EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD

1st Dynasty

Menes (Horus Aha)

Buildling
tomb at abydos, 3 brick-lined chambers roofed with wood
built temple to Nieth (Nit) at Sais

Burial Place
Abydos
grave has 33 subsidiary burials containing men 20-25 years old and seven youngg
lions.
Originally thought three separate tombs, extended over time
Recent surveys by German team linked the chambers under a single roof
Walls 1.5-2 m thick. Tomb 11 x 9 m.
Tombs ot the east may be his officials and nobles

History
founded memphis
founded crocodopolis
Aha is known for millions of people as King Menes of Memphis. He was the
founding king of the 1st Dynasty,
First king to unify Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom. Ancient Egypt's most
predominant form of civilization began with his crowning, and did not end
permanently until the beginning of the Roman era, which started with Augustus
Caeser.
Menes founded the city of Memphis, and chose as its location an island in the Nile, so
that it would be easy to defend. He was also the founder of Crocodopolis.
During his time, the Egyptian army performed raids against the
Nubians in the south and expanded his sphere of influence as far as
the First Cataract.
His chief wife was Queen Berenib, though she was not the mother
of his heir, King Djer, and his mother was Neithotepe.
His death is a mystery, for, according to legend he was attacked by
wild dogs and Nile crocodiles in Faiyum .
Menes' tomb resides at Saqqara, the famed necropolis of Memphis. He died at the age
of Sixty Three.
(from Otto Vendel)
Pharaoh Aha is by tradition among archaeologists the pharaoh that
founded the first dynasty and a long reign and monuments and
other remains attested to him have been found all over Egypt.
If he was the first king (by historian Manetho called Menes) he was supposed to have
been in office for 62 years. He was an active ruler put forward the god Ptah from his
new capital Memphis who patron of creation and handicraft. This town (or more
likely a shrine within it) originally had the name "Hiku-Ptah" later to be corrupt by
foreigners to the name "Egypt".
All forms of craftsmanship and art was supported during his rule, and he was a
reconciler between the two fractions in the country after the Upper (southern) part's
taking over of the Lower (northern).
Manetho says that during this time the Egyptian people learned
how to live in a civilized manner, and worship the gods in a proper
way. The first great mastaba tomb at Sakkara (the royal cemetery
of Memphis) is from Aha's reign (Nr 3357, ~ 42 x 15 m), and was
the first ever to have a boat buried beside. This custom with
maritime connection was to continue for thousands of years.
At the same site great mastabas were built for persons believed to
have been high officials and probably close relatives to the king or
his queen. Very few remains (if any) from king Aha are found
outside Egypt and just a single find of foreign pottery is found from
his reign.
A big change is shown in his tomb complex at Abydos, so different
from his predecessors' and presumed father Narmer's. The main
buildings are three chambers with very thick walls placed in a row
(picture right). Like the other coming tombs they were lined inside
with wood and roofed with wooden beams. Completing the row
were 34 minor tombs for retainers who had followed their master
into the next world. I they were sacrificed or buried over after their
natural death, is not known. This strongly indicates that Aha had a
supreme and probably divine power, a heritage that should become
the distinctive mark for the Egyptian state in the time to come.
The first chamber was the burial place of the king himself and there was found written
text of a cargo freight to the Delta with offering goods to a shrine, all carved in to a
tiny little label of wood. The second chamber is believed to belong to his queen
named Bernerib (meaning "Sweet of Hearts"). Her name was found in some side
burials probably belonging to her servants. This means that the complex was extended
over time and investigations from the 1990s confirms that many royal tombs at
Abydos was altered several times.
Aha is a strong candidate to be the legendary king Menes - the
unifier and first king of Egypt. Another strong candidate is his
supposed father Narmer, who lacks monuments from the capital
Memphis but is recorded as the founder by the Egyptians
themselves.

Djer (Itit)

Buildling
tomb at abydos (tomb o) contains 300 subsidiary burials, just weest of Aha; made of
brick 70 x 40 meters.
tomb believed to hold Osiris and focus of pilgrimages

Burial Place
Abydos
tomb at abydos (tomb o) contains 300 subsidiary burials, just weest of Aha; made of
brick 70 x 40 meters.
In the Umm el- Ga’ab section
tomb believed to hold Osiris and focus of pilgrimages
Later mistaken for the tomb of Osiris
Discovered by Emile Amelineau in 1895 with a five year contract for excavation
He was a poor archeaologist – probably he got the contract because he was friends
with the director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service in Cairo – and discovered the
“Tomb of Osiris” in Umm el Ga’ab, an area simply loaded with artifacts. He
completely cleared the tomb between January 1 and January 12th, discarding whole
piles of artifacts and retaining only complete objects. Most things were simply
ignored if the felt them of no value.l
He found a basalt statue on a bier (similar to the funerary couch of Tut) in the tomb,
and a skull in one chamber. He decided (quite arbitrarily, based on the stiarcase) that
this was athe tomb of Osiris himself, and the skull was that of the god – or, in his
view, a true historical figure. The skull was later identified as that of a woman,b ut
this did not change Emile’s view
Amelineau was replaced by Petrie in 1900, when Maspero took over the directorship
of the Egyptian Antiquities Service. Petrie is regoznied as one of the beset
archeaologists of the time and he completely re-excavated the tombs.
He found much that Amelineau had overlookd – including an arm still decorated with
jewelry. Petrie produced to volumes of details about ht excavations- these volumes
became the model for future archeaological work.
It was found that h tomb had been mofidied to act as the tomb of Osiris – in the 13th
dynasty by Khendjer. The stiarcase had been added for the conveneicne of the tourists
andp pilgrims
Tomb is similar wto others in the area, with chambers cut into the ground and roofed
over. The main room was probably floord with wood, but only carbonzied timber
remained when excavated.
Many subsidiary graves of human retainers. Later burials would
replace the human sacrifices with shabti figures Some of the
subsidiary tombs surrounded a funerary enclosure which also
belonged to the king, and may have contained a mortuary temple
(long gone)

2nd Dynasty

Hetepsekhemwy (Hotepsekhemwy)

Monuments

Tomb @ Saqqara
The subterranean structure believed to be the oldest 2nd Dynasty royal tomb at
Saqqara is located at what is now called the Unas cemetery. Part of its galleries are
even located underneath the Unas Pyramid and it is surprising that 5th Dynasty tomb-
builders did not accidentaly stumble upon it.
Seal impressions found inside the structure and showing the Horus names of
Hotepsekhemwi and his successor Reneb can mean one of two things:
either the tomb was built for and used by Hotepsekhemwi and Reneb left his seal
impressions when he buried his predecessor, and brought the required funerary
offerings
or it was intended for Hotepsekhemwi but is was usurped by Reneb.
The latter of these two possibilities appears to be the least likely, so it is in general
agreed that this tomb belonged to Hotepsekhemwi.
With its north-south axis spanning a length of approximately 120 metres and its width
of about 50 metres, it is also unlikely that the tomb was created for a non-royal
person: the largest non-royal tombs of the Early Dynastic Period or the Old Kingdom
are considerably smaller. And contrary to the Archaic Tombs in Saqqara-North, no
private names appear to have been found in this tomb.
The entrance to the tomb is located in the north, a feature that would be common to
the royal tombs of the Old Kingdom. From the entrance, a long 4 metre high passage,
constructed in an open trench covered with immense blocks of stone, descends deeper
into the Saqqara rock. A couple of metres into this passage, a doorway opens upon a
corridor to the west. A bit further down, a second doorway gives access to a corridor
to the east. On each side of both corridors are 7 long and narrow rooms that are
interpreted as magazines.
Just before the central corridor ceases to descend, a large portcullis slab, made of
granite, was intended to block the further passage. After that, the corridor continues
horizontally and was blocked by three more portcullises. More magazines open onto
the east and the west of this corridor. After about 35 metres, the ceiling of the corridor
is lowered to some 2 metres and the corridor becomes subterranean.
To the east and west of the central corridor, a maze of magazines continues to unfold,
until finally, at about 110 metres from the entrance, the burial chamber was found ...
empty.
If this tomb ever had a superstructure, nothing remains of it. But it is very likely that
the superstructure was removed for the construction of the pyramid and mortuary
tomb of Unas, some 500 years later, if they even survived that long.

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++++++++++++

Reneb (Nebra)

Buildling
Enormous Saqqara tomb cylinder seal impressions south of Djosers complex
Inscription on a statuete of Redjit
Memphite Stelae, graffiti

Ninetjer (Nynetjer)

Monuments

Tomb @ Saqqara
A structure the tomb of Hotepsekhemwi was found to the east of it, thus slightly more
away from the pyramid of Unas. Even less is known about it. A cursory examination
has brought to light some seals bearing the name of the 2nd Dynasty king Ninetjer,
which has allowed us to identify this tomb as Ninetjer's.
When it was first entered by archaeologists, it was also found to contain thousands of
mummies of the Late Dynastic Period and later. These mummies clearly belonged to
intrusive burials of that date.
 Khasekhemwy

Monuments

Tomb at Abydos
Huge and unique tomb
Tomb V
Trapezoidal, 70m long, 17m at the northern end, 10m at the southern end
58 individual wooms
Central chamber is the oldest masonry structure in the world

Storehouse of the Dates @ Abydos

About 1000 yards from his tomb, a huge rectangular structure of mudbrick, with an
articulated palace façade
123 x 64m, with 5m thick walls, 20m high. Fragments of the walls still exist
May have fujctioned as a mortuary temple
Contain a mound that may have been the start of a step pyramid
OLD KINGDOM

3rd Dynasty

Netjerykhet (Djoser)

