Saddhatidssa Facets of Buddhism

FACETS OF BUDDHISM
by
Venerable Hammalawa Saddhátissa

MA. Ph.D. D.Litt
Buddhist Publication Society
54 Sangharaja Mawatha
PO Box 61
Kandy
Sri Lanka
http://www.bps.lk
First edition: The World Buddhist Foundation, 311, Kingsbury Road,

London NW9 9PE, 1991. (©) World Buddhist Foundation, 1991.
Second edition: Buddhist Publication Society, with the permission
of the World Buddhist Foundation.
National Library of Sri Lanka-Cataloguing in Publication Data
Saddhatissa himi, Hammalawa

Facets of Buddhism/Hammalawa Saddhatissa himi. - Kandy:
Buddhist Publication Society, 2016
BP 440s.- 338p.; 22cm
ISBN 978-955-24-0425-2
i. 294.3 DDC23 ii. Title
1. Buddhism
ISBN: 978-955-24-0425-2
Typeset at the BPS in URW Palladio ITU
Printed by
Samayawardana Printers
Colombo 10.
EDITOR’S FOREWORD TO THE
FIRST EDITION
The author, Venerable Hammalawa Saddhátissa is very well-known

among Buddhists for his popular books The Life of the Buddha, The
Buddha’s Way, Buddhist Ethics and the Suttanipáta translation. I knew
him for many years as the Abbot of the London Buddhist Vihara in
Cheswick. In all the years I have known him I have never heard him
say a harsh or unkind word to anyone. His tolerance and compassion,
and his unique understanding of English culture and manners have
made him many friends and devotees. Because of this sympathy with
European ways of thinking his books are particularly helpful to those
not brought up amidst Buddhist culture and traditions. The true
Dhamma is pure and colourless but over the centuries Buddhism has
taken on board the cultural peculiarities of many religions. This is,
perhaps, the reason why it has survived so long.
This book is essentially a collection of articles which have
already been published in a number of different journals. The
author’s intention in asking me to prepare this book was to preserve
in compact and easily accessible form his work which is the fruit of
much painstaking labour so that it could be of benefit to a wider
readership. As far as reasonable in a book of this nature, I have
removed repetitions. So if the author’s writing seem disjointed it is
entirely my fault.
Here and there I have tried to improve the language and have
added short explanations where I felt they were needed, in all cases
relying on the source text which the author himself used and
confirming such alterations and additions with the author. The
order of chapters is a natural one; starting with subjects of an
introductory nature, followed by those dealing in more detail with
doctrine and lastly by those offer more scholastic approach.
In the footnotes, the references are to the Pali texts of the Pali
Text Society, the page numbers of which are given in square
brackets at the top of the page in the translations and in the body of
the text in the case of Vinaya and Játaka books.
U Pesala
EDITOR’S FOREWORD TO THE
SECOND EDITION
This collection of essays was first published privately in the UK in

1991. Due to its limited distribution it did not receive attention in
the wider Buddhist world. Upon request of an Englishman who
considers the book an excellent introduction to Buddhism, and with
the permission of Ven. Galayaye Piyadassi Maháthera of the World
Buddhist Foundation, the Buddhist Publication Society is hereby
republishing it to make it available to a wider readership.
The essays were originally published in various journals from
the early 1960s to the early 1980s.1 In this new edition, old-fashioned
language was modernised and repetitions and superfluous
outdated scientific descriptions were shortened or removed to make
the essays more accessible to modern readers. The arrangement of
chapters was also changed to bring topics together.
The scholarly understanding of some Buddhist terms, theories
and historical developments has also evolved since these essays were
first published. In particular, it is no longer considered appropriate to
use the term Hìnayána, “Lesser Vehicle”, since it is a term that was
used exclusively by some Maháyánists to derogate the practices of
earlier Buddhist schools (see fn. 73). Moreover, in India and Sri Lanka
the Maháyána was never an actual monolithic “school”, particularly
in the sense of a separate ordination lineage or sect that had split
away from the early schools. Rather, the “Maháyána” consisted of
various bodhisattva practice movements within the early schools. The
monks and nuns who followed bodhisattva practices were ordained
in the early schools and followed their Vinaya regulations. The
Maháyánists were a minority amongst the members of the early
schools in India and only got the overhand in Tibet and East Asia.
Despite these minor shortcomings, the essays are good introductory
essays on various facets of Theraváda Buddhism and Buddhism in
general, made by a learned and compassionate Sri Lankan Theraváda
scholar.
Bhikkhu Nyanatusita
1. See Buddhist Studies In Honour of Hammalava Saddhátissa, eds.

Dhammapala G., Gombrich R., Norman K. R. Nugegoda 1984: 11–14.
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
To vast numbers of people all over the world the Buddha is honoured
as the embodiment of great wisdom and great compassion. He is
followed as a great teacher who showed the path to liberation. The
Buddha’s life clearly shows how, after experiencing the extremes of
self-indulgence and self-mortification, he adopted the middle path
and thereafter taught others to tread it.
A prince from North India, he was brought up in the lap of
luxury and became skilled in the arts and sciences of the day; in his
29th year, following the birth of a son to his wife (also his cousin)
Yasodhará, he renounced the world and practised severe austerities
for six years; realising the truth by his own efforts, he thereafter
preached the Dhamma for forty-five years and passed away at the
age of eighty.
The Community of Monks (Saògha) which the Buddha
established continues to this day to embody the ideal life praised by
the founder and to take prime responsibility in transmitting the
doctrine (Dhamma) so clearly enunciated and set forth in the Pali
Canon. One cannot help but be impressed by this teaching of love
and wisdom which is based on reason and understanding. Constant
emphasis is laid on practice of this teaching at all times, dismissing
blind faith and ritual.
One of the most striking statements to be found in the teaching
is the ascribing of good and evil or wholesome/skilful (kusala) and
unwholesome/unskilful (akusala) states of mind to preceding
thoughts of like nature. Such states cannot conceivably result from
the prior influence of an external agency; one becomes pure or
otherwise through one’s own efforts. The Buddha said:
“By oneself, indeed, is evil done; by oneself is one defiled. By
oneself is evil left undone; by oneself, indeed, is one purified.
Purity and impurity depend on oneself, no one can purify
another.” (Dhp 165)
In order to attain to genuine happiness, either mundane or
supramundane, one has to lead a moral life based on right
understanding acquired through mental culture. This is the very
core of Buddhism. The Buddha’s Way is an ethico-philosophy. If its
vi FACETS OF BUDDHISM
validity is recognised and its recommendations practised with

