets the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the
range of alternative answers.

The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social

distance from the interviewee.

 Unstructured interviews are informal, like casual

conversations. A general conversation normally precedes them,
and the researcher deliberately adopts an informal approach to
break down social barriers.

There are no set questions, and the participant can raise

whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their
own way. Questions are posed about participants’ answers to the
subject

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to

analyze attitudes and values.
 Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their
main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social
actors’ subjective point of view.

Questionnaire Method
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview.
They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid

bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent or
causing offense.

 Open questions are designed to encourage a full, meaningful

answer using the subject’s own knowledge and feelings. They
provide insights into feelings, opinions, and understanding.
Example: “How do you feel about that situation?”

 Closed questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”

or specific information, limiting the depth of response. They are
useful for gathering specific facts or confirming details. Example:
“Do you feel anxious in crowds?”

 Postal questionnaires seem to offer the opportunity of getting

around the problem of interview bias by reducing the personal
involvement of the researcher.

Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-

face interviews and can be used to contact many respondents
scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.
 Observations
There are different types of observation methods:
 Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the
participants they are being observed until after the study is
complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and
consent with this particular observation method.

 Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants

they are being observed and what they are being observed for.

 Controlled: behavior is observed under controlled laboratory

conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).

 Natural: Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural

setting.

 Participant: Here, the observer has direct contact with the

group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a
member of the group they are researching.

 Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not

have direct contact with the people being observed. The
observation of participants’ behavior is from a distance

Pilot Study
A pilot study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order
to evaluate the feasibility of the key steps in a future, full-scale
project.

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used

in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out
the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases,
money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the
researcher.
A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e.
unusual things) or confusion in the information given to
participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor
effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can
complete the task – all performances are low.

The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that
all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting
the ceiling”.

Research Design
In cross-sectional research, a researcher compares
multiple segments of the population at the same time

Sometimes, we want to see how people change over time, as in

studies of human development and
lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-
gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of
time.

In cohort studies, the participants must share a common factor or

characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort
study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor
and observe a chosen population over an extended period.

Triangulation means using more than one research method to

improve the study’s validity.
 Reliability
Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement
is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as
being reliable.

 Test-retest reliability: assessing the same person on two

different occasions which shows the extent to which the test
produces the same answers.

 Inter-observer reliability: the extent to which there is an

agreement between two or more observers.

Meta-Analysis
A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an
aim and then searching for research studies that have addressed
similar aims/hypotheses.

This is done by looking through various databases, and then

decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.

Strengths: Increases the conclusions’ validity as they’re based on a

wider range.

Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary, so they are not

truly comparable.
Peer Review
A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the
journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists

working in a similar field) to peer review the article without
payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs
used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research
findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is

accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with
revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or
rejected without the possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the
research report based on the reviewers comments/
recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from

entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the
validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used
to assess the research rating of university departments.

Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of

problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent
unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as
an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing
work.

Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the
publication of fraudulent research.

The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and

academic comment is being published without official peer reviews
than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where
everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the
quality of research.
 Types Of Data
 Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or
number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how
many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and
closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.

 Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be

observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be
in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in
questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect
qualitative data.

 Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the

investigation.

 Secondary data is information that has been collected by

someone other than the person who is conducting the research
e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity
Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what
it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to
represent.

Validity is whether the observed effect is genuine and represents

what is actually out there in the world.
 Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological
measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close
results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an
established test.

 Face validity: does the test measure what it’s supposed to

measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the
measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.