Monuments

Step Pyramid @ Saqqara

Designed and built by Imhotep
Statue of Djoser found during an excavation in 1924—26
Represnets the first major work in stone
Most of the outer casing is gone and the core masonry has disappeared as well in
some places. This makes it clear that there were several stages of construction.
Original structure was an underground burial chamber – square – and the tomb is 28m
underground with a shaft leading to it. The entrance was sealed with a 3 ton piece of
granite
Face of the mastaba was white limstone and this ws supposed to be the end of the
building.
However, it was then elnarged all around with ten more feet of limestone to make the
square mastaba rectangular.
Subseqent enlargements made a two-step structure with a number of passageways to a
tomb chamber were added (some are lined with blue faience)
Then, two more tiers were added (more than 200000 tons of stone) above the existing
two steps. A limestone face was added.
Some casing stones remain on the north side. They are laid so that they are at a slight
angle to take up the thrust of the successive layers – the great pyramid has facing
blocks laid on indificual core blocks, completely flat.
Statue found in the tomb chamber, which still contains a replica. It can be seen
througha slit in the entrance as the chamber is closed to visitors, since there is some
danger of the ceiling collapsing.
Mortuary temple is just north of the pyramid and is cimpletely ruined. On the
southern wall are the cobra cornice.
Southern tomb is located just outside the southern wall and steps lead to other
monumnets. Southern tomb is closed ot the public, although it is wonderfully
decorated.
0800-1700, LE20 Camera LE5
King Zoser, 27th century BCE, heralded the pyramid age (2667-48 BCE)
Buit by Inmhotep, the first "architect" -- broke from the mastaba tradition to first a 4,
then 6 step pyramid, then clad the whole thing in white limestone
62m high, 140 x 118 m, now 109 x 121 m
original entrance on the north is blocked, however, can be netered via a gallery on the
south.
Burial chamber is 28m below
Surrounded by a walled courtyard, 533m x 277 m
eleven shafts were found, 32m deep, on the east side.
As the oasis of el-Faiyum became more important during Dynasty XII, a number of
religious monuments were built there and the next pharaoh to construct his pyramid in
the region was Amenemhet III. This was not the king's first choice of burial site - he
had previously built a pyramid at Dahshur, to the north, during the early part of his
long reign, but due to structural stresses which became apparent during the
construction, Amenemhet opted to begin a second pyramid at Hawara, near the site of
his grandfather's monument at el-Lahun. It was to be the last major pyramid complex
in Egypt.
Pyramid of Amenemhet III The Labyrinth extending to the south across the canal
The King's second pyramid was built with a core of mudbricks and a white limestone
casing, which was removed in Roman times. The pyramid was entered directly
through the casing on the south side with a stairway and corridor descending into the
substructure, which today is flooded by groundwater. A series of corridors and blind
passages wound around the inside of the pyramid, before finally coming to the burial
chamber at a higher level to the west of the pyramid's centre. This was reached via a
concealed entrance in the ceiling of one of the passages and was blocked by a massive
quartzite slab. Because of his experience with the Dahshur pyramid, Amenemhet's
architects took extra care in reinforcing and protecting the burial chamber, by
constructing a series of triangular lintels which supported a high gabled roof of large
limestone blocks beneath another vault of mudbricks. The chamber itself was a single
piece of quartzite, weighing over 100 tonnes, into which was carved a trough which
held the sarcophagus and canopic chests. The sealing block of the chamber was an
enormous slab of quartzite which was ingeniously lowered into place by means of
slowly releasing the sand which had supported the stone slab into side galleries. The
King's burial chamber was sufficiently protected to withstand the enormous weight of
the brickwork and stone above it, but it would seem that the complicated
precautionary measures taken to deter robbers was ultimately unsuccessful.
When Petrie investigated the sarcophagus in Amenemhet's burial chamber he
discovered remains of a burned inner coffin, presumably damaged by ancient grave-
robbers. A second wooden coffin was found in an antechamber, along with a carved
alabaster offering-table bearing the names of a Princess Neferu-ptah, thought to be a
daughter of the King and it was assumed that the princess had been buried with her
father. However, in 1956 the remains of an almost destroyed small pyramid 2km
south-east of the King's pyramid was investigated, and the tomb of Neferu-ptah was
found. Her red granite sarcophagus and other objects inscribed with her name were
found in the burial chamber, but up to date archaeologists are still puzzling about the
real location of Neferu-ptah's burial.
Remains of a Roman statue on the east side of the pyramid Entrance corridor on the
southern side of the pyramid Remains of crocodile reliefs from the mortuary temple
Within the enclosure, immediately to the south of Amenemhet's pyramid, Petrie
excavated the King's mortuary temple - an extensive and very complicated structure,
which is now so ruined that it is difficult to reconstruct a plan. This is probably the
structure which classical authors referred to as 'the Labyrinth' which so impressed
early travellers. This unique building, covering an area of 2.8 hectares, was described
by Herodotus as having been constructed from a single rock and to contain three
thousand rooms connected by winding passages and courts. He may have exaggerated
as other writers disagreed about the number of chambers and courts. Strabo called the
complex 'a palace composed of as many smaller palaces as were formerly nomes', that
is, forty two. Petrie discovered remains of two statues of the gods Sobek and Hathor
in the structure and a statue of Amenemhet III nearby in the irrigation canal.
Unfortunately the 'Labyrinth' today is little more than a bed of rubble, its stone
quarried away since Roman times. It extends across the modern canal to the south of
the pyramid.
The pyramid complex was enclosed by a perimeter wall with a causeway leading
from the south-eastern corner to the valley temple, neither of which have been fully
investigated.
In a cemetery north of the pyramid complex, Petrie also found 146 mummy-portraits
dating to the Roman Period. One of these can be seen in the small museum at Kom
Ushim and more Faiyum Portraits are in Cairo Museum. Saqqara was the principal
necropolis for the ancient city of Memphis where, from Dynasty I onwards, the
Egyptian elite built their tombs. The area is best known today as being the site of the
first stone pyramid, built for a king of Dynasty III whose Horus name was
Netjerikhet. The pyramid has been attributed to a King Djoser since the New
Kingdom, but only the name Netjerikhet has been found on the monument.
The Step Pyramid North-east corner of the Step Pyramid showing construction
The pyramid structure rises above the plateau in a series of six stepped 'mastabas' and
was surrounded by a complex of dummy buildings enclosed within a niched limestone
wall over 10m high. Beyond the wall was a rectangular trench measuring 750m by
40m and although it is now filled by sand, it can be clearly seen on aerial
photographs. The high limestone walls of the enclosure were decorated with niches
and false doors which were carved into the wall after it was built - quite an enormous
task! Some archaeologists believe that the enclosure wall may have represented the
earthly residence of the King and so the term 'palace facade' became used for this type
of decoration. It is thought that the design imitates the wooden framework covered by
woven reed mats which would have been used in earlier structures although it has also
been suggested that the motif may originate in Mesopotamia. The wall has been
reconstructed on the southern rampart and near the entrance and this is the best place
to examine the construction.
Detail of engaged column Entrance colonnade from the west View through the
entrance colonnade
The single entrance to the enclosure is the southernmost doorway on the eastern side
of the wall (the only one of the 15 doorways which is not a false door) and leads to
the entrance colonnade. 20 pairs of engaged columns, resembling bundles of reeds or
palm ribs line the corridor. Between the columns are 24 small chambers, thought
perhaps to represent the nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt, which may once have
contained statues of the King or deities. The roof of the entrance colonnade was
constructed to represent whole tree trunks. This is one of the places where the
challenging experiment of copying natural materials in stone is most evident. The
columns were not yet trusted to support the roof without being attached to the side
walls and the small size of the stone blocks used in the construction reflects the fact
that previous structures were built from mudbricks. At the end of the entrance hall
two false stone doorleaves rest against the side walls of a transverse vestibule which
has been reconstructed. Several statue fragments were found in the entrance
colonnade but the most important was a statue base (now in Cairo Museum) inscribed
with the Horus name and titles of Netjerikhet and also with the name of a High Priest
of Heliopolis and royal architect, Imhotep.
Modern entrance to the Step Pyramid complex Serekh wall at the south-west corner
of the complex
Imhotep, who may have been a son of Djoser, is credited with the invention of
building in dressed stone and the design and construction of the Step Pyramid
complex. He was deified as a god of wisdom in the Ptolemaic Period and worshipped
as Asklepios, god of medicine, by the Greeks. Netjerikhet's name is directly linked to
his predecessor Khasekhemy because mud sealings bearing his name were found in
1996 in Khasekhemy's Abydos tomb.
Dummy buildings on the eastern side of the hebsed court Dummy buildings on the
eastern side of the hebsed court
Immediately to the north of the entrance colonnade, on the eastern side of a large open
courtyard, is a series of reconstructed buildings thought to have been connected with
the King's heb-sed, or jubilee festival. A rectangular building known as Temple 'T' is
suggested to have been a model of the King's palace and contains an entrance
colonnade, antechamber and three inner courts leading to a square chamber decorated
with a frieze of 'djed' symbols. This structure leads into the southern end of the
'Jubilee Court', which is lined with dummy buildings representing Upper Egypt (on
the eastern side) and Lower Egypt (on the western side). These buildings are purely
symbolic structures. There were originally 12 chapels on the east with curved vaulted
roofs representing the shape of Lower Egyptian shrines each having a statue niche
which would have contained statues of the King. The 13 western chapels are modelled
on the shrines of Upper Egypt with three fluted half-columns and simulated
doorleaves at the entrances, topped by an arched vaulted roof. The two chapels at the
south had a staircase leading to a statue niche, while the other western buildings had
more simple facades and may have been robing rooms or other buildings connected
with the sed festival. A model fence imitating wooden palings separated the shrines.
All of the structures represent, in stone, the earlier building materials of wood and
reed mats and it is thought that the columns would have been painted red to simulate
wood. At the southern end of the Jubilee Court there is a large elevated dais which
would have held the thrones of Upper and Lower Egypt where the King may have
been symbolically crowned during the ceremonies.
Djed frieze in Temple T Cobra frieze on the western enclosure wall
North of the Jubilee Court there are two mysterious buildings commonly called the
'House of the North' and the 'House of the South' and it is thought that these structures
were originally partially buried, which would have given them a funerary
significance. They each stand in their own courtyards and are currently believed to
represent the archaic shrines of Nekhbet (from Hierakonpolis in the south) and Wadjet
(from Buto in the north), although there have been many other theories suggesting
their significance. The two buildings are again constructed with stone fashioned to
represent organic materials. In the House of the South there is a continuous 'khekher'
frieze over the entrance and the walls inside contain many New Kingdom graffiti,
written in ink by ancient visitors, naming Djoser as the owner of the complex. The
House of the North contains a shaft, 20m deep, with an underground gallery which led
Lepsius to believe that the two buildings were pyramids when he first investigated
them.
Djoser's mortuary temple lies against the northern wall of the pyramid, unlike later
pyramids which usually had the mortuary temples on the eastern side. This was the
cult centre of the King but now is badly ruined and only the entrance wall is
preserved. It is difficult to see the ground-plan of the temple, which seems to differ
considerably from other pyramid mortuary temples. The original entrance shaft into
the Step Pyramid can still be seen in the floor of the mortuary temple where it
emerged to run through the structure above the ground. In excavations of the temple,
clay sealings were found bearing the name of a King Sanakht, previously thought to
have been a predecessor of Djoser, and these may provide evidence that he actually
ruled after Djoser's time.
Djoser's mortuary temple Statue of Djoser in the serdab
On the north-eastern corner of the pyramid is a court, which contains a small structure
known as a 'serdab'. Inside this tiny sealed chamber, which is tilted upwards at an
angle of 30 degrees, a life-sized painted statue of the King, sat on his throne and
gazed out through a peep-hole towards the northern stars and the land of Osiris.
Today the original statue can be seen in Cairo Museum but you can peep into the
serdab and see a replica statue of Djoser, disconcertingly staring back you. The statue
would have represented the King's 'ka' emerging from his burial chamber in the
pyramid.
The Step Pyramid itself was thought to have been built in several stages, beginning
with an initial square mastaba and that its plan was changed several times during
construction. Scholars now doubt this theory and suggest that the whole structure was
planned as a pyramid from the outset. Earlier mastaba tombs were always rectangular.
Recent excavations at Abydos have shown that earlier enclosures contained a 'mound'
of sand covered with mudbricks (possibly symbolising the 'mound of creation') and
perhaps acting as a prototype for Djoser's structure. It would seem from recent study
that the Step Pyramid was first constructed as a square mastaba which was enlarged
and expanded in six stages, eventually becoming a 4-step mastaba and then a 6-step
structure which was no longer square, but had become a rectangle oriented east-west.
The limestone blocks were laid in courses which were inclined towards the centre of
the pyramid.
Below ground the Step Pyramid contains a maze of more than 5.5km of shafts,
tunnels and chambers. A large central shaft to the burial chamber descends to a depth
of 28m, while above ground the pyramid's six steps rise to a height of 60m. Inside the
burial chamber, the pink granite blocks may have replaced original blocks of
limestone or 'alabaster' - a theory based on Lauer's discovery of numerous fragments
of limestone nearby. Some limestone blocks carved with stars were found to have
been re-used with their decoration hidden and it is thought that Djoser's burial
chamber may have contained the first example of a star ceiling. Little was found
inside the granite burial vault - only a few small fragments of bone wrapped in linen
in Old Kingdom style, including a left foot and part of an arm. These have now been
radiocarbon dated and prove to be from a burial much later than Djoser's reign. In a
passage north-west of the burial chamber a wooden box was found inscribed with
Netjerikhet's name.
The House of the South The House of the North
Many galleries and magazines surround the central burial vault. In one of the galleries
on the eastern side, three false doors were carved from limestone and the walls were
decorated with exquisite tiny blue faience tiles inter-spaced with rows and motifs of
limestone to represent wall-hangings of natural reed matting. A reconstruction of one
of the panels is now displayed in the Cairo Museum. Reliefs of the King wearing the
red crown and the white crown, and running or walking, probably depict the heb-sed
rituals. Other walls were also found to be decorated with blue tiles, although some of
the chambers were left unfinished. It is suggested that the decoration of these
chambers was inspired by the King's private apartments in his palace at Memphis.
Another series of galleries extended westwards from 11 shafts on the eastern side of
the pyramid. These were thought to be for the burial of the King's wives and children.
One of the galleries was found to contain an empty alabaster sarcophagus as well as a
wooden coffin belonging to a small boy and Netjerikhet's name was found on a seal-
impression in one of the shafts. In other shafts vast quantities of stone vessels were
found (around forty thousand in total) in a wide variety of shapes and materials and
many bearing inscriptions of Djoser's ancestors. The reason for these 'heirlooms'
being in Djoser's tomb is still unexplained today and is the source of much debate
among archaeologists.
In front of the southern face of the Step Pyramid is a large open courtyard measuring
180m by 100m. In the centre of the court are two curious buildings whose low walls
are shaped like the letter 'B' and are thought perhaps to have been associated with the
heb-sed ceremonies. A limestone block was also found here bearing a text of Prince
Khaemwaset (son of Rameses II) who was known to have restored many of the Old
Kingdom monuments in his role of High Priest of Memphis.
Entrance to the underground chambers of the Step Pyramid Statues of a king,
probably Djoser Steps leading to the shaft of the South Tomb
The court is bounded on the southern side by the south wall of the enclosure. At the
south-west corner is an enigmatic building known as the 'South Tomb', which appears
to be a miniature replica of the subterranean chambers of the Step Pyramid. The South
Tomb contains similar decoration to the pyramid - including the same blue faience
tiles and false doors, but better preserved than in the pyramid galleries. Its purpose is
unclear, the burial chamber is too small to have ever contained a sarcophagus. Many
theories have been put forward by archaeologists as to its use, but the 'tomb' will
perhaps always remain a mystery.
The Step Pyramid is now considered unsafe for visitors. On its southern side is a
gallery leading to the central burial shaft, which was cut by robbers during the Late
Period. This was re-used for later burials and is now the only safe entrance into the
pyramid, but is not normally open. Visitors may occasionally be admitted to the South
Tomb by special arrangement.
Djoser's complex was first investigated by Napoleon's expedition but the entrance
tunnel and underground galleries were not found until the early part of the 19th
century. Many archaeologists have excavated at the Step Pyramid since that time,
most notably Cecil Firth and Jean-Philippe Lauer who began a systematic
investigation in the 1920s which lasted throughout the 20th century. For Jean-Philippe
Lauer, who died in 2001 at the age of 96, Saqqara became a life-long commitment
and he returned year after year with the French Archaeological Mission to excavate
and study the complex. It is primarily to Monsieur Lauer that the Egyptological world
owes its knowledge of the history and architecture of the site.The building of the step-
pyramid and surrounding complex for the 2nd king of the 3rd Dynasty, Netjerikhet,
represents a dramatic leap forward in the ancient Egyptians' mastering of architecture
and technology. Prior to Netjerikhet, the materials mostly used for building temples
and funerary complexes were mudbrick and wood. With Netjerikhet's complex, the
Egyptian builders, under the direction of the architect Imhotep, moved to using more
solid materials.
The complex was built to the South-West of the archaic mastabas that were
constructed for the high ranking officials of the 1st Dynasty at Saqqara (North).
The site chosen by Netjerikhet had already been used by some of the kings of the 2nd
Dynasty. Two sets of subterranean galleries, over 130 metres long, located
immediately to the South of Netjerikhet's complex and entered by passages from the
North are considered to have been the tombs of the first and the third king of the 2nd
Dynasty, Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer. The galleries located underneath the Western
massifs of the Netjerikhet complex itself could perhaps have been a tomb for yet
another 2nd Dynasty king. Its poor state of preservation has prevented a thorough
examination, but the nearby presense of the tomb of a priest of the mortuary cult of
the poorly attested 2nd Dynasty king Sened, has led some to assume that the galleries
underneath the Western massifs may have been this king's tomb.
The funerary complex built for Netjerikhet represents an immense leap forward in
Ancient Egyptian architecture. Although it was based on existing, older structures,
dated to the 2nd Dynasty, and although the 'Great Enclosure' contains some elements
made with stone, it was the first time that a complex of this size was built in stone.
The structure of this complex is quite unique. An immense limestone wall covered an
area of about 15ha, the size of a large town of that era. Enclosed within this wall was
a complex of buildings with columns and stairways, platforms, terraces, shrines,
chapels and statues. Both the central step-pyramid and the South tomb had an
impressive and complex sub-structure consisting of corridors, halls and chambers,
several of which were decorated.
Map of Saqqara, highlighting the Pyramid Complex of Netjerikhet.
Airview of Saqqara North; showing the dominating position of Netjerikhet's Step
Pyramid and surrounding complex.
Clickable map of the Netjerikhet Complex. Note that the North is located to the right
on this map.
Source: Lehner, Complete Pyramids, p. 85.
Most buildings that are part of the complex were filled with rubble at the time they
were constructed and did not have any interior rooms. The chapels in the Heb-Sed
Court and the Houses of the South and the North had a solid core. The function of
these buildings was thus symbolic rather than practical.
This is very typical for the Netjerikhet Complex and is usually explained by the fact
that the ancient builders were not accustomed to using natural stone on this large a
scale.Even though practical considerations may indeed have had a hand in the unique
way the complex was built, it is also important to point out that the mere presence of
buildings that symbolised chapels or temples would be sufficient to invoke their
power on a magical level. The false doors that were so common from the Old
Kingdom on were stone representations of doors that could not be used by the living,
but that allowed the deceased to travel between the world of the dead and the world of
the living. Similarly, the false buildings of the Netjerikhet Complex served a magical
purpose of allowing the deceased king to parttake in the goings on of the living.
Archeological research has also shown that large parts of this complex was partially
buried in the sands immediately after it was built. This again shows that the complex,
perhaps with the exception of the Northern Temple, was not intended for use by the
living
Another very typical feature of the Netjerikhet Complex is the fact that its architect,
Imhotep, mainly drew his inspiration from already existing constructions, that were
built in mudbrick and wood.
Thus the ceilings of the Entrance Corridor and of the narrow passage in the Houses of
the South and the North were decorated to resemble rounded wooden logs. Stone
imitations of opened or closed doors were placed near entrances to courts and
buildings, even to buildings with solid interiors.
Entrance Hall
The Enclosure wall of Netjerikhet's Pyramid-complex was 10.5 metres high and 1.645
metres long, covering an area of about 15 ha. The longer sides of the wall faced the
East and the West respectively. It was composed of a thick inner core of roughly laid
masonry, encased entirely on the outside and partially on the inside in fine limestone.
On the outside, there were rectangular bastions protruding from the wall every 4
metres. Except for fourteen bastions, which were larger, they were all of the same size
and shape. The larger bastions were not placed symmetrically in the wall: the East-
wall had 5 larger bastion, the North-wall 3, the West-wall 4 and the South-wall 3.
Thirteen out of fourteen of them were carved with the stone imitation of a closed
door, giving them the appearance of towered gateways. The fourteenth bastion,
located near the South-East corner of the enclosure wall, contained the actual and only
entrance to the complex.
The use of alternating projections and recesses in the wall is different from the
enclosure walls of 2nd Dynasty date in Abydos, but it can also be found in the brick
mastabas of the 1st Dynasty which are located somewhat to the North of this
Pyramid-complex. This pattern thus appears to have been of Memphite origin.
Contrary to these 1st Dynasty mastabas, the complex's entire wall is panelled, a motif
reminiscent of the so-called serekh of the Horus-name, which represented the palace-
walls. It is therefore believed that the enclosure wall may have been a copy of the
walls of Netjerikhet's palace, or perhaps of the walls surrounding Egypt's capital,
Memphis, at that time.
Entrance and Entrance Hall
The complex can only be entered through the small and narrow entrance located near
the South-East corner of the enclosure wall. Where the thirteen other larger bastions
all were decorated with a closed door pattern, the inside of the entrance is carved to
give the impression of an opened door.
The entrance is followed by a long colonnaded corridor. There are forty columns,
each joined to a small wall perpendicular to the direction of the colonnade. The
columns themselves did not have a supporting function and are stone imitations of
wooden pillars used as supports in wooden or mudbrick constructions.
The gallery is divided into two unequal parts between the twelfth and the thirteenth
pair of columns.
The ceiling of the corridor was carved with the imitation of wooden logs, a recurring
pattern throughout the complex. This is indication that the Netjerikhet Complex is a
stone version of wooden buildings that were known to the Egyptians.
The roof that tops the colonnade in our modern times has been added by the restorers.