diligence, many problems which cause sorrow, worry, frustration
and disappointment will be dissolved.
The Buddha inculcated three virtues in his disciples; generosity,
morality and mental culture. He discouraged five vices: cruelty,
theft, promiscuity, deceit and intoxication. These social evils are the
cause of passion, hatred and delusion. One who can free himself
from them is a peaceful, wise person.
Furthermore, such a person should develop such benign
qualities as liberality, righteousness, energy, patience, honesty,
resolution, friendliness and equanimity. The body, speech and
thoughts must be disciplined by abstention from cruel actions,
wrong speech and wrong views. One should not do unto others
anything which one would not like done to oneself. One should
cultivate love towards all beings. One should respect the property
and spouses of others. One should speak only what is true and
beneficial to others. One should be abstemious and heedful of one’s
spiritual welfare.
Being constantly mindful of the Buddha’s teaching, one will
eventually realise that man is master of himself. Through one’s own
experience one will infringe the moral precepts as a result of a mind
infected by greed, hatred or delusion or by lesser variations of these
taints; therefore, it is all the more essential that one maintains a state
of mindfulness. A personalised way of doing this is to recollect that
renowned saying of the Buddha:
“He who sees me sees the Dhamma; he who sees the Dhamma,
sees me.” (S III 120)
By a frequent study of the Dhamma and by a process of self-
analysis, one will have a greater awareness of the conditions of the
world, both within oneself and around one. Seeing the ever-
prevalent state of unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), as so boldly stated in
the First Noble Truth, a more compassionate frame of mind should
result than hitherto when, perhaps, one simply assumed that the
misfortunes of others was their ‘bad luck’ whilst remaining thankful
that oneself had escaped their fate. Seeing, also, that everything is in
a state of constant change (anicca), then letting go, renouncing,
becoming non-attached to material things and mental concepts
becomes much easier.
The importance, one might say the uniqueness, of Buddhism
rests on a thorough understanding of the foregoing. It is absurd to
AUTHOR’S PREFACE vii
say, “I am a born Buddhist” since a commitment resulting from

such understanding is entirely a personal choice; not a matter of
parental derivation. And the way to right understanding follows
from careful consideration, reflection, analysis and investigation,
which leads to intensive practice, study and realisation. The Buddha
rightly said:
“Even if he recites a large number of holy scriptures but, being
slothful, he does not act accordingly, he is like a cowherd
counting the cows of others, he has no share in the righteous
life.” (Dhp 19)
“Even if he recites only a small number of scriptures, if he is one
who acts rightly in accordance with the law, he, having forsaken
passion, hatred and ignorance, being possessed of true
knowledge and serenity of mind, being free from worldly
desires both in this world and in the next, has a share in the
righteous life.” (Dhp 20)
Sir Edwin Arnold encapsulates this practical view of religion in
his Light of Asia as follows:
“Seek nought from the helpless gods by gift and hymn,
Nor bribe with blood, nor feed with fruit and cakes.
Within yourself deliverance must be sought: each man his
prison makes.”
The author wishes that this brief introduction may pave the way
for you to read this and more books on the teaching of the Buddha
which will lead to everlasting happiness.
With mettá
Hammalawa Saddhátissa
ABBREVIATIONS
A Aòguttara Nikáya
Abhidh-av Abhidhammávatára
Abhidh-kA bhidharmakoøa
A-a Aòguttara Commentary
Ap Apadána
Bv Buddhavaísa
Bv-a Buddhavaísa Commentary
D Dìgha Nikáya
Dhp-a Dhammapada Commentary
Dhp Dhammapada
Dial. Long Discourses
DPPN Dictionary of Pali Proper Names
Dìp Dìpavaísa
It Itivuttaka
JPTS Journal of the Pali Text Society
J Játaka
J-a Játaka Commentary
Khp Khuddakapáþha
Kv Kathávatthu
M Majjhima Nikáya
Mhv Mahávaísa
Mvu Mahávastu
Mil Milindapañhá
Nid I Mahá Niddesa
Nid II Cúla Niddesa
Paþis Paþisambidhámagga
Pug Puggalapaññatti
Pv Petavatthu
RV ªgveda
S Saíyutta Nikáya
Sn Sutta Nipáta
Sn-a Sutta Nipáta Commentary
Th Theragátha
Th-a Theragátha Commentary
Ud Udána
Vibh Vibhaòga
Vin Vinaya
Vism Visuddhimagga
Vikn Vimalakirtinirdeøa
CONTENTS
Editor’s Foreword to the First Edition ..................................................................iii