It is somewhat higher than the original roof, allowing more light to enter this part of
the building.
The entrance corridor opens into a small hypostyle hall, the Entrance Hall, somewhat
wider than the corridor. Four pairs of columns, connected by two by a supporting
wall, decorate this court. With their height of nearly 5 metres, these columns were
some 1.65 metres lower than the columns in the entrance corridor. They have a
diameter of 1 metre at the base of the shaft, decreasing to 0.7 metres under the abacus.
They still show traces of red paint on several points, perhaps to imitate the colour of
wood.
As was the case with their counterparts in the entrance corridor, these columns do not
have a supporting function of their own.
A passage leading from this covered court to the large South Court, was shaped as an
open door in stone.
Sourth Court
The South Court is a large, almost rectangular open area located to the South of the
Step Pyramid. It is the first open court encountered when entering the complex via the
Entrance Hall.
The walls around this court were dressed in fine limestone, parts of which still remain
visible today. The recessed panels on this wall are similar to those on the outside of
the enclosure wall, but on the inside of the complex, there are no protruding bastions.
Almost centred in this court are two stone constructions shaped like our letter B, at
some distance from each other and with their backs facing each other. These
constructions, of which the rounded part appears to have been higher that the straight
part, have been identified as being connected to the Heb-Sed, the ritual which was
celebrated to rejuvenate the king. Between these two constructions, the kings was
supposed to perform a ritual run, to show his ability and physical vigour.
Close to the pyramid, and slightly off-centre, was a small altar, almost square in
shape, with a small approach ramp.
South Tomb
Against the South part of the Enclosure wall and immediately facing the Entrance
Hall, a wall, forming an angular projection into the South Court, was decorated with
recessed panels, topped by small drums, suggesting rolled reed-mats, and a frieze of
uraei. On its North face, a small entrance can be found.
Behind it a long, narrow mastaba, built directly against the inside of the Enclosure
wall, was constructed above a shaft of 7 by 7 metres and 28 metres deep. At the
bottom of this shaft, a second burial vault, similar to that found underneath the
pyramid, was constructed. With its 1.6 by 1.6 metres and a height of a mere 1.3
metres, it was much smaller than the pyramid's vault, too small for a human burial.
Other features of the pyramid's substructure had been replicated as well: a descending
passage with stairs, starting in the West underneath the mastaba, and the inner
chambers, tiled with blue faience. The mastaba's substructure, however, was less
complex, more complete and less damaged, which has been of some help in the
restoration of the pyramid's substructure.
About halfway the descending passage, a magazine of 18 by 1.6 metres was found to
contain some large jars, that may have contained food offerings. On top of these, a
wooden stretcher, a box and posts form a baldachin had been left.
The passage leads further down to a set of chambers, most of which had inlaid faience
tiles. In the South wall of Chamber II, located to the South-East of the burial vault,
three false doors showing Netjerikhet, were carved.
The function and purpose of this South Tomb, that would continue on in pyramid
building as the Satellite pyramid, usually built to the South of the main pyramid, are
still not fully explained. It is clear that it can not have been intended as a burial place
for the royal remains: the burial vault is too small to have contained the remains of an
adult human being. The South Tomb of the unfinished pyramid complex of
Sekhemkhet, Netjerikhet's successor, was found to contain the skeletal remains of a 2-
year old child, that could not have belonged to Sekhemkhet himself because he ruled
for 6 years.
The stone jars and the wooden stretcher found inside of the South Tomb of
Netjerikhet, however, suggest that something was placed inside the tomb and that
some offerings may have been made to whatever it was that was buried here.
One theory, supported by evidence found in the Satellite pyramids of later funerary
complexes, explains this South Tomb as the burial place of the Ka of the king,
probably embodied by a statue that was laid to rest inside the vault.
Temple T
At the East side of the South court, at some 60 metres to the North of the Entrance
hall, near the passage leading to the Heb-Sed court, is a small temple, now called
Temple 'T'.
This temple was a rectangular building with three delicately carved fluted columns.
As was the case with the columns in the Entrance corridor and the Entrance hall, these
columns were joined by supporting walls. It is believed that the niches formed
between the columns may have contained statues, perhaps of the king or of some
gods.
Except for a torus moulding on the South face, this building's exterior was
undecorated. On the East side of this building, there was a dummy stone door in half-
open position. The building's inner structure consisted of an imposing entrance hall,
three inner courts and a group of side-chambers. To the North of the three columns, a
niche has a lintel decorated with Djed-pillars, the same type of decoration that was
found in faience in some of the rooms underneath the pyramid.
The location of this Temple T, near the corridor connection the South Court to the
Heb-Sed Court has led to believe that this building was a representation of a pavilion
in which the king prepared himself for the rituals of the Heb-Sed. Contrary, however,
to the buildings in the Heb-Sed court, Temple T was not a dummy building and may
have served another than a purely magical purpose.
Heb-Sed Court
The Heb-Sed Court is a long, rectangular and relatively narrow open court, located
between the Entrance Corridor and the House of the South, along the inside of the
Eastern Enclosure Wall. It can be entered either through a narrow passage that leads
North from the Entrance, or via the South Court, passing Temple 'T' and a curved
wall, which is a unique feature in ancient Egyptian architecture. Modern-day visitors
usually take the latter route.
To the West and East, this vast court is flanked by several chapels. None of these
chapels has an interior structure and instead, their inner core was filled with rubble at
the time they were built. Thus the chapels appear to have had a symbolic function,
rather than a real-life purpose.
Only a couple of chapels on the West and East side of the court have been fully
restored. The others have been reconstructed to a certain height, revealing their inner
cores.
There are different types of chapels, each of them preceded by a small court. A stone
imitation of an open wooden door provided the entrance to these courts. Some of the
chapels had a niche in their façade or in their side walls. This niche may perhaps at
one time have contained a statue of the king, a god or the deified personification of a
part of the country. Or it may simply have symbolised the entrance to the chapel.
Entering the Heb-Sed Court from the South Court, the first chapel to the left (West)
has a rectangular façade. Its walls are left plain, except for a torus moulding at the top
and sides. The roof is flat, topped with an imitation in stone palm-tree leaves sticking
up and out of the building. This would become a template for many other Ancient
Egyptian buildings.
Examples of the second type of chapel can also be found on the West side of the Heb-
Sed Court. Their façades were "decorated" with three engaged columns that had a
capital composed of pendent leaves. Here too, the columns were nothing more than a
highly raised relief in the wall, without any actual supporting function. Near the top,
the columns had a single round hole into which a pole supporting an emblem may
perhaps have been inserted. A corniche, "supported" by two dummy pillars at the
corners of the façade, followed the curve of the roof. Some chapels had imitation
doors, which could be reached by narrow staircases.
This type of chapel was a stone imitation of the late prehistoric temples with rounded
roofs.
The third type of chapels can be seen on the East side of the Heb-Sed Court. They
were high and relatively narrow, with a curved roof, set slightly apart from the rest of
the building. Two of these chapels have been reconstructed at the North side of the
court. Their extraordinary shape makes them quite unique and illustrates how ancient
Egyptian architecture was just being defined by the builders of the Netjerikhet
Complex.
No inscriptions have been found to inform us of the purpose of this court, or even of
its name. Its modern-day name, Heb-Sed Court, used throughout this site and other
Egyptological publications, is based on what is believed to have been this court's
function.
The presence of a raised podium with two separate flights of stairs, one in the South
and one in the North, near the court's entrance, may perhaps reveal its purpose.
Representations of the so-called Heb-Sed, dated from before and after the reign of the
Horus Netjerikhet, often show the king twice, seated on a throne which is placed on a
raised podium. As in the Heb-Sed Court, there are two stairs leading up to the dual
thrones. The chapels in this court are likely to have symbolised Egypt's most
important shrines. It is therefore believed that this vast open court was related to the
king's Heb-Sed.
This jubilee was a ritual or a set of rituals that allowed the living king, after he had
ruled for some years, to magically refresh his physical powers and thus continue to
reign. For the deceased king, the ritual could be repeated endlessly in the
Netherworld, rejuvenating him and refreshing his powers, thus enabling him to have
an eternal afterlife. It is possible that, as part of his funerary cult, Netjerikhet's Heb-
Sed was meant to be re-enacted at this place after his death.
Step Pyramid
Standing 60 metres high, Netjerikhet's Step Pyramid, the oldest pyramid-like
monument built in Egypt, was the centrepiece not only of the Netjerikhet complex but
of the entire Saqqara area. On a bright day its distinguishing shape can be easily seen
from as far as Cairo or Giza to the North, and Meidum to the South.
The Step Pyramid has gotten its modern-day name from the fact that it is not a true
geometrical pyramid, but consists of 6 rectangular steps, each step smaller than the
one beneath. Although it was not the only Step Pyramid to have been built in Ancient
Egypt, it is the only one to have have been preserved in such good conditions. At least
two of Netjerikhet's successors, Sekhemkhet and Khaba, started building Step
Pyramids, but neither was completed. The pyramid at Meidum was started as a Step
Pyramid, probably already by Snofru of the 4th Dynasty, but is was reshaped as a true
geometrical pyramid during that same reign. Also during the reign of Snofru, several
smaller Step Pyramids were built throughout the country, but they were built of
mudbrick and are not in the same pristine shape as Netjerikhet's Step Pyramid.
It is with the Step Pyramid that it becomes most clear that the entire complex was
built in several stages. Initially, both the shape and the size of Netjerikhet's funerary
monument were a lot more modest: a uniquely square mastaba, consisting of a core of
local stone encased in an outer layer of limestone, stood slightly off-centre in a
rectangular enclosure wall (stage M1). At this stage, the complex was very similar to
the valley enclosure of Khasekhemwi, the last king of the 2nd Dynasty, at Abydos or
probably also to the structure known today as the 'Great Enclosure' at Saqqara. The
mastaba's sides were oriented approximately to face one of the four cardinal points.
When the first stage was completed, the mastaba was extended by about 4 metres on
each side and a second encasing of fine limestone was added (stage M2). This
extension, however, was slightly more than half a meter lower than the original
mastaba, M1, so that the resulting mastaba M2 was in fact a stepped mastaba. As
such, it was reminiscent of an archaic mastaba of the 1st Dynasty at Saqqara, which
lay to the North, but which had more steps.
This stepped mastaba was enlarged towards the East only by some 8 and a half metres
(stage M3). Again, this enlargement was somewhat lower than the former stage, so
that M3 was a rectangular, stepped mastaba, with two steps on the East side and one
step on the three others.
Before the casing of this East enlargement had been added, the design was, again,
changed. The mastaba of stage M3 was extended by some 3 metres on all sides and
was converted into a regular, rectangular mastaba, without any steps. This mastaba
became the first step in what was to become the Step-pyramid. At first, three mastaba-
like structures were stacked on each other and on the lowest mastaba, resulting in a 4-
stepped pyramid of some 40 metres in height (stage P1).
This structure was largely extended towards the North and the West, and somewhat
towards the South and the East. Two additional steps were then added resulting in the
final 6-stepped pyramid (stage P2). The pyramid was completed when it was encased
entirely in limestone.
The Step Pyramid of the Horus Netjerikhet.
The different building stages of the Step pyramid.
Source: Lehner, Complete Pyramids, p. 87.
The substructure of the pyramid too was built in stages and altered to compensate for
the increasing size of the superstructure. It consisted basically of a great Central shaft
of 7 metres square and 28 metres deep, that gave access to a maze of corridors and
rooms. With its more than 5.7 kilometres of shafts, tunnels, chambers and galleries,
this substructure was without parallel both in size and complexity among the other
Old Kingdom pyramids.
At the bottom of this Central Shaft, a granite vault, measuring 2.96 by 1.65 metres
and with a height of 1.65 metres, was constructed as Netjerikhet's final resting place.
Jean-Philippe Lauer, who has spent an entire lifetime examining and restoring this
funerary complex, has found evidence that there may have been an earlier vault with
walls of alabaster and a pavement of schist or diorite. Limestone blocks with a
decoration of large five-pointed stars, which had been re-used, must originally have
formed the roof of the first burial vault. If so, then this is the first known example of a
ceiling decorated with stars, a motif that would continue to be used in the royal burial
chambers or tombs for centuries. This motif symbolically denotes the burial chamber,
even though it was located under ground, as a micro-cosmos, with its own sky.
Some mummy parts, among which a foot, were found in the burial vault. The
mummification technique used on these remains are characteristic of the oldest
mummies of the Old Kingdom, so it was long assumed that these were the remains of
Netjerikhet himself. A recent carbon dating, however, has dated these remains to
several centuries younger than Netjerikhet.
The only opening that the builders left in the vault was located in the North part of the
roof. It was through this hole that the royal remains were introduced into the vault,
after which the hole was closed by a 3.5 ton granite plug with a diameter of 1 metre
and a height of 2 metres.
During the first stages (M1 through P1), a descending passage was cut in the rock
from the North, connecting to the Central Shaft. At its most Northern point, it reached
ground level and could used by the builders to clear out the waste of the Central
Passage. As the surface of the pyramid was enlarged, the descending passage got
covered by it and became unusable. A new access to the substructure was therefore
created, which begins as a trench to the North of Pyramid P2, inside one of the
chambers of the Northern Temple. From this opening and after a flight of stairs, a
passage of 1.8 metres in height goes slightly down to a large Gallery that opens to the
left and at one point, about halfway its length, crosses the original descending
passage. At the crossing of the second access corridor and this Gallery, a robbers
passage, perhaps dated to the end of the Old Kingdom, bores down into the rock
From the bottom of the Central Shaft, passages in all but the Eastern shaft wall lead
towards 3 sets of crudely cut magazine galleries. In the East of the Shaft's wall,
another passage opens unto a set of corridors and chambers, decorated with rows of
blue faience tiles set in the limestone, perhaps an imitation of the reed-mats that
adorned buildings for the living or even the king's palace. This decoration was
organised in 6 panels, three of which were topped by an arch of blue faience Djed-
pillars. In the West-wall of the Eastern-most of these chambers, there are three false
door stelae, showing Netjerikhet performing a ritual run and visits to shrines. The
east-wall of this room was apparently never finished. The builders left it roughly
hacked from the rock and the decorators appear to have finished their job in a hurry.
Two further rooms, believed to represent the king's inner apartments, were fully
decorated with faience tiles. Their doorways were framed with Netjerikhet's name
It is not impossible that the three sets of magazine galleries were also intended to
receive such an exquisite decoration. The similarity in shape of these three galleries
and the difference with the structure of the corridors and chambers on the East side,
however, may suggest that their purpose was entirely different.
Before the extension of stage M3, 11 vertical shafts were dug to the East of the
mastaba, to a depth of about 33 metres. At the bottom of each shaft, a long gallery
extended to the West, underneath the superstructure. The northern most of these
galleries could be reached by a staircase outside of the final Step-pyramid.
At least four of these galleries were used as tombs: two of them contained an intact
alabaster sarcophagus, and fragments of other sarcophagi were also found. One of the
intact sarcophagi appears to have contained the remains of a child. In the room at the
end of one of the Eastern galleries, the hip-bone of an approximately 18-year old
woman was found.
The long-held belief that these Eastern galleries were tombs for the direct members of
Netjerikhet's family has been contradicted by a carbon-dating of one of the female
remains, that has shown at least the examined body to have been several generations
older than Netjerikhet. Fragments of vessels made of alabaster and other fine stone,
were also found in the galleries. Based on the inscriptions they bore, most of them
were not made for Netjerikhet, but were probably older. A seal impression found in
one of the galleries, on the other hand, gave the Horus name of Netjerikhet, which
indicates that at least this shaft had been accessed in Netjerikhet's time. Were the
galleries part of Netjerikhet's funerary complex, or were they perhaps older and
accidentally stumbled upon when work on the complex was started? Does the seal
impression with Netjerikhet's name indicate that the burial found in the galleries
occurred during his reign, but that older mummies, perhaps members of Netjerikhet's
ancestors, were (re-)buried, or that an existing set of burials was examined?
Serdab
The Serdab Court is located North of the Step Pyramid, between the Northern Temple
and the House of the North. In the South of this court a small but very well-preserved
building, the so-called Serdab, was found to contain a statue of the Horus Netjerikhet.
It was dressed entirely in fine limestone and its front wall inclined by 16°, the same
inclination as the lowest step of the Pyramid, against which it was built. Two holes in
the front of the Serdab were meant to allow the statue of the king to see the abundant
offerings that were brought before him, or to see the circumpolar stars tow which it
was believed that Netjerikhet would be joined after his death.
A small enclosure was erected in front of the Serdab building, with two entrances. As
with the entrance to the Northern temple, the main entrance, located in the North of
the enclosure, is indicated by a stone imitation of an open wooden door.
The position of the Serdab is notable in that it was aligned with the private apartments
underneath the pyramid.
Northern Temple
The Northern temple is located to the North of the Step Pyramid, to the West of the
Serdab and the House of the North. It is attached to the lowest step of the Step
Pyramid, hiding the entrance to the Pyramid's substructures.
It is one of the few buildings in Netjerikhet's complex that is not a dummy building, in
that it actually had rooms and chambers. It appears to have been moved to the North
as the Pyramid was enlarged to a six-stepped pyramid with a larger surface. It may
originally have been located in the area where the first access corridor reached ground
level.
Its structure and its position vis-à-vis its tomb are similar to that of a mudbrick temple
of an archaic mastaba at Saqqara, dated to the reign of Qa'a, the last king of the 1st
Dynasty. The northern location of the temple is notable, as in most other, more recent
cases a temple or offering chamber was located to the East of the tomb. At this early
stage of pyramid building, the funerary cult was still focussed on the northern stars,
among which the deceased king was believed to take his place.
The temple was entered through a doorway in its Eastern wall. The doorway is
indicated by a stone imitation of an open wooden door, a feature that can be found in
many other places throughout the complex.
A long corridor led from the entrance to two open courts, one in the East and one next
to it, in the West. From the Western court the second access staircase ran down
towards the Pyramid's substructure. Three gangways in the South wall of each court
gave access to a wide gallery, running from East to West. Short walls, supporting two
columns, separated the gangways from each other. These columns, like the others in
this complex, did not have a supporting function and are probably a rendering in stone
of the columns used to support the roofs in wooden and mudbrick buildings.
To the West of the two open courts, two more chambers can be discerned. Each
chamber had a stone basin in its floor.
Although little more can be recognised in this badly damaged temple, it should be
noticed that many of the rooms have been built in pairs. This may mean that the
temple was designed for a ritual that needed to be performed twice, perhaps the first
time by or for the King of Upper Egypt and the second time by or for the King of
Lower Egypt.
North Court
The large area North of the Northern temple has not yet been fully examined. There
are some subterranean galleries underneath this court, but their function and date are
unknown pending further research.
It is also unknow if this court once housed dummy chapels like in the Heb-Sed Court,
or platforms as is the case in the South Court.
Against the Northern end of the wall surrounding the complex, an altar shaped like
the hieroglyph for offering was built. The precise function of this altar is not known
but may probably have been connected with any other structures that may have been
built in the Northern area. The fact that it is located in the North, thus sharing the
same orientation as the entrance to the Step Pyramid, may perhaps suggest a
connection with the Pole Stars, which the Ancient Egyptians believed would receive
the spiritual essenced of the deceased king.
Massif
To the West of the South Court were three massifs. A structure similar to but with its
over 400 rooms considerably larger than the tombs of Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer,
was found underneath the massif that forms the western enclosure wall of the
Complex of Netjerikhet. Unfortunately, the weak structure of the rock and the
resulting danger for collapse have prevented this 'gallery' from being fully cleared and
examined. Both its proximity to and its close resemblance with the two other royal
tombs of the 2nd Dynasty confirm that this 'gallery' too is very likely to have been a
2nd Dynasty royal tomb. However, as yet, no royal names have been discovered here,
so any attempt to credit this tomb to a 2nd Dynasty king would be hypothetical:
A likely candidate may be Hotepsekhemwi's successor, Reneb, if, indeed, as we
assume, he did not usurp his predecessor's tomb. A funerary stela bearing his name
has been found in the vicinity of Memphis and is likely to once have stood near his
tomb. So at least there is an indication that Reneb may have had a tomb in Saqqara.
This is confirmed by the fact that he, like Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer did not have
tombs at Abydos. But this does not mean that the tomb underneath Netjerikhet's
western massif belonged to Reneb: it is indeed possible that other 2nd Dynasty tombs
are still hidden in the sands.
There was a mortuary cult for a king named Sened, who is not attested by any
contemporary sources, at Saqqara. The tomb of an Old Kingdom priest assigned to
this cult was found near the Netjerikhet Complex. So this makes Sened a likely
candidate for the ownership of this tomb as well. This, then, would be the only
contemporary testimony of Sened's existence and it is quite strange that a king able to
build a large tomb did not leave any other marks in his country.
Although both a tomb and a palace-simulacrum at Abydos have been identified as
having belonged to Khasekhemwi, some archaeologists are convinced that the tomb
under the western massif belonged to this king. The primary arguments forwarded by
the proponents of this hypothesis are the size of the tomb and the presence of
Khasekhemwi's name in another gallery underneath the northern part of the
Netjerikhet complex. The tomb in Abydos is explained by them as a cenotaph.
Contrary to the tombs of Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer, the superstructure of this tomb
may perhaps have been preserved. An examination by J.-P. Lauer of the different
building stages of Netjerikhet's Step Pyramid has shown that the western massif
already existed at the time when the Step Pyramid was extended towards the west: the
west side of the pyramid only starts at a height of 4.7 metres and was partially built on
top of the western massif. This means that either the western massif belonged to an
earlier building-stage of the Netjerikhet Complex, or that it predates it all together.
The western massif is in fact composed of three long, narrow structures: an eastern
and a western flat-roofed massif flanking a central one that is substantially higher and
had a rounded roof. According to the German archaeologist Stadelmann, all three
parts appear to have been built at approximately the same time. The filling material of
these massifs appears for a large part to have come from the substructure, making it
likely that the sub- and superstructures were built at the same time. The western wall
of Netjerikhet's complex was apparently built against the western most of these
massifs, again a possible indication that the three massifs predate Netjerikhet's
complex. One can only wonder why Netjerikhet chose to incorporate this already
existing structure into his own.

Sekhemkhet (Djoser Teti)

Monuments

Unfinished Step Pyramid at Saqqara

Unfinished – acdtually “Buried” pyramid
Possible that Imhotep also served Sekhemkhet and began the work
It duplicates many elemenhts from Djoser’s pyramid
First noived just before WWII by an egyptian archaeologist working on the pyramid
of unas. The sturcture was barely visible beneath a sand dune.
120 meters from Unas
The four corners werea ctually an enclosure wall, inside of which were the ruins of a
pyramid from the 3rd dynasty. The walla lso has deep niches, like the wall at Djoser. It
was bult in stages, with niches and false doors at intervals, with one real door (which
has not been found). The wall was probably 10m tall, with a walkeay on top.
Built on uneven rock surface, which had to be terraced to level it out. It is unknown
why the king built here
Built in six or seven steps, althougn never completed and only reaching 26 feet. It was
built with the stones leaning inwards at 15 degrees. No casing was every added. It was
probably 119 m square. Had it been seven steps, it would have been higher than
Djoser’s, possibly 70 m (230 feet).
Entrance in th enorth wall. Leading to a corrdito and burial chamber. The corridor is
bisected with a vertical shaft that extended up into the masonry of the pyramid – a
type of sedcurity system? In the shafte were found bones and offerings, and 62 papyrii
from the 2th dynasty and gold treasures from the 3rd dynasty that included 21
bracelets, shells, corals coveredin gold leaf. Oldest gold ornaments found in Egypt.
A u-shaped passage leads off to the ast before the burial chamber, lined with square
storage rooms.
The burial chamber is 100 feet below the base of the pyramid. It contains a highly
polished alabaster sarcophagus (of a single piece) with no cover, just a sliding
partitions. The only ther alabaster sarcophagi were for Heterpheres I (4th dynasty) and
Seti I (19th dynasty). Despite being sealed, the sarcophagus was empty (to the
embarassmetn of the archaepoligis Goneim, when he invited the hoi-polloi to view the
opening).
Might be the second pyramid built in Egypt
Galleries on the west and east of the burial chamber are mostly unfinished and may
have led to a larger mortuary apartment
Compmlex contains a symbolic south tomb of a limestone mastaba with an entrance
on the west. Inside was a coffin with the remains of a 2 year old child.
Mortuary temple and courtyards are not excavated
Only discovered i 1950
Successor to Djoser, may have been built by Imhotep
Contains an alabaster sarcophagus
No public access
Reached about 26ft, not known if meant to be 6t or 7 steps. Built using the accretion
layer method, stones lean in 15 degrees. 119m square
Built on even ground, so builders had to terrace upt to 10m high. Permieter wall built
in phases, cased in fine white limsetone. Probably 10m tall.
Sekhemkhet (Djeserty) was the successor to Djoser, whose Step Pyramid at Saqqara
is well known. Sekhemkhet ruled for only 6 years, and his pyramid, which may have
been intended to be larger than that of Djoser, never rose much above ground level.
For this reason the monument is known as the 'Buried Pyramid' and it is located to the
south-west of the Unas complex.
Entrance to Sekhemkhet's 'Buried Pyramid' Reconstructed enclosure wall of
Sekhemkhet's Pyramid
Sekhemkhet's previously unknown structure was excavated in the 1950s by Zakaria
Goneim, an Egyptian archaeologist who had become interested in the mysterious
rectangular shape in the desert while he was excavating at the Unas complex. He first
discovered a section of a white limestone enclosure wall (the whole perimeter wall
measures approximately 500m by 185m). The wall, which had later been extended on
the northern and southern sides, had niches and false doors similar to the enclosure
wall of the step pyramid, and is very well-preserved. Also found on a block in the
enclosure wall was a mason's inscription in red ink, which includes the name of
Imhotep, Djoser's architect.
Little is really known about the intended structure, although archaeologists suggest
(from the size of the square base) that it probably would have been higher than
Djoser's monument and it may have had 7 steps planned instead of 6.
The next stage in Goneim's investigations revealed an open rock-cut trench on the
northern side of the enclosure, which was blocked by masonry. The entrance led to a
passage, ending in a burial chamber right under the centre of the pyramid and 30m
below ground. The name of Sekhemkhet was found on seal impressions on vessels in
the corridor which gave the identification of the pyramid's owner. Much progress
seems to have been made on the monument's substructure. A U-shaped corridor opens
from the descending passage to other unfinished galleries around the burial chamber
and the corridor was interrupted by a vertical shaft again similar to the shaft in
Djoser's structure.
Goneim found a great number and variety of objects during clearance of the debris,
including animal bones, demotic papyri (from later periods) and a large hoard of
Dynasty III stone vessels similar to Djoser's 'heirlooms'. The excavator's greatest
surprise was to see his first 'gleam of gold' - the contents of a decayed wooden casket
which had contained a presumably undisturbed funerary deposit of 21 gold bracelets,
a hinged gold cosmetic box in the form of a shell, electrum tweezers and a needle, and
many gold, carnelian and faience beads. Sealed jars were inscribed with Sekhemkhet's
name, as was an ivory label bearing a list of linens. Goneim was convinced he had
found an intact burial which had escaped the tomb-robbers and there was a great deal
of excitement among state officials and the press. This was among the oldest treasures
found in Egypt.
Continuing the excavations Goneim eventually reached the burial chamber which was
blocked by a wall of stone masonry. Inside the chamber, which was rough-cut and
undecorated, stood a highly-polished alabaster sarcophagus (still in situ) carved from
a single piece of stone and uniquely blocked at one end with a sliding stone panel
plastered into position. The sarcophagus was opened on 26 June 1954 with great
ceremony - but to the huge disappointment of the excavator and the crowd, it was
empty.
Zakaria Goneim's sensational discovery of the 'Buried Pyramid' with its hoard of
treasures ended in tragedy in 1959 when he committed suicide at the height of his
career.
In 1963, Jean-Philippe Lauer took up the excavation of Sekhemkhet's monument by
investigating the possibility of a south tomb, a feature which he had found on the
southern side of Djoser's Step Pyramid. He also wanted to reconstruct a plan of the
Buried Pyramid and to try to resolve the mystery of the missing mummy. Lauer
uncovered the foundations of the south tomb below a destroyed mastaba. In a corridor
at the bottom of a deep shaft, he found remains of an early wooden coffin which
contained the bones of a two-year old boy (a royal prince?) with some Dynasty III
vessels and gold leaf fragments. The burial chamber had been looted by robbers.
Lauer went on to prove Goneim's theory that the enclosure wall of the complex had
been extended. There are many theories surrounding the Buried Pyramid and its lack
of completion which still remain a mystery.
Today there is little to see at the Buried Pyramid complex, except the lower courses of
the enclosure wall, the entrance to the descending corridor and the deep shaft of the
south tomb.
Location
Sekhemkhet started his pyramid complex to the North-West of that of his predecessor,
Netjerikhet, and to the East of the so-called Great Enclosure, a possible funerary
complex dated to the end of the 2nd Dynasty, a couple of generations before
Sekhemkhet.
Sekhemkhet is assumed to have had a short reign, which might explain why his
funerary monument was left unfinished. Had it been completed, it would have been
slightly larger than Netjerikhet's.
The name of Netjerikhet's brilliant architect, Imhotep, is mentioned on the North
enclosure wall, thus probably confirming that this monument was designed by
Imhotep as well.
Structure
Because it was not completed, the structure of the complex of Sekhemkhet is a lot
more simple than Djoser's Complex. There was a surrounding wall, with a palace
façade motiv, a central Step Pyramid with a fairly simple substructure and to the south
of it, a South Tomb. Some remaining structures hint that the design of this complex
appears to have been changed while it was being built.
Pyramid
Like Djoser's, Sekhemkhet's pyramid was intended as a step-pyramid. In the
construction of the pyramid, the same technique was used as for Djoser's: accretions
leaning inwards by 15°, with sloping courses of relatively small stone blocks were
laid at right angles to the incline.
As a result of the pyramid not being finished, the outer casing never appears to have
been added. Had it been finished, the pyramid would have risen in 7 steps to a height
of 70 metres, thus surpassing Djoser's. Probably due to the short reign of Sekhemkhet,
it was abandoned at a very early stage and it never rose above the surface of its
rectangular enclosure. In its present state, all that is left are a few courses of core
masonry, nowhere higher than 7 metres above ground level.
The substructure of the pyramid wasn't as complex as Djoser's. A subterranean set of
132 galleries or magazines built in U-shape around the North, East and West side of
the pyramid was never finished.
The entrance to the substructure is located to its North, but outside of the actual
pyramid. A descending entrance corridor leads to the burial chamber, past three sets
of blockings which appeared intact. A wide vertical shaft enters the ceiling of this
passage, rising through the rock and the core of the pyramid. This shaft was probably
used to lower blocks into the passage when the tomb needed to be sealed.
The roughly rectangular burial chamber of the pyramid, located directly under the
centre of the monument, measured 8.9 by 5.22 by 4.55 metres and was left unfinished.
Corridors led to different but again unfinished galleries, that may have been intended
to be "apartments", as was the case in Djoser's pyramid.
The alabaster sarcophagus discovered in the burial chamber is unique in that it was
made of a single piece of stone with a sliding door at one end. On top of it lay some
decomposed plant material, originally believed to be a funerary wreath, but analysis
has shown that it was bark and wood. Although the sarcophagus was closed and
sealed with mortar when it was found, it was empty. Because it was sealed and
because the descending passage was still blocked when it was cleared by
archaeologists, it is unlikely that this tomb had been violated by tomb-robbers. The
question what happened to Sekhemkhet's body and why it never appears to have been
placed inside the sarcophagus intended for it has never been answered satisfactorily.
South Tomb
As was the case with the pyramid, the South tomb was never finished either. The only
part that was discovered were its foundations, part of a destroyed mastaba and a
rudimentary substructure. The entrance is located at the West side. At the end of it a
simple widening contained a wooden sarcophagus, stone vases and some jewellery,
all dated to the 3rd Dynasty. The sarcophagus contained the remains of a two year old
boy, so it is quite unlikely that they are the remains of Sekhemkhet himself.
The enclosure wall
An enclosure wall was begun to surround the complex. The parts that were finished
and still remain today demonstrate that it would have been similar to the wall around
Netjerikhet's complex. It was panelled and had extending bastions. It was, however,
thinner than Djoser's and the blocks were somewhat larger. Despite the fact that work
on this complex was abandoned at a very early stage, the enclosure wall shows that
during the work, it had been extended both to the South and the North.
A mortuary temple or a Heb-Sed court have not been discovered (yet). It is possible
that the building of these structures had not yet started when Sekhemkhet died.