Editor’s Foreword to the Second Edition ............................................................. iv
Auuthor’s Preface .......................................................................................................v
Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Buddhism ............................................................1
Chapter 2: The Modern World ..............................................................................8
Chapter 3: Fundamentals of Buddhism .............................................................16
Chapter 4: What the Buddha did for Humanity ...............................................22
Chapter 5: The Approach to the Buddha’s Path ...............................................27
Chapter 6: The Noble Eightfold Path ..................................................................30
Chapter 7: Ethics of the Buddhist ........................................................................36
Chapter 8: The Ideal Individual ..........................................................................44
Chapter 9: The Psychology of Ethics ..................................................................55
Chapter 10: The Concept of Confidence in Buddhism .......................................60
Chapter 11: The Three Refuges ..............................................................................66
Chapter 12: The Five Precepts ...............................................................................72
Chapter 13: The Buddhist Monk ..........................................................................80
Chapter 14: The Debt to our Parents .....................................................................88
Chapter 15: The Doctrine of non-violence in Buddhism ...................................92
Chapter 16: The Buddhist Attitude to Food ........................................................98
Chapter 17: Kamma ...............................................................................................103
Chapter 18: Kamma: The Philosophical Standpoint .........................................117
Chapter 19: The Root Causes of Kamma ............................................................120
Chapter 20: Dependent Origination ....................................................................128
Chapter 21: The Doctrine of Rebirth ...................................................................138
Chapter 22: The Mechanism of Rebirth ..............................................................145
Chapter 23: The Buddhist View of Metaphysics ...............................................151
Chapter 24: Buddhist Metaphysics .....................................................................155
Chapter 25: An Interview about Buddhism and Meditation ..........................159
Chapter 26: The Middle Way for the West ........................................................174
Chapter 27: A Survey of Buddhist Meditation ..................................................177
Chapter 28: The Meditation on Loving-kindness .............................................185
x FACETS OF BUDDHISM
Chapter 29: Satipaþþhána—Dhamma for All ..................................................... 204

Chapter 30: The Seven Stages of Purity ............................................................. 209
Chapter 31: Impermanence .................................................................................. 221
Chapter 32: The Truth of Unsatisfactoriness ..................................................... 226
Chapter 33: The Cause of Unsatisfactoriness .................................................... 231
Chapter 34: The Anattá Doctrine ........................................................................ 234
Chapter 35: The Enigma of Anattá ...................................................................... 238
Chapter 36: Nibbána ............................................................................................. 244
Chapter 37: The Bodhisattva Ideal ...................................................................... 266
Chapter 38: The Buddhist Philosophy of Life ................................................... 278
Chapter 39: The Spread of Buddhism ................................................................ 283
Chapter 40: The Exemplary Dhammadhúta ........................................................ 298
Chapter 41: Buddhist Councils ............................................................................ 301
Chapter 42: Maháyána Philosophy ..................................................................... 309
Chapter 43: The Significance of Paritta ............................................................... 313
Chapter 44: The History of the Stúpa ................................................................. 324
AUTHOR’S PREFACE xi
Chapter 1
AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM
A first and elementary point to which attention must be called, if

confusion is to be avoided in discussing Buddhism, is that Buddha
was not the personal name of the founder of Buddhism. Buddha,
meaning ‘The Enlightened One’ was the descriptive name given by
others to Prince Siddhartha Gautama when he attained the state of
enlightenment which lies at the heart and is the whole aim of his
teaching. To attain to this sublime state he had to accomplish the
‘Ten Perfections’ in a series of previous lives. They are charity (dána),
morality (sìla), wisdom (paññá), renunciation (nekkhamma), persever-
ance (vìriya), patience (khanti), truthfulness (sacca), determination
(adhiþþhána), loving-kindness (mettá) and equanimity (upekkhá).
The teaching of the Lord Buddha has come to be known as ‘Bud-
dhism’. It began in the northern provinces of India and at one time
prevailed throughout Asia. During 25 centuries it has mingled with
the traditional beliefs and religions of many lands, enhancing them
with the purity of its philosophy; thus in modern times there are well
over 500 million Buddhists in the world to be found in India, China,
Japan, Korea, Tibet, Indo-China, Malaysia, Burma, Thailand and Sri
Lanka, with evidence of ever-growing interest outside Asia such as in
America, Europe and Africa. He who was later to be known as the
Buddha, The Enlightened One, did not claim to be, at any time, other
than a human being, and indeed, the essence of his teaching was that
of the nature of human problems and human behaviour.
The Buddha was born on the day of the full-moon in May 563
B.C.E. in a place called Lumbini Garden at Kapilavatthu, then the
capital of the Sakyan clan, in present-day Nepal, close to the
northern border of India. His father, Suddhodana, was absolute
ruler of the Sakyan country at the foot of the Himalayas, which was
composed of many clans. His mother was Queen Mahámáyá. The
family name was Gotama (in Sanskrit Gautama) and his personal
name was Siddhattha (Sanskrit, Siddhartha). He is described as
being of noble bearing and as combining the skill of an athlete with
the brains of a scholar. As a prince he was brought up in royal
luxury which in India at that time meant a culture and opulence
beyond the imagination of the modern mind. In his sixteenth year
2 FACETS OF BUDDHISM
he married his cousin, a princess of great beauty named Yasodhará.