Khaba

Monuments

Tomb – Zawyet el-Aryan

Location
Zawyet el-Aryan is located to the South of Giza and North of Abusir and Abu Gorab.
There are two unfinished pyramids at Zawyet el-Aryan. The oldest one is dated to the
3rd Dynasty and would have been a Step Pyramid had it been completed. The other
pyramid was built somewhere during the 4th Dynasty, but it is not known for certain
by which king.
The Step Pyramid
The two oldest known Step Pyramids were built at Saqqara, located to the South of
Zawyet el-Aryan, by the Horus Netjerikhet and his successor Sekhemkhet, both of the
3rd Dynasty.
Another king of that dynasty chose to build his funerary monument at some distance
North of Saqqara. He also chose to build his monument near the floodline. In this, he
departed from the trend set by Netjerikhet and Sekhemkhet, who built their pyramids
well into the desert.
The identity of the builder of the Step Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan is not known with
certainty. His name is not mentioned in the monument itself. However, vases found in
a nearby mastaba mention the name of the Horus Khaba, an elusive 3rd Dynasty king.
As it was customary for members of the nobility to be buried near their king, this has
been taken as evidence that the unfinished Step Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan was built
for Khaba.
Had this pyramid been finished, it would have risen up in 5 steps to a height of some
45 metres. There were no traces of outer casing, an indication that indeed, this
monument was never finished.
Although it is somewhat simpler, the substructure is similar to that of the Step
Pyramid of Sekhemkhet. It substructure consists of a sloping corridor dug in the
ground, leading to a burial chamber of 3.63 by 2.65 metres and a height of 3 metres.
There is no trace of a burial and even the surrounding galleries were left empty. Many
Egyptologists have seen this as an indication that whoever built this monument died
prematurely. But this does not really explain why there are no traces of a burial at all.
Worth mentioning is also that one of the mastabas near this pyramid contained seal
impressions and a pottery fragment with the name of the Horus Narmer. Along with
the find of some pottery bearing the same name, this may show that Narmer has been
active in the Memphite area.
The 4th Dynasty Pyramid
Even less is known about the second pyramid that was built at Zawyet el-Aryan.
Based on stylistic criteria, this pyramid must indeed be dated to the 4th Dynasty.
There are some hieratic inscriptions that appear to mention the name of a king, but the
name has been read in a variety of ways: Nebka, Wehemka or Baka. If the latter
reading is correct, then this might be a confirmation of the existance of Bakare, a king
mentioned in some kinglists and assumed to have been the immediate successor of
Khefren.
The pyramid itself was intended to measure about 200 by 200 metres. Had it been
finished, it would risen almost as high as Khefren's pyramid in Giza. But unlike the
pyramids of Khefren and Kheops, the burial chamber of this pyramid was constructed
in a pit that was dug some 21 metres deep in the ground. This building technique is
strongly reminiscent of the pyramid of Djedefre at Abu Rawash.
The pyramid itself was surrounded by an enclosure wall measuring 665 by 420
metres.
Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan
The pyramid at the southern end of the site is known as the 'Layer Pyramid' and has
been attributed to king Khaba of Dynasty III, probably a successor of Sekhemkhet.
The pyramid was investigated by the Italian archaeologist Alessandro Barsanti in
1900, but the owner of the structure was unknown until Reisner's American
Expedition excavated the pyramid and some of the mastaba tombs in the area in the
early part of the 20th century. Here he found fragments bearing the name of Khaba as
well as some pieces of pottery bearing the name of Narmer, which led him to suggest
a Dynasty II date for the structure.
The southern pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan is locally called 'Haram el-Meduwara' or
the 'round pyramid', due to its ruined condition and diminutive size. The base of the
pyramid was about 84m square and the subtructure is very similar to that of
Sekhemkhet's unfinished pyramid at Saqqara. Khaba's pyramid was conceived as a
step pyramid with a core built with sloping layers of masonry. Only the lower part of
the first step remains of what may have been intended to be a five, six or seven
stepped structure, its height today rising to only 16m. No trace of a limestone casing
from the pyramid has been found which tends to support the view that the pyramid
was never completed.
The subterranean chambers were entered near the north-east corner where a staircase
continues in a westwards direction as a passage which then turns south at the bottom
of a vertical shaft. Another unfinished passage leads from higher in the shaft in the
same direction. The lower passage leads to another staircase and an empty burial
chamber. On the northern side of the vertical shaft there were thirty two store-rooms
which also proved to be empty.
The area has never been thoroughly investigated and is now inaccessible because it is
within a military zone. Reisner's American team excavated a large mastaba to the
north of the Layer Pyramid, identified as Mastaba Z-500 and it was here that the
Horus name of Khaba was found on alabaster vases. Although these artefacts, in
addition to the stylistic dating of the pyramid lead many Egyptologists to attribute the
monument to Khaba, the owner is by no means certain.

Huni

Monuments
There are sevean small step pyramids, dating from the second half of the 3rd synasty
and as late as the early 4th dynasty. Likely there are others that have yet to be
discovered.
These may all belong to Huni and their purpose is unknown.
They have no internal chamgbers, nor underground structures. They are mostly on the
west bank of the nile. They are not tombs (lacking internal structure) although they
may have been cenotaphs (fake tombs) of the queens. They may have been shrines.

Lepsius Pyramid 1
North of Giza
Is only thought to be a pyramid, the northernmost one found (thus assigned the
number 1). Discovered by Perring in 1830s and investigateed much later. The most
recent by Swelim in 1980s.
May not be pyramid, and it is not known who built it. Probably a provincial step
pyramid
Has substructure.
An enormous mudbrick stepped pyarmid. About a quarter of the structure is a natural
rock outcropping.
Swelim believes it was bult on the instruction of Huni.
Possibly belongs to Neferka.
Mudbricks laid over a stone coare, inclined inwards at 75 degrees. Probably about
215m base length, with a tentative hieight of 107-150m. The current pile is less than
20m tall. K

Zawiyet el-Meititin Pyramid

7km from Minya
First investigated by Weill in 1911 and later by Lauer.
Intne rlayrs of walls have a slight I ncline towrads the center with progressively
decreasing height. Originall of three steps and about 17m high an 22.5 meters square.
Currently only 5m high.
Small limestone blocks with clay, sand, and lime
The only one on the east bank, may have been associated with the city Hebenu

Sinki Pyramid
Near the vilage of Naga el-Khalifa, five miles south of Abydos.
Sometimes, all the small pyramids are referred to as ‘sinki pyramids’
Remains are 4 meters high and aligned with the Nile.
Rough limstone with clay and sand mortar, although ramps of mudbrick are also
found, with a filler of mud, rubble, and sand
Fourteeen graces from the Old and New Kingdoms nearby

Naqada Pyramid
Investigated by Petri in 1895
Has a pit under it’s southwest corner (although the pit seems to have no relation to the
pyramid. May have been dug by robbers to get inside
Rough limstone bound with clay and sant, east side aligned with the Nile.
Originall had 3 steps and a base of 22 meters square

Kula Pyramid
Investigeated by Petring in 1837
Near the villag eof Naga el-Manariya about 6 k north of Hierakonpolis.
Originall 12 meters tall
Now only 10 meters tall and 294 meers square
Best preserved of the small pyramids
Rough limstone with claly, sand, mud and limestone rock mortar.
Corners are oriented to the cardinal directions, west side parallel to the Nile

Edfu Pyramid
West side parallel to the Nile
Made of reddish sandstone instead of limestone
Near naga el-Goneima, 5 km north of Edu

Elephantine Pyramid
Southernmost of the pyramids
Discovered in 1909 by a French expedition, and were at first mistaken for a Jewish
temple
Aligned with the ile, and built on a rock plasteau that was specificall smoothed for the
foundation.
Built of rough granite bound with clay mortar

Benha Pyramjid
No longer visible, but documentedin the 19th century near Benha (athribis) in the
delta.

4th Dynasty

Snefru

Monuments

Meidum Pyramid
Originally a 7-stepped pyramid, then enlarged to an 8-step pyramid which was
eventually filled in and a smooth outer facing added.
The casing has collapsed. The3 current structure is a tall column surrounded b the
debris of the fallen casing stones.
No one kinows when it collapsed – some say it collapsed right after it was finished
(and influenced the change in angle of the bent pyramid), others in roman times, still
others in Medieval times. It proabably collapsed because of outward forces due to
miscalculations of athe angle and building method.
The collapsed part are the four outer bttress walls, laid against the smooth facing
stones of the pyramid.
Possibly started by Huni and then completed by his son Sneferu.
144m square and 42m high.
Entrance on the north, up 30m stairway, with a descneding passage leading down 57m
to below the foundation. It comes to a vertical shaft that leads up to the burial
chamber, which has a corbelled roof and is lined with limestone. Construction timbers
are still visible here. The burial chamber is on the same level as the foundation.
A cemeteray nearby contains a numbe rof mastabas, including the twin mastabas of
Neferm’at and his wife Itet, and Re-hotpe and his wife Nofret.
The Seila step pyramid is slightly to the north.
0800-1600, LE18
Called "Collapsed Pyramid"
Tickets include admission to two mastabas and the ruined mortuary temple. Ask to
see them.
Enterd by a 30m stairway on th enorth side, descend into the bedrock, then ascend to
the burial chamber
Bring a flashlight
Madium Geese found here
Snferu, first king of the IV dyn, or Huni, last rule sof the III is builder
Begun as a step pyramid, then "filled in"and then collapsed.
Originally 144m square and 42m high. Now has a 65m core like a medieval fort
surrounded by the debris
Location
Meidum is located some 80 kilometres to the South of Memphis, on the Westbank of
the Nile, to the East of Lake Moëris and the Fayum oasis. Because of its remoteness,
it is not seen as part of the Memphite necropolis, which stretches from Abu Rawash to
Dashur, even though one pyramid and several mastabas have been built there during
the Old Kingdom.
Although Meidum is mainly known for its collapsed pyramid, there also are some
impressive cemeteries to the West, North and East of the pyramid. The oldest
mastabas that have been found are dated to the early 4th Dynasty, an indication that
the site had not been used for burials prior to that.
Several of these tombs were built for sons of Snofru, the founder of the 4th Dynasty,
among them Nefermaat with his wife Itet and Rahotep and his spouse, Nofret. Two
lovely statues representing Rahotep and Nofret respectively were found in their tomb.
A lovely and realistic painting of six geese in a natural setting, was found in the
mastaba of Nefermaat. The scene shows six gees in a field, three facing left and three
facing right. The geese the most to the left and right are bending over pecking at the
ground for food, whereas the four in the middle have their heads tilted. The feathering
and colouring of the geese is different, breaking the symmetry in this scene and giving
it a very individual aspect.
The pyramid
The pyramid at Meidum marks the transition from the Early Dynastic Period to the
Old Kingdom.
Following the tradition that was started by the funerary monument of the Horus
Netjerikhet at Saqqara, this pyramid was started as a Step Pyramid. With the pyramid
of Sekhemkhet at Saqqara and the pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan credited to Khaba
being left unfinished, the one at Meidum was the second large scale Step Pyramid to
have been completed.
It has often been assumed that the original builder of this Step Pyramid was Huni, the
last king of the 3rd Dynasty. This is, however, merely based on the desire to credit at
least one major building to this otherwise elusive king. Huni's name has not been
found in or near the Meidum Pyramid, making it quite unlikely that this monument
was built for him.
The fact that the pyramid was named Snofru Endures has led others to suggest that it
was Snofru who built this monument. The fact that none of the mastabas surrounding
the pyramid are older than the early 4th Dynasty and that several sons of Snofru were
buried there also confirms that the pyramid must be dated to the beginning of the 4th
rather than the end of the 3rd Dynasty.
Recent archaeological research has led to the assumption that Snofru built this
pyramid before his 15th year, and then abandonned the site to start a new royal
cemetery at Dashur, some 40 kilometres to the North. What is certain is that Snofru at
one point during his reign -and some suggest a high date such as the 28th or 29th year
of his reign- ordered the transformation of the original Step Pyramid into a true
pyramid. It is unlikely that Snofru usurped this pyramid, since he already had built
two other pyramids at Dashur. The reason why this king would have wanted 3
pyramids, making him the most productive pyramid builder in the history of Egypt,
are not known. It is also not known whether the conversion of the original Step
Pyramid into a true Pyramid was completed.
Today there is little to suggest that this monument once indeed was a pyramid. All
that remains now is a three-stepped tower rising up from a hill of debris. It has
longtime been assumed that, while the pyramid was being converted from a Step
Pyramid into a true Pyramid, the weight of the added outer casing was pressing down
so hard that the entire structure collapsed. However, recent archaeological research
has found no trace of tools or equipment that would have been left behind by the
workers, had they actually witnessed the pyramid's collapse. If this pyramid
collapsed, it must have been at a much later date than was assumed. It is also very
likely that this monument, like so many others, fell victims to local peasants quarrying
for stone.
The internal structure of the pyramid is fairly simple, compared to its successors, but
at the same time it was an innovation that would become the standard for generations
to come.
The entrance is located in the north face of the pyramid, above ground level. A
descending passage goes down to below ground level and ends in a horizontal
passage. Two small chambers or niches open to the left and right of this passage. At
the end of this passage, a vertical shaft leads up to the burial chamber, which is
located at ground level. This is the first pyramid to have a room inside its actual core.
In order to deal with the pressure of the pyramid pushing down on the burial chamber,
the builders used the technique of corbelling, with each course of the roof of the
chamber projecting inwards as it got higher.
The burial chamber measures 5.9 by 2.65 metres, which is quite small, yet another
sign that the builders were experimenting. There is no sarcophagus and no trace of a
burial.
Outside the pyramid many elements that would become the standard for pyramid
complexes to come were already present as well.
A chapel, measuring 9.18 by 9 metres, was built against its eastern face. To the south,
there was a small satellite pyramid. It has an entrance in its north face with a
decending passage leading down to the burial chamber. It was already heavily
destroyed when it was found.
Traces of an enclosure wall, measuring some 236 by 218 metres surrounding this
complex have also been found, as well as a causeway, cut in the bedrock and encased
in limestone.
It is clear that this complex marks the transition from the Early Dynastic funerary
complexes to those of the Old Kingdom. The original shape of the pyramid still
reflects the 3rd Dynasty tradition, but the building technique, the presence of a
satellite pyramid, an eastern chapel and a causeway herald the tradition of the Old
Kingdom.