During the next thirteen years he continued to live this life of wealth
and grandeur in surroundings and conditions which may well
appear to be ideal—yet there was present in him a great
thoughtfulness, and discontent with his manner of life which he
compared with the sufferings of the weak and the poor for whom
he had always a great kindliness and pity.
On his way to the pleasure gardens, which he loved and visited
regularly he occasionally saw sights that told of the deepest of
human miseries, like old age, disease and death. First curiosity, then
stirrings of pity were aroused in him and he came to see that his
own way of life was an empty one, and that there must be more to
human existence than anything he had yet experienced. He sought
the advice of those who enjoyed a great reputation for wisdom, only
to find that they had no adequate answers to his questions.
Thus finally, in his twenty-ninth year, almost immediately
following the birth of Ráhula, his son, this great urge to renounce
the world and its pleasures became too strong to deny and so,
forsaking all claims to his palace, wealth, title, inheritance and
everything that stood between him and utter poverty, he took leave
of his family and went out in search of the true solution of all
miseries of life which he was determined to find. In his farewell
visit to his sleeping wife he pledged to return to her when he had
found it. He donned the yellow robe of a wandering ascetic and,
alone and penniless, set out to find the cause and cure of human
discontent and fear. His quest was, therefore, to discover the source
of human misery—the source of anxiety, tension, unhappiness.
Already he had, by his birth, experienced the one extreme of
complete luxury in the manner of his environment. He had
experienced all those comforts and alleged ‘securities’ which are so
often said to bring happiness. At first his approach was quite
orthodox for he consulted the priests of the highest authority in the
Brahminical religion of his people—yet none could enlighten him or
instruct him to his satisfaction. At that time it was the custom to
practise ascetic self-mortification in order to gain release from the
ills of mind and body, and so he tried this method which was the
antithesis of his previous life.
He became an ascetic and in the forest of Uruvelá near Gayá he
practised the severest austerities for six years which finally brought
him near to the point of death. He submitted himself to the strictest
austerities, to self-mortification and severe penances without finding
AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM 3
in them the solution to his problem. But therein he learned the value
of self-denial and in the end he came by his own efforts and the
practice of contemplation to the enlightenment he had been seeking.
In this way he realised that unhappiness and disease are the products
of extremes of indulgence in sensuality and the self mortification. He
realized that the method which he must hence-forward follow should
be the Middle Path (majjhimá paþipadá) between the two extremes.
There is a point between the two extremes and indeed between any
pair of opposites, which is a point of balance—where both aspects are
clearly observed with equanimity. At the age of thirty-five, having rid
himself of ignoble thoughts and all self-considerations, he attained
that state of balance and became aware of the supreme truth. In
meditation under the Bodhi-tree at Gayá he thus became the
Completely Self-Enlightened One (sammásambuddha). He had by then
spent six years on the path of discovery.
With his wisdom based on a clear understanding of the nature
of life and its ills, and with the compassion of unsurpassed
experience, he began to teach by example. He spent the remaining
forty- five years teaching his ‘Middle Path’ in the service of others.
As a teacher he addressed himself to the rich and powerful as
much as to the poor and weak. Love and pity for humanity were his
driving forces, while at the same time they were the aim towards
which he worked to awaken his hearers. Distance did not deter him
from going to help others or to preach his doctrine. He disregarded
class distinctions, the caste system and helped people whether they
were high-born or scavengers, and he admitted to his band of
followers all without distinction who wished to listen to his teaching.
On a larger scale, he reconciled quarrels between great landowners
and between sovereign princes by making them understand the path
to truth which he had discovered. It is important to bear in mind that
from the very beginning he was neither a god nor a superhuman
being, nor did he set out to create a new religion. He became, by his
own efforts, as perfect as a man can be. Others too can become
Buddhas, their progress rendered less difficult by the fact that all
Buddhist teaching is based on the law of Cause and Effect.
The man who became Buddha attained the qualities of charity,
self-discipline, self-denial, patience, wisdom, truthfulness and seren-
ity. He learned the difference between material and mental life and
purged himself of the imperfections of ill-will, anger, greed and pas-
sion and lack of self-knowledge. He gained freedom from the pursuit
of pleasures of the senses, even from attachment to life itself. His
teaching began at Benares, the holy city of the Hindus, where he had
come immediately following his enlightenment. Just outside the city,
in the deer park at Sarnath, he gave his first discourse—it is known as
‘The Turning of the Wheel of the Law’ (Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta).
In it he set down in simple terms the fourfold structure of his teach-
ing, known as the ‘Four Noble Truths’ (cattári ariyasaccáni). They are:
1. The fact that unhappiness exists (dukkha).
2. The cause of that unhappiness (samudaya).
3. The fact that unhappiness may cease (nirodha).
4. The Way leading to the cessation of unhappiness (magga).
The realisation of the cause, and the way to the cessation of all
discontent—all bewilderment—are contained in the extension of the
last of the Four Noble Truths into eight factors.
1. Right Understanding (sammá diþþhi).
5. Right Thought (sammá saòkappa).
6. Right Speech (sammá vácá).
7. Right Action (sammá kammanta).
8. Right Livelihood (sammá ájìva).
9. Right Effort (sammá váyáma).
10. Right Mindfulness (sammá sati).
11. Right Concentration (sammá samádhi).
It goes without saying that not everyone will achieve this state,
but even those who fall short of full achievement will become better
human beings on the way; and, being better human beings than they
were before, they will keep on striving towards further progress.
Those who tread the path of the Buddha will lead pure lives and
attain to a state of happiness made lasting and more intense by the
fact that it is due to their own effort; they will also have gained deep
knowledge and insight into humanity’s shortcomings and troubles.
The Buddha taught that craving, possessiveness and envy are the
cause of personal and social ills. Man should not put final value on
the desires of the senses, nor yet in objects—for these are insecure and
without permanence, and therefore productive of unhappiness. He
advised that man should, by his own efforts, endeavour to realise the
many illusions in life and by becoming free from desire for
possessions attain to peace of mind or Nibbána.
The word Nibbána is often wrongly translated as heaven, which
whilst it is not suggested that peace of mind is not an attribute of
heaven, the word is not intended in the sense normally known in
Christian terminology.
The Buddha was the first teacher to denounce cruelty to animals;
he taught that many of the practices previously recommended as
‘holy’ were in fact cruel and stupid. He preached against animal
sacrifice, cruelty to children, slavery, asceticism, war, the
manufacture of destructive weapons, hedonism and indulgence in
intoxicants. He was the first to speak of the equality of the sexes. His
expositions included a specific explanation of the Law of Causality, of
the principles of evolution, of relativity and of the changeable nature
of cosmic organisms. The system of caste distinction, a dogma of
Brahminical priests, he denounced as unjust, and instead taught that
there is no difference between people—save that of character and
belief. For the first time the ethic of a spiritual democracy was
proclaimed. This was, however, not merely a negative philosophy of
“Thou Shalt Not”; at no time did he suggest any more than the results
of his experience in search of the cessation of suffering. He advised
that this state of peace could be attained and fully realised here, in
this very life—not by sacrifices to gods or by praying to them for
material benefit, but in ceaseless striving towards selflessness. His
ethic was “Love for all” whether animal or human—and the method
of morality and diligence advocated “a boundless goodwill for all
things great or small—known or unknown” (Sn 243).
Buddhism is, therefore, not a religion in the modern sense for it
possesses none of the characteristics of a religion and none of the
activity of religions. It would be more correct to describe it as a
progressive scheme of self-discipline and self-purification. The
fundamental difference may be put in a nutshell by saying that a
religion is to be accepted and believed, whereas Buddhism is to be
understood and practised. The Buddha said, “O monks, accept my
words only after you have examined them for yourselves, do not
accept them simply due to the reverence you hold towards me.” (cf.
A I 189). In this instruction the Buddha denounces blind faith and
his continued emphasis was that one should believe in a doctrine
only after one has understood and practised it. Nor will anyone
who has followed this preliminary explanation of Buddhism so far,
have any difficulty now in understanding that, though it has
become a religion in the course of centuries, its originator did not
put it forward as anything more than a way to wisdom and to a
better individual as well as communal life. In so far as its religious
aspect is concerned, it differs from all other cults by its modesty in
abstaining from assertions of external superhuman power and by
making its starting point the practical improvement, through self-