Bent Pyramid
Probalby planned as a “true” pyramid with smooth sides, but changed angle about 2/3
up.
Either the first or second of Sneferu’s pyramids – depdning on who built Maidum.
Also called the Rhomboidal Pyramid, False Pyramid, or Blunt Pyramid.
One of the best preserved pyramids, retaining much of its casing stone.
Not seriously investigated untill the 19th century by Perring, Lepsius, and Petrie. Later
excavations in the 1950s. There are still quesztions as to whether all the chambers
have been found – wind creates storng drafts through the corridors that has
interuppted investigations – the venting has not been explained (it occurred before the
walled up western entrance was opened, so where does it go?)
The vallye temple is a enclosed in a permiter wall of mudbrick, which also included
the mortuary cult of Sneferu (which lted into the middle kingdom). The causeway to
the main pyramid led out of thes outhwest corner of the temple and wall.
Causeway follows an irregular path. It has no roof, but paved with limestone blocks.
Low white limstone walls that were rounded at the top line the walkway.
Whole comples surrounded by yellow-gray limestone.
Cult Chapel at the beast of the east well, with an alter and stelae. It was later enclosed
in mubrdick as a temple
The foundations are not well-prepared – the soft layer of clay under the core seriously
compomised the staqbility of the pyramid. It was further weatkened by the lack of
care the intner masonry was laid – leaving many gaps that were filled in with rubble.
Early construction had the couses of the core stones laid with an inwrd slope.
When about 45 meters high, the angle was reduced to about 45 degrees. Aboe this
point, the stones were laid horiztonally (not slping inwards), as the builders had
realized that the inward sloping stone put great strain on the sutrcture.
Stones in this pyramid are much larger than those of the 3rd dynasty. Casing stones
were much larger.
Some scholars believe the change in angle is intentional. Most do not.
Two entrances. North: descending corridot to an antechamber with a vaulted ceiling
and a ladder leading to a cburial chamber. A short passage in the burial chamber leads
to a vertical pit (a “chimney” aligned with the axis of the pyramid
High up the west face: descending corridor with two portcullis ending in an “upper
chamber”. It contains masonry floor and holes for beams (with some ramains). It is
possible that Sneferu was actually buried in this chamber.
Chambers fro the north and west are connected by a small tunnel cut through the core
of the pyramid.It was most probablyb uilt after the two separate structures were
finished.
A North chapel was attached to the north face of the pyramid. Not much remains.
A cult pyramid is further to the south, still along the pyramid axis. It has an entrance
on the north side at ground level that leads to a descending corrido and a small
corbelled chamber. It is thought that this chamber is the model for the Great Gallery
in Khufue’s pyramid at Giza. There is a small chape on the east side with an alabaster
altar and two 5m monoliths with the king’s name.
LE10 camera LE5
Attribued to Sneferu (2613-2588 BCE) who is buried here
changes angle from 54.3 degrees to a gentler slope about 3/4 of the way up, to 43.5
degrees
Much of th elimestone casing is intact because of the steep sides
Lower layer has been removed, shwing groves in the bedrock
two entrances, north and west
Nearby is a saller queen's pyramid, for Hetepheres
Would have been 128m tall
Maidum also has an angle of 52 degrees.
The Bent Pyramid owes its modern-day name to the fact that the upper half of this
pyramid was built with a smaller angle than the lower part, giving it a very
characteristic bend. The Ancient Egyptian name for this pyramid was xa rsj, The
Southern Shining One, a reference to the fact that it was built at the Southern edge of
Dashur.
It is also the first pyramid that was built by Snofru at Dashur, after he probably had
built the Step Pyramid at Meidum. The fact that he abandonned Meidum and its Step
Pyramid to try out a new design at Dashur may probably reflect a change in ideology,
whereby the tomb of the king was no longer considered as a staircase to the stars, but
rather as a symbol of the solar cult and of the primeval mound from which all life had
sprung.
There is evidence within the core of the Bent Pyramid that it was begun as a much
smaller pyramid, with a slope of some 60°. Structural problems, caused mainly by the
unstable sandy underground, forced the builders to encase this central pyramid in a
girdle with a slope of 54°27'44". This was the slope for the lower part of the pyramid
as it stands today.
Unfortunately, the building technique that was used -a technique going back to the
Step Pyramids which consisted of using inward leaning courses- did not help to
stabilise this monument. Fearing that the pyramid would collapse under its own
weight, its slope was lowered to 43°22' somewhere halfway up the building. It is
possible that the upper part of the Bent Pyramid was continued only after finishing the
Red Pyramid, which was built a couple of kilometres to the North of the Bent
Pyramid. In any case, the Red Pyramid has exactly the same slope of 43°22' as the
upper part of the Bent Pyramid. In its finished state, this pyramid has a base length of
188 metres and is 105 metres high.
The internal structure of the Bent Pyramid is as innovative as the pyramid itself.
Unlike any other pyramid, there are two internal structures: with entrances in the
North and West sides.
From the north, a passage descends down to an antechamber. In order to deal with the
downward pressur of the pyramid on this chamber, its roof was made of different
courses, with each course projecting more inwards than the course below. This
technique, known as corbelling, was also used for the pyramid at Meidum. The burial
chamber, also with a corbelled roof, is located above the antechamber.
The second entrance, in the West face of the pyramid, lead down via a descending
passage to a horizontal corridor which was intended to be blocked by some portcullis
slabs. The second burial chamber, behind these portcullises, also has a corbelled roof.
It is at a higher level than the first burial chamber. Scaffoldings of cedar beams were
intended to give the room some additional support.
After they were completed, the two burial chambers were connected by a passage that
was cut out through the existing masonry. It is not known why Snofru wanted to have
two burial chambers in this pyramid, but perhaps this too can be explained by the
clear experimental nature of this monument.
Probably at around the same time as when the slope of the main pyramid was
decreased, work started to the South to build a smaller satellite pyramid. This
pyramid, with a base length of 53 metres and a height of 32.5 metres, was probably an
adaptation of the concept of the South Tomb found in the complex of Netjerikhet at
Saqqara. Its internal structure is a precursor for the pyramid of Kheops at Giza. It has
a descending and then an ascending passage, with a smaller version of Kheops' Grand
Gallery. The actual burial chamber is far too small for a human burial and may
probably have been intended to house the Ka statue of the king.
Between the satellite and the main pyramid, there was a small offering place. Two
funerary stelae, bearing the titulary of Snofru, were erected along the east face of the
satellite pyramid.
A small offering chapel, also with two funerary stelae, was built against the east face
of the main pyramid. Like the eastern chapel of the pyramid of Meidum, this chapel is
too small to be an actual mortuary temple.
An enclosure wall surrounded both the main and satellite pyramids, with a causeway
leading from its Northeast towards a small rectangular structure in the East, about
halfway down to the valley. This structure shares features of both Valley Temples and
Morturay Temples in later pyramid complexes. It has the courtyard, pillars and statues
that would become traditional in later mortuary temples, but it was built at some
distance of the pyramid, which is typical for the Valley Temple.
Eventhough this pyramid was finally completed, including additional constructions
such as the satellite pyramid and the Mortuary Temple, Snofru was buried in his third
pyramid: the Red Pyramid, built a couple of kilometres North of the Bent Pyramid.
Snefru probably began his career in pyramid building by attempting to complete the
monument of his father Huni at Meidum. He seems to have abandoned this for a time
and his workforce was relocated to Dahshur, where he began to build another
pyramid, named 'Snefru is shining in the south' and which we now know as the 'Bent
Pyramid' because of its shape. It is located about 3km west of the modern village of
Dahshur on the desert plateau.
Snefru's had grand ideas for his second attempt at pyramid building, which, if it had
been completed according to plan, would have been the largest pyramid in Egypt. The
base length of the structure was around 189m, with an original height of 105m.
During the construction of the pyramid the plan was changed when architects appear
to have realised that the angle of slope was too steep, so at almost half way up, the
inclination was reduced, effectively reducing both the projected height of the pyramid
and the weight of stone in its upper courses. This experimentation is understandable -
there was no prototype for a 'true pyramid', which Snefru's project was intended to be
from the beginning.
There are many theories as to why the plan was changed. The foundation beneath the
structure was not stable and it is possible that there may have been signs of collapse in
the internal chambers, making it necessary to lighten the volume of stone above the
axis. Or perhaps there was a religious or political motive in the change of angle which
has produced the curious bend.
The Bent Pyramid is unique in having two entrances, one on the northern side about
12m above ground level and the second in the western face, about 30m above the
base. It is often suggested that this may be evidence of structural collapse and that one
of the passages was considered unsafe and was blocked up. From the northern
entrance a steep passage descends to the lower of the three underground chambers and
opens into a high narrow room with a corbelled ceiling of large limestone slabs. A
short vertical passage leads to a second chamber, directly beneath the pyramid's axis
and which is now partly destroyed.
The entrance passage on the western side of the pyramid takes a gentler slope and
after being blocked by two portcullis slabs continues horizontally to a third chamber
on a higher level. This chamber also has a high corbelled roof and there is evidence of
it having possibly been shored up by huge beams of cedar wood. It was on the
roughly hewn blocks in this chamber that Snefru's name was first found in a crude
inscription written in red pigment and including the cartouche of the king.
The upper and lower chambers were linked by a connecting tunnel which was hacked
through the masonry at some time after the chambers were built. It has been suggested
that this was an attempt to replicate the traditional 'South Tomb' of Djoser's complex
at Saqqara and to correct the contradictory orientation of the substructure.
At the centre of the eastern side of the pyramid was a small funerary temple built from
mudbrick. An initial cult chapel similar to that at Meidum, consisted of a limestone
offering table in the form of the 'hetep' symbol, flanked by two round-topped
monolithic stelae, 9m high, on which Snefru's names and titles were inscribed.
Remains of the upper part of one of the stelae can be seen in Cairo Museum, while the
stumps remain in situ. The simple chapel was then extended with mudbrick walls.
Snefru's pyramid had a small cult pyramid on its southern side within the huge yellow
limestone enclosure walls of the monument. The satellite pyramid also had a small
cult chapel with two stelae bearing the kings names and titles and a small altar. An
open limestone causeway ran from the north-eastern corner of the enclosure in a
north-easterly direction towards an imposing rectangular limestone valley temple,
(though it was not situated in the Nile valley).
The valley temple was excavated in the 1950s by Egyptian archaeologist Ahmed
Fakhry (who also investigated the pyramid) and it was found to have been divided
into three parts - a vestibule with store-rooms, a central courtyard and a columned
portico which contained six chapels or niches. These are elements found in later
mortuary temples. The walls and pillars in the temple were decorated with very high
quality funerary scenes and reliefs, including Snefru's 'heb-sed' and in the niches were
large limestone stelae on which the king appeared in half-sculpture.
The mortuary cult of Snefru seems to have long continued, at least into the Middle
Kingdom even though it was probably not the king's burial place. Residences of the
mortuary priests were found between the valley temple and its large mudbrick wall.

Red Pyramid
Second largest pyramid – 722 feet per side – in Egypt. However, it is sloped much
less (43 degrees 22’ ) and shorter at 343 feet.
Fourth highest pyramid built, with 160 layers of stone
First successful true pyramid (not built arounjd steps, etc) in Egypt and is the ancestor
of the Giza pyramids.
Built by Khufu’s father, Sneferu, who built three pyramids (at least).
Also referredto as the Shining Pyramid or Northern Pyramid.
Layers of white limestone were laid for the foundation, and tura limestone was used
as casing. Most of the casing stones had inscriptions on the back in red paint naming
crews and cartouches. There are no identifying inscrfiptions in side the pyramid.
Some of the stones are dated – giving us an idea of how long it took to build the
pyramid and the sequence of work. Approximately 30 percent of the pyramid had
been completed and the entire pyramid was finished in 17 years.
A mortuary temple remains to the east, and a pyramidion was found and
reconstructed. Not much remains of the temple, but it ushered in the east-west
orientation of later temples.
Entrance in the north side, leads to a 206 foot descending passage (27 degrees) to the
first chamber with a corbelled ceiling about 40’ tall. All chambers have a corbelled
ceiling, with between 11 and 14 layers in each. This is a very strong ceiling design. A
passage on the south side leads to the second chamber (both of the ehse are at ground
level) and a third chamber (entered by a staircase) is higher up in the pyarmid.
The second chamber is durectly under the apex of the pyarmid – one of the only
pyramids to have this layout. The entry to the third chamber is about 25 feet above
with a modern staircase, leading to a 23 foot passage. This is probably the burial
chamber with a 50’ ceiling. The floor has been excavated in an attempt to find other
passages.
The severe structural probles encountered while building the Bent Pyramid at Dashur
South, led Snofru to build yet another pyramid, at a small distance to the North.
Stripped from its limestone casing, this new pyramid is has a redish colour, hence its
modern-day name, the Red Pyramid. Its Ancient Egyptian name was xa, The Shining
One.
An inscription found at the base of this pyramid has shown that work had started
during the year of the 15th cattle count of Snofru's reign. Since the cattle counts were
held at irregular intervals during this reign, this refers to somewhere between Snofru's
15th and 30th year.
Interestingly, a second inscription was found 30 courses of stones higher. it is dated 2
to 4 years later than the inscription found at the base. This gives an idea about the
speed at which the Egyptians were able to build a monument like this pyramid.
The work on this pyramid probably started when structural problems encountered
when building the Bent Pyramid forced the builders to temporarily abandon this
project.
The Red Pyramid was built with a slope of only 43°22'. Its base length is 220 metres,
that is 32 metres more than the Bent Pyramid. Its height is the same as the Bent
Pyramid in its final state: 105 metres.
The broader base and lower slope were intended to better spread the mass of this
pyramid and thus avoid the structural problems that had temporarily halted works on
the Bent Pyramid.
The internal structure of this pyramid is a further continuation of the pyramid at
Meidum and the Bent Pyramid. Contrary to this latter monument, however, there is
only one internal structure, making it a lot more simple.
The entrance is located high up in the Northern face of the pyramid. A descending
passage leads down for 62.63 metres to a short horizontal corridor. This is followed
by two almost identical antechambers with corbelled roofs. Both antechambers
measure 3.65 by 8.36 metres and are 12.31 metres high.
The burial chamber can only be reached via a short passage which opens high up in
the wall of the second antechamber. The burial chamber measures 4.18 by 8.55
metres. Its corbelled roof goes up to a height of 14.67 metres. It is located well above
groundlevel, in the core of the pyramid.
The chapel built against the Eastern face of the pyramid was finished hastily, probably
after the death of Snofru. It is somewhat more elaborate than the eastern chapel of the
Red Pyramid or the pyramid at Meidum in that it houses an inner sanctuary, flanked
by two smaller chapels.
There is no trace of a causeway leading down to the Valley Temple, of which few
remains were found at the end of the 19th century.
There is little doubt that Snofru was finally buried in this pyramid, although the
fragments of human remains found inside the burial chamber are not certain to have
been his.
Interestingly, during the reign of Pepi I of the 6th Dynasty, this pyramid along with its
southern neighbour, the Bent Pyramid, was considered as one estate.
Snefru built two large pyramids at Dahshur. His first, known as the 'Bent Pyramid', is
situated to the south of the necropolis while his second monument at Dahshur is about
4km to the north and known as the 'North' or 'Red Pyramid'. The monument whose
ancient name was probably 'Snefru Shines' was to be Snefru's third attempt at pyramid
construction (including Meidum) - his architects now using the technical experience
gained from previous structures, a reduced angle of slope and less ambitious plan. It is
thought to have been begun in Snefru's 30th year of reign and dates found in builders'
marks on blocks from the Red Pyramid have proved to be of great importance in
giving a clear picture of the time it took to build the pyramid.
Snefru's Red Pyramid North-east corner of the Red Pyramid
The name 'Red Pyramid' has derived from the colour of limestone used in
constructing the pyramid's core - it's casing of white limestone is now completely
missing. The monument has been visited since the Middle Ages and was investigated
by Perring and Lepsius in the mid 1800s. Petrie and Reisner included it in more
modern studies and Ahmed Fakhry worked on this and other Dahshur pyramids in the
1950s. More recent excavations have been undertaken by the German Archaeological
Institute of Cairo, directed by Rainer Stadelmann since 1982.
The length of each side of the Red Pyramid is 220m and its original height was 104m.
The German team have recently found remains of the pyramid's capstone, or
pyramidion, which has now been reconstructed and placed on the pyramid's eastern
side. However, the angle of slope of the pyramidion differs from the Red Pyramid,
suggesting that it was not originally intended to be placed on this structure. The
entrance to a 60m long sloping passage is on the northern side of the pyramid, 28m
above the ground and leads to the first of three chambers. The first two rooms are tall
antechambers with high corbelled roofs and separated by a narrow rectangular
passage and the roof of the second chamber coincides with the vertical axis of the
structure. The antechambers are very similar in size and construction with projecting
vaulted ceilings of large blocks of fine white limestone. In the second antechamber
and the passage to the burial chamber many early explorers have left graffiti,
reminders of their presence inside the pyramid.
Pyramid's entrance on the northern side Site of funerary temple on the east side of
the pyramid
The burial chamber is entered via a short horizontal passage, about 8m above the floor
level in the south wall of the second antechamber. Recent research has led
Stadelmann to suggest that this pyramid was the true resting place of the king -
fragments of human remains were found in the passage, but proved to be from an
intrusive burial from the Late Period. Other archaeologists favour the Bent Pyramid as
the true burial place. The burial chamber is oriented east to west, unlike those in his
two preceding pyramids of Dynasty III tradition, and its high vaulted ceiling rises to a
height of 16m.
Reconstructed pyramidion to the east of the Red Pyramid View to the Bent Pyramid
from the Red Pyramid
Snefru's mortuary temple on the eastern side of the Red Pyramid seems likely to have
been hastily completed only after the king's death. A plan of the temple has been
reconstructed by the German team from the scant remains, which included a fragment
of a pink granite false door stela, fragments of a sed-festival relief and remains of
mudbrick store-rooms. A rectangular perimeter wall enclosed the complex, but it
would appear that a causeway was never completed as far as the valley temple,
although there is evidence of construction ramps connecting the mortuary temple with
the Nile Valley.
During construction work at the beginning of the 20th century a pyramid town of
Snefru (khentiu-she) was revealed at the edge of the Nile Valley and rudimentary
remains of a valley temple were seen, which has since disappeared. In the town ruins,
part of a limestone stela was found on which was written a decree of Pepi I,
exempting the town from taxation.