effort and self-knowledge, of the individual.
Self-reliance and tolerance are, therefore, the keynotes of
Buddhist thought. The Buddha said many times “You yourself must
make the effort—Buddhas only point the way” (Dhp 276). Obviously
anyone with such beliefs will have a deep respect for other points of
view. It is considered almost an insult to a person’s intelligence to
attempt to impose any kind of doctrine upon him, or to attempt to
wean him from the beliefs resulting from his experience. A person’s
views change when experience changes—therefore, Buddhism
advises experience of life and personal endeavour towards a purer
understanding through morality and loving-kindness. So it is that a
Buddhist’s attitude to life is almost unique. He knows that the
reason for his very existence is due to desire for existence. He knows
that the physical and mental ‘components’ which come together to
form a human being are the results of previous existence, in the same
way that his actions and desires will dictate the manner and
characteristics of his next birth. Until he has the realisation that it is
his attachments and cravings and selfishness which bind him to the
Wheel of Life, then dissatisfaction and unhappiness will be his lot. If
he is wise, he will follow the eight-fold advice of the Middle Path
which leads to liberation.
The morality of Buddhism has a logical reason, for it seeks to
prevent unwholesome results (unwanted results) by changing or
removing the cause. In practice it is similar to most religions—but not
identical. Lay Buddhists are expected to adhere to five basic precepts:
1. To refrain from taking life (páóátipáta).
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (adinnádána).
3. To refrain from vulgar, lustful or illicit relationships (kámesu
micchácárá).
4. To refrain from lying, gossip and loose or hurtful speech
(musáváda).
5. To refrain from drugs and intoxicants (surámerayamajja-
pamádaþþháná ).
Twice a month, on the Uposatha days (the Buddhist equivalent
to Sabbath), the earnest Buddhist will observe three extra precepts.
He (or she) will not take food after midday, will refrain from any
form of entertainment either actively or passively, and will not use
perfumes, cosmetics and jewellery to make themselves more
attractive. They will also refrain from using luxurious beds and
seats. As may be seen, these precepts take the form of disciplines,

and of a gradual training towards renunciation of the fleeting
desires of the senses. They are not commandments but guides as to
conduct for leading a moral life. They represent only a preliminary
training in discipline before commencing the meditation which is so
important in Buddhist practice.
Although to Western eyes, Buddhism may sometimes appear to
be highly ritualistic, it must be remembered that the offering of
flowers, incense and lighted candles at the Buddha’s shrines is not
worship and is not expected to have any power to divert the law of
cause and effect. These are tokens of recognition for a great Teacher
and his teachings, as also are the food, clothing and support given
to the monks who perpetuate his Dhamma.
The Dhamma—the name of the Buddha’s teaching—or the Law,
is not an inert instruction or -ism. The essence of the Dhamma is the
practice of it. The Buddha said:
“Use the Dhamma as a raft to cross the stream [of life] but do
not carry it as a burden.” (D I 135)
In these words he condemns the clinging to religious teachings.
So many times in history there have been terrible acts of war and
carnage in the name of religion; yet all religions teach love, peace
and unity. This cruelty of man arises from clinging to the name of
his religion and holding it to be dearer than the actual teachings of
his religion. If people cared enough to practise love, peace and unity
then these evils could never have come to be in the name of religion.
We are in perfect agreement with those who think that the time
must soon come when mankind as a whole will realise that humanity
is really one large family; that we are dependent on each other to a
very considerable extent. When this idea is grasped, much misunder-
standing will automatically cease. Better education, the ever increas-
ing supply of literature, and easy and swift transport are helping
towards this end. The last words of the Buddha before he passed
away (at the age of eighty, at Kusinára in northern India) were these:
“Abide in heedfulness.” (D II 120, 156; S I 158)
To abide in heedfulness is to see the world clearly and to see our
fellow human beings clearly—without prejudice, without envy,
without hatred. To be able to do this we must know ourselves
intimately and know the sources of happiness and unhappiness that
are within us.
Chapter 2
THE MODERN WORLD
The man of today is basically the same as his brother of yesterday;

he has always asked questions about life and the living of it. Yet, in
spite of this constant questioning over the centuries, the majority of
men are unable to find a satisfactory answer to their queries.
Numerous theories have been put forward for consideration, each
one in time being rejected, or modified to afford the infiltration of
other ideas. This has led to endless discussion of the theories
themselves, as to what is meant by this proposition, whether or not
that proposition is based on logical reasoning and so on. In other
words, man has been beguiled by theories, whether philosophical
or religious, and thus he finds himself no nearer to the answer of
this puzzle called life.
What are these questions asked by successive generations of
men? Sometimes man is prompted to ask questions about the
meaning of life by his observation of things about him, the actions
of other people, the beauty of nature, the so-called cruelty of nature,
but usually it is brought about by his own suffering or unhappiness,
and following upon this, his consequent asking, “Why must man
suffer? Why must he endure pain? Why can’t he be happy at all
times?”
On reflection one finds that, in spite of innumerable variations,
the number of calamities possible to befall man are limited to the
fundamental facts of his being deprived of that which he wishes to
keep and being forced to retain what he would prefer to discard. It
may be argued that these are effects of calamities only in the
manner in which they are experienced. To the tenants watching a
fire destroy their dwelling it is indeed a calamity, but to the owner,
who may want both the tenants and the building out of the way, it
is a stroke of good fortune. It would not be presumptuous to
assume that happiness is the one state sought by all people of all
times. The nature of this elusive goal is, however, the object of much
discussion; people wish to be happy, but most of them do not know
what happiness is, nor where to find it. To some it does not really
matter if an answer is found, as time passes by and things manage
to sort themselves out. There are, however, those who begin to
THE MODERN WORLD 9
wonder if perhaps happiness and suffering are not confined to

events and possessions, those who begin to think about themselves
and their relationship to their surroundings in a new light. The
possession of some delicate and costly article may be very pleasing
to the eye, and we can appreciate the beauty and artistry of its
design, but it does not give lasting happiness. Having arrived at this
point of self-awareness, man is not content to leave it at that; the
very nature of this problem will not permit him to ignore it. He
begins to observe with a wider perception, to read and think about
the opinions of others, and he may make a study of philosophy and
the world’s religions, but still the nature of happiness eludes him.
During the course of his quest he will come across the teaching
called Buddhism.
In this age it is possible for anyone to study a great number of
subjects, including Buddhism. This has not always been so. As far as
Buddhism is concerned, it is only in recent years that publications in
any number have been available to the general populace, thanks to
the dedicated few who have translated the sacred texts, opening an
avenue of Eastern wisdom that was little known to the Western
world. Over the last century increasing numbers of people have
found this signpost, called the Dhamma, which points the way to
happiness; what they do after reading it is up to them. We find
therein a spirit of enquiry that does not call for unquestioning belief,
or the acceptance of events as being the will of an all-controlling
higher being. The man of today is living in a questioning age in
which theories and events are examined and discussed by more
people than was ever previously possible because of the ease with
which one is able to obtain information. Examination and
discussion of the theory are not sufficient however, if one is to leave
the signpost and set forth along the way. They must be allied with
awareness and observation of oneself, and this is the beauty of the
Dhamma, or Buddhism, for here we ourselves have the opportunity
of experiencing the teaching of the Buddha. We can test these
statements and we are free to reject them or accept them, according
to our own experiences and capabilities, becoming more confident
as our knowledge penetrates deeper into the darkness of
uncertainty.
It is not possible for man to run away from the world, for outside
of himself there is no world; he is the world, he is responsible for his
own suffering and his own happiness. The Buddha makes no
promise of salvation for those who merely believe what he teaches.
He teaches a method and what is more, he tells us what we may

expect to find at various stages of this method, but we cannot know
these stages unless we experience them. He teaches with words—
only ink on paper as we see them today—which can have no
meaning without a corresponding knowledge.
We know that our new car, our house, a beautiful painting
pleases us, but we do not always want to be driving the car, in the
house or looking at the painting; so we seek other pleasures and so
it goes on. If we look behind us we will see a long line of discarded
wrecks, once so dear to us, and yet still this insatiable thirst for
pleasures is within us. Until man understands the very nature of
this restlessness or suffering and the cause of it, he will go on
grasping at new experiences in the hope of obtaining lasting
happiness. Always it appears to be that happiness is thought of as
‘something’ which will be presented to us, as something outside of
ourselves, and therefore to be sought after. Since man wishes for
happiness it follows that he must be unhappy or dissatisfied with
life as he finds it. What is the reason for this? In Buddhism we are
given four statements to consider, the Four Noble Truths, set forth
by the Buddha in his first discourse.1 These are the Truth of
Suffering, the Truth of its Cause, the Truth of its Cessation and the
Truth of the Noble Eightfold Path leading to its cessation.
Here we have a doorway to a new world, breathtaking in its
wisdom, and it is by the study of these truths that man sees the
necessity for a completely different outlook if he truly wishes to
find the answer to his questions. His present outlook does not
change overnight, and there are times when he may not see the
necessity for changing it on certain points, but always he has the
liberty to progress and learn according to his own ability. His means
of study and research are always with him, for he himself is the
subject. From these observations he finds that suffering, or more
precisely, the unsatisfactory state of affairs as he finds them, lies
within his own conception of himself and the value and function of
his possessions which are but pillars supporting the notion of his
own worth. When his desires are thwarted he suffers, when they are
satisfied there is always the possibility that what he has gained may
in the future be taken from him. This is indeed the Truth of
Suffering. He feels he has put his heart into these things making
them his own, whereas in fact, he has but laid hands upon them,
1. Vin I 10; S IV 330, V 421; Paþis II 147.