Red Pyramid
The severe structural probles encountered while building the Bent Pyramid at Dashur
South, led Snofru to build yet another pyramid, at a small distance to the North.
Stripped from its limestone casing, this new pyramid is has a redish colour, hence its
modern-day name, the Red Pyramid. Its Ancient Egyptian name was xa, The Shining
One.
An inscription found at the base of this pyramid has shown that work had started
during the year of the 15th cattle count of Snofru's reign. Since the cattle counts were
held at irregular intervals during this reign, this refers to somewhere between Snofru's
15th and 30th year.
Interestingly, a second inscription was found 30 courses of stones higher. it is dated 2
to 4 years later than the inscription found at the base. This gives an idea about the
speed at which the Egyptians were able to build a monument like this pyramid.
The work on this pyramid probably started when structural problems encountered
when building the Bent Pyramid forced the builders to temporarily abandon this
project.
The Red Pyramid was built with a slope of only 43°22'. Its base length is 220 metres,
that is 32 metres more than the Bent Pyramid. Its height is the same as the Bent
Pyramid in its final state: 105 metres.
The broader base and lower slope were intended to better spread the mass of this
pyramid and thus avoid the structural problems that had temporarily halted works on
the Bent Pyramid.
The internal structure of this pyramid is a further continuation of the pyramid at
Meidum and the Bent Pyramid. Contrary to this latter monument, however, there is
only one internal structure, making it a lot more simple.
The entrance is located high up in the Northern face of the pyramid. A descending
passage leads down for 62.63 metres to a short horizontal corridor. This is followed
by two almost identical antechambers with corbelled roofs. Both antechambers
measure 3.65 by 8.36 metres and are 12.31 metres high.
The burial chamber can only be reached via a short passage which opens high up in
the wall of the second antechamber. The burial chamber measures 4.18 by 8.55
metres. Its corbelled roof goes up to a height of 14.67 metres. It is located well above
groundlevel, in the core of the pyramid.
The chapel built against the Eastern face of the pyramid was finished hastily, probably
after the death of Snofru. It is somewhat more elaborate than the eastern chapel of the
Red Pyramid or the pyramid at Meidum in that it houses an inner sanctuary, flanked
by two smaller chapels.
There is no trace of a causeway leading down to the Valley Temple, of which few
remains were found at the end of the 19th century.
There is little doubt that Snofru was finally buried in this pyramid, although the
fragments of human remains found inside the burial chamber are not certain to have
been his.
Interestingly, during the reign of Pepi I of the 6th Dynasty, this pyramid along with its
southern neighbour, the Bent Pyramid, was considered as one estate.
Snefru built two large pyramids at Dahshur. His first, known as the 'Bent Pyramid', is
situated to the south of the necropolis while his second monument at Dahshur is about
4km to the north and known as the 'North' or 'Red Pyramid'. The monument whose
ancient name was probably 'Snefru Shines' was to be Snefru's third attempt at pyramid
construction (including Meidum) - his architects now using the technical experience
gained from previous structures, a reduced angle of slope and less ambitious plan. It is
thought to have been begun in Snefru's 30th year of reign and dates found in builders'
marks on blocks from the Red Pyramid have proved to be of great importance in
giving a clear picture of the time it took to build the pyramid.
Snefru's Red Pyramid North-east corner of the Red Pyramid
The name 'Red Pyramid' has derived from the colour of limestone used in
constructing the pyramid's core - it's casing of white limestone is now completely
missing. The monument has been visited since the Middle Ages and was investigated
by Perring and Lepsius in the mid 1800s. Petrie and Reisner included it in more
modern studies and Ahmed Fakhry worked on this and other Dahshur pyramids in the
1950s. More recent excavations have been undertaken by the German Archaeological
Institute of Cairo, directed by Rainer Stadelmann since 1982.
The length of each side of the Red Pyramid is 220m and its original height was 104m.
The German team have recently found remains of the pyramid's capstone, or
pyramidion, which has now been reconstructed and placed on the pyramid's eastern
side. However, the angle of slope of the pyramidion differs from the Red Pyramid,
suggesting that it was not originally intended to be placed on this structure. The
entrance to a 60m long sloping passage is on the northern side of the pyramid, 28m
above the ground and leads to the first of three chambers. The first two rooms are tall
antechambers with high corbelled roofs and separated by a narrow rectangular
passage and the roof of the second chamber coincides with the vertical axis of the
structure. The antechambers are very similar in size and construction with projecting
vaulted ceilings of large blocks of fine white limestone. In the second antechamber
and the passage to the burial chamber many early explorers have left graffiti,
reminders of their presence inside the pyramid.
Pyramid's entrance on the northern side Site of funerary temple on the east side of
the pyramid
The burial chamber is entered via a short horizontal passage, about 8m above the floor
level in the south wall of the second antechamber. Recent research has led
Stadelmann to suggest that this pyramid was the true resting place of the king -
fragments of human remains were found in the passage, but proved to be from an
intrusive burial from the Late Period. Other archaeologists favour the Bent Pyramid as
the true burial place. The burial chamber is oriented east to west, unlike those in his
two preceding pyramids of Dynasty III tradition, and its high vaulted ceiling rises to a
height of 16m.
Reconstructed pyramidion to the east of the Red Pyramid View to the Bent Pyramid
from the Red Pyramid
Snefru's mortuary temple on the eastern side of the Red Pyramid seems likely to have
been hastily completed only after the king's death. A plan of the temple has been
reconstructed by the German team from the scant remains, which included a fragment
of a pink granite false door stela, fragments of a sed-festival relief and remains of
mudbrick store-rooms. A rectangular perimeter wall enclosed the complex, but it
would appear that a causeway was never completed as far as the valley temple,
although there is evidence of construction ramps connecting the mortuary temple with
the Nile Valley.
During construction work at the beginning of the 20th century a pyramid town of
Snefru (khentiu-she) was revealed at the edge of the Nile Valley and rudimentary
remains of a valley temple were seen, which has since disappeared. In the town ruins,
part of a limestone stela was found on which was written a decree of Pepi I,
exempting the town from taxation.

Seila Pyramid
Nothernmost pyramid
First investigated by Borchardt in thee early 1900s
Swelim investigated during the 1980s, discovering a stela and offering table that may
associate the pyramid with Sneferu.
Only 7 meters high
Four-stepped core built of small blocks of local limestone bound with clay/sand
mortar
 Khufu (Cheops)

Monuments

Great Pyramid at Giza

0700-1900 LE20 to enter in addition to site ticket
Also called Khufu, oldest and largest
Called "Glorious Place of Khufu"
IV Dyn, 2589-2566 BCE
Originally 140m high, 230m along the base
2.3 million blocks of an average of 2.5 tons, some as large as 15 tons
Contains 4 chambers, including a "hidden chamber" which has yet to be opened
Hot and airless inside -- going inside really is an ordeal if there are many people at all
Relievin chambers above can be reached y ladder above to see Khufu's name
inscribed (the only inscription on the pyramid) The Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) has
been known as an immense impressive structure since ancient times and is the only
one of the original seven wonders of the world still in existence. Khufu, whose
monument 'Akhet Khufu' (Horizon of Khufu), known today as The Great Pyramid,
was the son of Snefru and he reigned for about 23 years. He was the first pharaoh to
construct a pyramid on the Giza Plateau - his father had built three great burial
monuments at Meidum and Dashur to the south - and at the height of Dynasty IV,
Giza became the new extension to the Memphite necropolis.
Great Pyramid of Khufu Pyramid of Khafre with Khufu behind
The base of the pyramid measures 230.37m and its height was originally 146.6m, with
an angle of slope of 51° 50' 40''. The structure consists of an enormous quantity of
limestone blocks (estimated at around 2,300,000), quarried from an area south-east of
the pyramid and transported over a ramp to the construction site. The casing blocks
were of fine white limestone, probably from the Tura quarries on the east bank of the
river. There are, and probably always will be, many arguments and debates on the
subject of the method of pyramid construction, and even whether they were built by
human hands at all, but the precision of the design and perfection of its construction
has always fascinated scholars and visitors.
Entrance to the Great Pyramid Khufu's boat pit on the southern side Sarcophagus in
the king's chamber
The pyramid's northern entrance was built at the level of the nineteenth layer of core
blocks, but today visitors enter by a tunnel cut into the core, so Arabic legend tells us,
by Caliph el-Ma'amun in the 9th century AD, which is below the original. The cave-
like tunnel connects to a passage which the first time visitor almost expects to be lit
with blazing torches - such is the atmosphere evoked - but is now lit by electric light.
The passage splits into two parts, a lower corridor leading down into the pyramids
bowels in the bedrock of the plateau and a subterranean chamber which was
abandoned, perhaps due to lack of air, or for ritual reasons. This is usually kept
locked.
The other passage ascends in a corridor so low that you almost have to crawl on your
hands and knees towards a high processional way leading upwards into the Grand
Gallery and the heart of the pyramid. My first experience of the Great Pyramid was at
a time before the recently improved lighting and ventilation, when I could feel the
pressure of millions of tons of stone bearing down on me from above, its high
limestone walls leaning inwards to form a corbelled vault about 8.5m above the stair
ramp. Higher and higher you go (the Great Pyramid is not for the faint-hearted or
unfit visitor) until the entrance to the cathedral-like Grand Galley is reached. A
horizontal passage at the bottom of this hall leads south into the so-called Queen's
Chamber.
The Queen's Chamber is a small room with a gabled ceiling and lies exactly on the
pyramid's vertical east-west axis. This chamber seems not to have been intended for
the burial of a queen and was left unfinished when the pyramid was sealed, suggesting
that it was originally designed as the king's burial chamber or a serdab (statue
chamber) for the king's ka, or spirit. The black-walled room at the heart of the
pyramid produced an eerily solemn feeling when I entered the chamber alone and
evokes a feeling of the insignificance of man and a strong sense of infinity.
Onwards and upwards into the Grand Gallery, another ascending passage, 47m long,
which is so narrow that you wouldn't wish to encounter a party of fifty Egyptian
schoolboys (as I did) coming in the opposite direction. This is considered to be one of
the greatest masterpieces of ancient Egypt and its corbelled roof is a stupendous
achievement in architecture and engineering from any age. At the top of the gallery
another very low passage leads to the room known as the King's Chamber, built
entirely of red granite, where Khufu's uncovered sarcophagus still stands against the
western wall. The room is undecorated and contains no inscriptions, so how do we
know who was the owner of the pyramid? The weight of the masonry above the
ceiling of this chamber is relieved by five compartments covering the same area as the
floor below. These are believed to have been constructed to relieve the stress of the
enormous mass of stone above the burial chamber. The highest of these chambers has
a cantilevered roof, and it was in this chamber that the early excavators Vyse and
Perring found a graffiti left by the pyramid workmen, which included the cartouche of
Khnum-Khuf (Khufu).
One interesting phenomenon I discovered in the king's chamber, is the distortion of
sound. If you hum a single note very quietly, it is amplified as it would be in the
soundbox of a musical instrument and is thrown back at you from each of the walls. I
would recommend that you are alone for this experiment!!
There has been an enormous amount of discussion and theorising about 'air shafts' in
both the King's Chamber and the Queen's Chamber. The significance of these
structures which lead steeply upwards, though not in a straight line, is still unknown
and recent investigations with robot cameras have not really clarified their purpose.
The Great Pyramid continues to retain its many mysteries. On a first visit it is better to
just experience the awesomeness of this mighty structure rather than look for
explanations of its secrets. It is almost a relief to get back into the sunlight and fresh
air and the hassle of guides and hawkers for which the plateau is renowned. You may
feel however, as I did, like an astronaut returning from a trip to another galaxy!
Herodotus said 30 years and 100,000 slaves, but the current theory is that it was built
by peasants during the annual innundation and they were paid in food for their labors.
Stones from Aswan and Tura.
Built between 2589—2566 BCE
2.3 million blocks of stone. Weights aprpoximately 6 million tons and a height of 482
feet.
The tomb was robbed long before archaeologists found it and any information about
Khufu was taken with the treasures. He was buried alone in this tomb.
The encasing marble which covered the outside of the pyramid has been removed
over time – or eroded. The pyramid lost 33 feet in all it’s dimensions. The case
covered 754 feet square (13 acres)
The original entrance was about 15m higher than the current entrance. The current
passage leads straight across and joins with the original passage. The descending
passage leads only to a subterraenean chamber (not usually visited) – 345 feet (105 m)
at an angle of 26 degrees. It is only 3’6” wide and 3’11” tall. The chamber is 46’ x
11’6”. It may have been a burial chamber, but abandonded. The passage is closed off
by a steel door.
The ascending passage rises 26 degrees up into the pyramid. It has the same
dimensions, for 129 feet (39 m) At the top, can to to the Queen’s chamber (unfinished
floow, smaller) or the Kings Chamber. Possibly the Queen’s chamber was abandoned
because the sarcophagus could not fit.
Ventilating shafts are sealed at both ends, but must have been made afs the pyramid
was built, as they would probably not have built them if the chamber was
abandoned.It is possible that these shafts are not ventilation, but have religious
significance.
Continuing upwards to the Kings chamber through the Grand Gallery – 157 feet long,
28 feet tall and 26 degrees up. The roof is corbelled. It is only 62 inches wide at the
bottom and 41 inches at the top of the incline
The walls of the kings chamber are pink granite and inside is a large sarcophagus with
no lid, probably placed insdie as the pyramid was built, as it too large to get inside
otherwise. It also has ventilation shafts.
Above the Kings Chambers are relieveing chambers which suport the weight of the
stone. The top chamber has a pointed roof and grafittit – the only inscriptions in the
whole pyramid.
Looking out from the entrance, you can see the remains of the original enclosure wall
on the north and east side, about 10 meters from the bottom of the pyramid.
Little remaisn of the mortuary temple – what is left is basalt and lies near the east side
of the wall. The causeway can also be glimpsed, but is mostly gone – from the
mortuary temple to the valley temple at the foot of the plateau. It collapsed during the
last 150 years.
Three small pyramids stand to the east – proably for his sister-wife Merites and other
wives.
To the west is the Royal Cemetary containing 15 mastabas which has just been
opened to the public after having been closed for 100 years. A 4600 year old
mummyu was found here.
At the base of the south face is the boat pit and museum – five boat pits were found in
1982 and one boat has been rebuilt.

Pyramid Complex
Khufu's pyramid complex has all of the elements of the traditional pyramid, though
many are now long gone. Around the pyramid's walls there are five large boat-shaped
pits. In 1954 the pit on the south-eastern side was found to contain a completely
dismantled wooden boat, the 'Solar Boat', thought to be used in the king's funerary
procession. This boat has now been reconstructed and is now on display in a purpose-
built museum near where it was found. Although it has not yet been excavated, in
1987 the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation examined the second boat pit on the
south-east, using a special probe. This was also found to contain a boat similar to the
first.
The mortuary temple on the eastern side of the pyramid today consists only of the
remains of a large rectangular courtyard covered with basalt paving, which must have
been over 50m wide. It was destroyed in antiquity and its plan is now difficult to
reconstruct, but of the few fragments of reliefs found there, motifs include the sed-
festival and the festival of the white hippopotamus.
Khufu's causeway has now virtually disappeared and has only been partly examined.
Its original length has been estimated at around 810m, abruptly changing direction
before it reached the valley temple. The ruins of the valley temple, which was mostly
destroyed in antiquity, are now engulfed by the modern village of Nazlet es-Simman
to the north-east. Recent excavations by the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation in
1990 have revealed the remains of a dark green basalt paving and the continuation of
the causeway at the base of the escarpment. At the edge of the pavement a mudbrick
wall thought to be 8m thick, suggests that a pyramid-town may have existed near the
valley temple.
Better preserved are Khufu's three small queens' pyramids on the eastern side of the
Great Pyramid and across the road running around the monument. The first pyramid
to the north (G1-a), belongs to Khufu's mother Hetepheres which was excavated by
American Egyptologist George A Reisner in 1925. Hetepheres was the wife of Snefru
and probably the mother of Khufu. Reisner's team found Hetpheres's beautiful
funerary furniture and other burial equipment in a shaft tomb (G7000x) to the north of
the queen's pyramid. Her empty coffin, gold jewellery and sealed canopic chest was
found with dismantled wooden furniture now reconstructed and on display in Cairo
Museum. The queen's remains were missing, however, and this has puzzled
Egyptologists and has led to many theories about the location of her actual burial.
The second queen's pyramid (G1-b) probably belongs to Meretites who lived during
the reigns of Snefru, Khufu and Khafre according to an inscription in the nearby
mastaba of Kawab, Khufu's son. The third small pyramid (G1-c) may have belonged
to Henutsen, daughter of Snefru and Khufu's half-sister. Her name is known only
from an inscription in the pyramid's chapel which was converted to a Temple of Isis
during Dynasties XXI to XXVI. The goddess Isis (or Isi) was worshipped as 'Lady of
the Pyramids' at Giza until Roman times.
The pyramids of Khufu's queens opened for the first time ever in 1998 after the
restoration of the exterior masonry and the removal of black spots and salt stains from
the chamber walls, by the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation. Wooden staircases, new
lighting and ventilation were installed.
Recent excavations at the south-east corner of Khufu's pyramid have revealed a
destroyed satellite pyramid with T-shaped inner chambers and a descending corridor
ending in a rectangular vaulted burial chamber. A large limestone block with three
sloping sides was found on the satellite pyramid's south side which proved to be the
base of its pyramidion. Other stones of the pyramidion were found a year later on the
northern side of the pyramid.
Not a single image of King Khufu has been found in the whole of his pyramid
complex. The only known figure of the builder of one of the world's greatest
monuments is a small ivory statuette only 7.6cm high, which was found at Abydos.
The figurine of the king on his throne bears the Horus name of Khufu, Hor-Mejedu.