THE MODERN WORLD 11
hugging them to himself in an agony of greed, ever seeking to

increase the armful. This unhappy sequence of desiring, grasping
and discontent seems endless, with no possibility of cessation. In
the Third Noble Truth, however, the Buddha has informed us that it
is indeed possible to break free from this bond. We find that this
freedom is not to be gained by the finding and clinging to some
object we have not yet discovered, but by the cessation of this very
craving and clinging which is rooted in ignorance of the true nature
of things.
In our observations we discover that nothing can escape from
change, nothing stands still. How then is it possible to attain to
happiness if the object of our desire is based on impermanence? Our
idea of happiness itself undergoes a new evaluation; we realise that
it may lie not in the wanting, but in the non-wanting of a definite
article or state, not in the possession, but in the absence of
possession. We may also realise the impossibility of possession, for
how can a person possess an object: he does but handle things, use
them for a purpose that once achieved he finds the very desire that
brought them into being, his attitude towards them, has changed.
Having arrived at this point of observation through his own
experience, that suffering is ever present, and that this state is
linked inseparably with a craving for new experiences and
possessions, man realises that his conception of life is based on
ignorance, a surface view ever changing with fleeting experiences of
sunlight and shadow to lift him up and cast him down at every
turn. It would seem then that the way out of this endless running
from one experience to another, with its anxiety and unhappiness, is
to lessen and finally to eliminate craving, the fuel-gatherer, with its
false hopes of eternal satisfaction. How is this to be achieved?
In the Fourth Noble Truth we are shown the Noble Eightfold
Path, a way of life in which living is based on eight factors: Right
Understanding of the nature of existence; Right Intention as to
actions devoid of greed and hatred; Right Speech in truthfulness
and gentleness; Right Action in freedom from selfish desires; Right
Livelihood in that others do not suffer by it; Right Effort in the
preventing and overcoming of unworthiness and in the developing
and maintaining of worthiness; Right Mindfulness in the observing
of bodily actions and of the functions we call mind; Right
Concentration in the tranquillity of mind. These are here but briefly
presented (for more details, see Chapter 6), and it is only by the
living of them that man will discover their meaning.
We will have discovered by this time that our conception of self is

undergoing a change, that we are not thinking in terms of possessing
happiness, or of being happy, but that we are questioning this idea of
self, and that this is the key to understanding our problems which we
ourselves create by our ignorance. We have been preparing ourselves
for a deeper understanding into the nature of our reactions to given
circumstances, for we will have discovered by now that the study of
the Four Noble Truths has opened up a hitherto unknown field of
knowledge. This understanding, however, comes about by a process
of preparation, or discipline. Moral implications are presented, not
solely for the purpose of virtue and the leading of a socially accepted
moral life, but for the important purpose of affording a sound basis
for meditation and wisdom. Strictly speaking moral discipline is
control over one’s own wishes so that a right decision may be made
without reference to oneself as a deciding factor. There is no sense of
a judgement being made as to whether a certain action is against the
will of a deity outside of ourselves. It is knowing the right thing to do
in the sense that the decision will bring about the best results either
immediately or in the future. This discipline naturally embraces
consideration of other people, generosity, and other virtues. To live
contrary to virtue is not evil merely because we are told it is bad, but
because such a way of life is based on ignorance and greed, fleeting
desires and the idea that the self must be satisfied. It is necessary to
get to the roots of these desires and to see that their gratification does
not lead to lasting peace.
It is obvious that a distracted mind will not be able to ascertain
the cause of the arising of these desires. To overcome this state of
restlessness we find that the practice of meditation, by calming the
mind, helps us to achieve a diminishing of the corruptive
hindrances that beset us, and thus we are enabled to reach a state of
clarity and purity. Thus with purity and meditation our range of
vision expands, and with this development of wisdom we are able
to discriminate with confidence between the outward appearance
and the inner reality.
Man is now placed in a position of responsibility towards
himself and towards his fellows, not only on a personal level but on
a community level, penetrating deeper into matters than a mere
following of rules and regulations regarding social behaviour. This
responsibility is based on a real understanding of the desires that
move men to certain actions, and this understanding is made a
living force by the warmth and strength of compassion. From this
THE MODERN WORLD 13
he sees that the following of the Noble Eightfold Path, with its
implication of moral purity, concentration and wisdom penetrates
much deeper than the observance of a set of rules. The meaning of
each point must be grasped, even if at first only superficially, so that
the inner potential may eventually be realised. These are not steps
to be developed one by one in sequence but as a balanced whole so
that previous intellectual understanding gradually makes way for
the certainty of direct experience.
It will be obvious that throughout this voluntary journey there is
the vital force of enquiry, and the choice as to whether or not a
person undertakes this journey is left entirely to himself. Once
embarked, however, he finds that the disciplines of the Noble
Eightfold Path are called for, but the further he goes the more he
finds that he himself ‘enforces’ them, in other words, they have now
become part of himself, and to go against them would cause him
much anguish. They have in fact ceased to be restrictive disciplines.
He is now striving for enlightenment, wisdom, perfection; not
happiness as a selfish cure to relieve suffering. The object of his
search has changed, and this has come about not by studying words,
but by actually applying the advice of the Buddha, by living it.
This is called a scientific age. Today’s man has more knowledge
of scientific works than ever before. He also has an idea of the
methods used by scientists in their quest for knowledge, and when he
examines the teaching called Buddhism he finds that here is a method
with which he is familiar in his everyday life. A method of enquiry
based on his own observations; his experience of facts as he finds
them. He is not pursuing random ideas or playing with theories,
some of which are conceptual imaginings of much beauty, but which
cannot be proved to be factual. If man can use this scientific method
as a means to obtain knowledge into the true state of affairs, he will
learn much about himself as opposed to what he thinks himself to be.
This enquiry is based on the method of mindfulness, which is not
complicated by a long process of study or by the need for more time.
It can be practised right from this very moment, now. Mindfulness
itself, however, is neither analytical nor compassionate; it is simply
the observing of events as they occur, physically or mentally without
the cloud of conceptions and imaginings.
The teaching of the Buddha has been called the Teaching of the
Middle Path, a way in which extremes are not encouraged, and with
this constantly in mind, a person thus avoids the temptation to
develop one aspect of the Dhamma to the detriment of others,
resulting in distortion. He sees the value of the analytical scientific