Queens Pyramids
Three exist, with small chapels attached
Belong to Merites (north) and Henesutsen (south), Khufu's principal wife (ad sister).
middle one mayh be Redjedef.
A fourth has been discovered
North of Merites pyramid is a SHAFT where Queen Hetepheres's sarcophagus was
found
ALso nearby are the tombs of Qar and Idu, Khufu-Khaef, and Meres-Ankh. Ask the
custodian to get in.
Tomb of Queen Khetkawes
One of three subsidiary pyramids of Menkaure
Khetkawes bridges the transition between IV and V dyn, married SHepseskaf. She
may have wed a priest of the sun-god and gone on to bear several kings
Has a pyramid at Saqqara, as well.

Solar Boat Museum

0900-1600 LE20 camera LE10
South of the big pyramd, in a hunidity controlled pavillion
43m long Solar Barque from one of 5 pits excavated
Another has been found by xray, but is unexcavated
made of cedarwood, and pegged and laced together.
1200 pieces
Probably not actually a boat, but it does show signs of being in the water
In 1950, Kamal el-Mallakh an architect and archaeologist, was working as an
Antiquities Inspector at Giza, when he first noticed a thin line of mortar which
delineated the edge of a pair of long narrow pits, end to end, on the south side of the
Great Pyramid of Khufu. At the time the area was being cleared for a tourist road and
when the men dug further they uncovered 41 huge slabs of limestone in the eastern pit
(the western one contained 40 slabs) and a mason's mark with a cartouche of
Djedefre, Khufu's successor. The stonework was at first thought to be of little interest
and it took Kamal el-Mallakh four years to persuade his superiors that the slabs
should be further investigated.
On May 26 1954, the team began to dig and eventually Mr el-Mallakh was lowered
into a hole in one of the blocks. His first sensation was the sweet smell of cedarwood
and a great sense of fulfilment - then with the use of a torch and a mirror he caught
sight of the large oar of a full-sized dismantled boat. The pit had been airtight and the
boat seemed to be in a remarkable state of preservation, arranged in thirteen neatly
piled layers, complete with ropes for rigging and pieces of matting.
The boat was laboriously removed from its pit, piece by piece, following
preliminary consolidation of the cloth and matting which covered it and in 1958
reconstruction of the boat, by Hag Ahmed Youssef Moustafa the Antiquities Service's
principal restorer, was able to begin. This consisted of re-assembling the 1224
individual pieces of cedar, acacia and other elements in a painstaking operation rather
like putting together a jig-saw puzzle without a picture. The ancient builders had
helpfully indicated on some of the pieces which parts of the craft they had come from,
but the work still took over ten years to complete and was finally fully re-assembled
in 1968. No nails were used in the construction and the planking was assembled
through an ingenious system of stitching through holes with ropes of vegetable fibres.
When the wood was swollen by water the ropes would tighten and make the boat
watertight.
Solar boat of Khufu
 The solar boat measures 43.3m long, 5.9m wide, has a draft of 1.48m and an
estimated displacement of around 45 tons. It resembles paintings and models of boats
which have survived since ancient times, with a large central panelled cabin, 9m long,
an open canopy supported by poles and a smaller one at the fore which was probably
for the captain's use. It was steered by five pairs of oars plus one pair at the stern to
act as a rudder. It's stem and stern were fashioned in the form of papyrus stalks, as
though intended to represent the type of papyrus boat used throughout ancient
Egyptian history.
The significance of the buried boat is still debated. The Pyramid Texts clearly state
that at the end of the pharaoh's life on Earth, his soul ascends to the heavens in the
solar barque to join his father Re. The arguments are about whether this boat was
purely symbolic - part of the burial goods - or whether it was actually used in the
funeral procession to transport the body of the king by river to his pyramid complex.
While some scholars claim that there is evidence that the boat has been in water, Zahi
Hawass points out that shavings of cedar and acacia found in the pit during
excavation, indicate that it was probably built close to where it was buried. While the
boat is of the right dimensions to be suitable as a river craft, no mast was found with
the components.
Other ancient wooden boats and their emplacements have been discovered in Egypt.
In 1893 Jaques de Morgan discovered six boats near the Middle Kingdom pyramid of
Senwosret III at Dashur. More recently, in 1987, the western boat pit at the Great
Pyramid was examined by a microprobe inserted through a hole drilled into the pit,
confirming the presence of a second wooden boat similar to the first. It has been
decided that the second boat will remain in its pit, in conditions which make its
preservation near perfect.
In 1991 American archaeologist David O'Connor discovered twelve boat pits near
Khasekhemwy's Dynasty II funerary enclosure at Abydos (Shunet el-Zebib), although
it has been recently established by experts that the boats had been placed in the pits
long before the enclosure was built. Each of the pits was found to contain remains of a
wooden boat, though not as well-preserved as Khufu's. Interestingly, the boats were
filled in with mudbricks, each one itself boat-shaped. In a period when wood is
believed to have been a rare and precious commodity in Egypt, it is hoped that this
exciting discovery will provide many insights into power and foreign relationships at
the beginning of Egyptian history. Two more boats were discovered at Abydos in the
year 2000, making a total of fourteen boats thought to predate those of Khufu by at
least 300 years.
Khufu's solar boat remains the most spectacular of all Egyptian boats found to date.
It is now on display in its own specially-built museum just a few metres from where it
was found on the southern side of the monument, an imposing legacy from the builder
of the Great Pyramid.

Djedefre

Monuments

Pyramid at Abu Rawash

Sone of Khufu abandoned Giza and went to Abu Rowash, possibly due to a family
falling-out.
Called “Djedefre’s Starry Sky”
Second northernmost pyramid in Egypt. Investigated briefly by Perring and later by
Petrie in 1880s. Systematically investigated in the beginning ot he 20th century. Latest
by French-Swiss team in 1995.
Popular target for early stone thieves – at the rate of 300 camel loads a day in the end
of the 19th century.
May not have been completed.
Nothing of valley temple, but little about the causeway – very long 1700 m to have
reahed the pyrajmid from the valley. It ran north-south in a period when they are
suppoed tor un east-west.
Outer perimeter wall 2 ½ m thick. There is a space at the nother end where a mortuary
temple should be. Throughout the 3rd dynasty, the mortuary temple was on th enorth
side, but with the 4th dynasty, became attached to the east side.
Inner perimeter wall about 6m from the north pyramid base, where a mudbrick
structure may be the mortuary temple. A covered corridor is believed to have lead
from the ne entrance of the innter enclosre to the mouth of the causeway.
A depression in the east wall of the pyramid core, probably for a false door and altar.
Possibly the earliest sphinx, along with statues of three of his sones and two daugheter
were discovered.
Used part of a rock outcropping to start, with the rmainder of the core made of local
limstone. About fifteen horiztonal layers of the limestone core remain, but very little
pink granite casing.
Very sharp slope, possibly planned as a step pyramid? Latest excavations show that
the casing blocks were probably laid with an inward sloope and the pyramid was
closer to a normal slope of 52. This method was also used in the Step and Bent
pyramids.
106.2 meters baseline, bewteen 57-67 m tall. Much smaller than any at Giza.
Used an open pit method of construction for inner chambgers, a throwback to earlier
times. In the northern wall a trench contains the remains of a sdescending corridor.
East side within the enclosure wall is a trench that might be a boat pit, although no
boar was found. Instead, fragments of 120 statues, including three mostly complete
heads. It appears that the statues were intentionally destroyed, possibly by Khafre, his
half-brother and successor (who mau have murdered Djedefre)
Newer theories have the destruction occuring in the New kingdom by copts and
roman and christian locals.
No tombs have been found within the complex. A strucure near the southwest corner
may be a subsidiary tomb for one of his consorts. – others think that this is a cult
pyramid.
Workshops and housing were found against the ne wall.
Abu Rawash (Abu Roash) is the site of the most northerly pyramid in Egypt (apart
from a small mudbrick step pyramid - Lepsius No 1), that of Dynasty IV king
Djedefre. It is situated about 8km north-east of Giza on the west bank of the Nile, on a
rocky outcrop of the desert at the edge of the cultivated area.
When the site was visited by Perring and Vyse in 1839 the pyramid was in a much
better condition than it is today, but it has since been used as a quarry for stone. It was
briefly investigated by Lepsius and then Petrie, but systematic excavations were not
undertaken until various times during the 20th century when it was visited in turn by
Emile Chassinat, Pierre Lacau, Pierre Montet and in the 1960s by V Maragioglio and
C Rinaldi. Recent excavations by a French-Swiss archaeological team began in 1995
and are still ongoing.
Djedefre was a son and successor of Khufu, whose Dynasty IV Giza Great Pyramid is
well-known. Djedefre is known to have reigned for only around eight years and it was
thought that his Abu Rawash pyramid was unfinished. However, recent studies are
beginning to suggest otherwise.
Little remains today of Djedefre's monument, probably intended to have been around
the same size as that of Menkaure at Giza, other than the core of masonry built around
its rocky outcrop, now rising to only 9m high. It has long been disputed whether
Djedefre intended his structure to be a mastaba or a step pyramid or a true sloping
pyramid, but recent findings show that the construction method seems to have been
similar to that used in the step pyramids as well as the Bent Pyramid of Snefru.
The first piers of the structure can still be seen, along with an enormous trench which
was the descending corridor to the burial chamber and is now open. The rectangular
burial chamber was constructed at the end of the descending passage in an open pit - a
return to the earlier concept of construction and is now thought to have also contained
an antechamber. When Petrie investigated he found a curved fragment thought to be
from a pink granite sarcophagus in the burial chamber and the French-Swiss team
have recently found a copper axe blade which was part of a foundation deposit.
An outer enclosure wall surrounds the complex, leaving a lot of open space in front of
the pyramid. On the eastern side of the pyramid there are remains of a structure built
in mudbrick with its axis to the north-east - perhaps intended as a mortuary building,
but differing in style to other mortuary buildings. This is puzzling because the
causeway does not coincide with this structure, but leads to the northern perimeter
wall. The building, consisting of a courtyard and store-rooms appears to have been
hastily changed into a mortuary temple at the king's death. In the courtyard of the
'mortuary building' Chassinat found a fragment of a column with Djedefre's cartouche
and fragments of statues of the king's children as well as a limestone sphinx.
Chassinat believed that these statues had been deliberately destroyed, perhaps a hint at
a power struggle existing between Khufu's sons at the time.
A boat-shaped pit, 35m long, was found to the south of this eastern structure and here
Chassinat found many fragments of red quartzite statuary (from at least 120 statues),
along with three painted heads from statues of the king (now in the Louvre and Cairo
Museum). One of these heads is thought to have been from what would have been the
earliest known royal sphinx.
The French-Swiss team have recently been excavating around the enclosure wall as
well as the pyramid. They have discovered an inner enclosure wall from which a
covered corridor emerged at the north-east, leading to the causeway. A cache of
votive pottery was found close by, indicating an active cult for the deceased pharaoh.
The causeway has an estimated length of 1,700m in order to reach an area where a
valley temple would be situated, though no remains of a valley structure have yet
been found. Apart from its length it was unusual because it was oriented towards the
north-east rather than east to west which was normal. It is possible that a mortuary
temple was intended to be constructed on the northern side of the pyramid (like those
in Dynasty III) in the open space of the courtyard - but so far nothing has been
revealed there.
A satellite pyramid was found during earlier excavations at the south-west corner of
Djedefre's pyramid within the enclosure wall. It was debated whether this was a cult
pyramid (which were usually on the south-east) or a queen's pyramid. The French-
Swiss team have discovered in April 2002, the existence of another previously
unknown satellite monument at the south-east. In the substructure a shaft leads to a
corridor and three chambers, the eastern one containing many fragments of a
magnificent limestone sarcophagus. Many other artefacts are currently being
recovered from this structure, including a large complete alabaster jar with its lid.
There were also fragments of an alabaster plate containing an inscription with Khufu's
Horus name.
There are many inconsistencies in Djedefre's pyramid which are only now being more
thoroughly investigated. Perhaps we will soon learn the true facts of Djedefre's
monument at Abu Rawash. It would appear that the main destruction of the pyramid
was done during Roman and Coptic times, and did not begin before the New
Kingdom. It is still thought that the pyramid complex was incomplete at the king's
early death, but may have been hastily made suitable for his burial. We must await
further news of current excavations to learn more.

Abu Rawash

Location
Located some 8 kilometers to the North of Giza, Abu Rawash is the northern most site
of the Memphite Necropolis. It got its modern day name from the nearby village Abu
Rawash and appears to have been used as a burial site since the time of Aha, at the
beginning of the 1st Dynasty.
The Mortuary Complex of Djedefre
The most important monument in this mountainous region, however, is the mortuary
complex of Djedefre, successor of Kheops and third king of the 4th Dynasty.
There has been a lot of speculation about Djedefre's motivation to build his funerary
monument at Abu Rawash and not next to his father's at Giza.
A very common view is that Djedefre chose this remote place to distance himself
from the despotic reign of his father, whereas his brother Khefren, returned to Giza
because he held the same views as Kheops. The fact that Djedefre built his pyramid
away from his father's would thus be telltale of some dynastic fueds in the beginning
of the 4th Dynasty. The fact that Mykerinos, son of Khefren, undertook some
restoration work at Djedefre's funerary monument does not fit well with the romantic
theory of dynastic fueds.
It must be noted that during the early 4th Dynasty, there appears to have been a move
towards the North for the royal funerary complex. Snofru moved from Meidum,
where he at least completed or perhaps even built a pyramid, to Dashur where he built
two pyramids. His son, Kheops, moved even further North, to Giza and Djedefre
completed this move by building his pyramd in Abu Rawash. The motivation behind
this move North is not clear, but it is still interesting to note.
Recently, it has been proposed that Djedefre moved to Abu Rawash because it was
situated opposite Heliopolis, the city of the solar cult. During the reign of Djedefre,
the solar cult gained a lot in importance, as is shown by the addition of the title Son of
Re to the royal titulary. This could at least explain Djedefre's choice of location, but it
does not explain why Kheops moved to Giza.
The structure of Djedefre's funerary monument is fairly simple, but it already has all
the elements that are typical for the Old Kingdom. The complex has an inner
enclosure wall that rose to a height of about 6 metres.
The royal pyramid stood almost in the centre of the complex. The pyramids of
Djedefre's predecessors Snofru and Kheops had the burial chamber inside the pyramid
above ground level. For unknown reasons, Djedefre prefered to have his burial
chamber, built at the bottom of a collossal pit measuring 23 by 10 metres and sunk
some 20 metres into the ground. The burial chamber itself measured 21 by 9 metres.
This technique was also used for the building of the burial chamber of Netjerikhet at
Saqqara.
A 49 metre long corridor slopes up to ground level, providning the entrance to the
pyramid. As was already traditional, this entrance was located in the North, pointing
to the circumpolar stars.
There was a smaller satellite pyramid built to the Southwest of the main pyramid,
whereas the mortuary temple, including a small boat pit, stood to the east. It was
finished with mudbrick, suggesting that work on the mortuary temple was completed
hastily. Djedefre's reign is likely to have been short and the king may have died
unexpectedly. Khefren, his successor, may have ordered to complete working on this
complex as fast as possible so that work on his own funerary monument could start
without delay.
Welld ecorated