method being tempered by the warmth of compassion, and an
understanding of the weakness of both himself and others, without
condemnation, for it is important to remember that it was after all,
his very human experiences of suffering, bewilderment and doubt
that prompted him to follow this path in the first place, not the
desire for scientific method in itself.
The man of today, if he is of a thoughtful or searching nature,
finds in Buddhism a teaching of clarity and directness that appeals
to his mind, and a teaching of compassion, without sentimentality,
which appeals to his emotional life. Here he has a balanced unity
which he can begin to experience from the very moment he himself
decides to experience it. He will find that it calls for a full-scale
effort. Its very simplicity is its difficulty. The need for constancy can
be extremely tiring, and man likes to put up his feet sometimes and
forget about it. There is nothing to stop him forgetting about it, as
long as he knows the result will be commensurate with the effort,
and that if the results are meagre, there is but one way to increase
the yield of knowledge.
The teaching of the Buddha is as a flame of beauty in the
darkness of grasping, ill-will and ignorance which man calls life. It
gives to him who chooses the Buddhist way, the dignity of
responsibility for his own spiritual future. It deepens his knowledge
of man, his thoughts and his actions. For the man who wishes to
find the reason for life being the unsatisfactory state of affairs he has
discovered it to be, religions of faith have been found wanting. It is
surely not possible to accept the ignorance of men as being the will
of an omnipotent deity. It is surely equally impossible to claim that
a man is not ignorant, that he is living to the full extent of his
capabilities, and that his life is an example of love and
understanding. The experiences of any one day, of any week, of any
year, will tell us otherwise. It would be foolish to say that men do
not experience happiness. But if this happiness is based on fleeting
emotions it will sooner or later die and give way to discontent. If it
is based on knowledge of the nature of mind and the senses, it will
eventually result in a tranquillity beyond worldly happiness, the
depth and stability of which increases according to the depth of
understanding.
The Buddha made no wild claims. He himself experienced and
observed the sorrows of the world and resolved, through his own
efforts, to find the cause of this tangle of self. That he succeeded is
THE MODERN WORLD 15
accepted by a vast number of people today as being sufficient

evidence that they too, with due application, can do likewise. Man
is now realising the necessity for action, for he sees all around him
the forces of ill-will leading to violence and destruction. He turns
his gaze to the Dhamma, the teaching of peace and enlightenment.
He has discovered that blind belief in the will of an unseen deity is
not sufficient to explain away the ignorance and fear by which he is
surrounded. He views with respect the doctrines of other teachers,
but the man of today wishes to discover truth, he is not content with
promises of better things to come, for he knows that enlightenment
is not a gift, or a reward for believing in a power outside of himself.
He looks to the Dhamma and makes his decision. The journey has
commenced.
Chapter 3
FUNDAMENTALS OF BUDDHISM
The essential point about the Buddha and his teaching is that he
never claimed any connection with a god or a godhead. He was just
a human being. The essence of his teaching is the universal question
of suffering and the way to its eradication (M I 140). Suffering can
be overcome by individual effort—one cannot rely on any
superhuman or external agency. One of the Buddha’s attributes is
that he is Sammásambuddha; that is to say ‘enlightened or awakened
by his own effort alone’.
The Enlightened One began teaching in the Deer Park at
Sarnath, near Benares, and the Four Noble Truths are the central
points of his doctrine. The first of these is that suffering or
unhappiness exists everywhere; the second is that the cause for this
suffering is craving, born of ignorance; the third states that there can
be an end to suffering; the fourth, that this is to be achieved by
following the Noble Eightfold Path to Nibbána.
The Buddha denounced all sacrifices, human or animal, and
addressed himself to all classes of society. He admitted everyone
who wished to join his Order of Monks, and later to his Order of
Nuns also. He taught the Law of Cause and Effect in order to help
man to see how to overcome undesired effects.
The summation of his teaching is to refrain from all evil, to do
good and to purify the mind (Dhp 183). Evil refers to unwholesome
deeds of body, speech and mind. Bodily demerit includes: 1) killing
living beings, 2) stealing, 3) sexual misconduct. Verbal wrong
actions are: 1) lying, 2) back-biting, 3) harsh speech, and 4) frivolous
talk. “The tongue has no bones but breaks many” runs the proverb.
Wrong mental actions include: 1) covetousness, 2) ill-will, and 3)
wrong views. The roots of all these wrong actions are greed, hatred
and delusion.
Because of ignorance, fear, greed and hatred, wars are fought.
Man exploits his environment and threatens to ruin the balance of
nature for his own ends. Poorer countries are exploited for cheap
labour or its products. Just as a river in flood bears away everything
it touches, so do our unwholesome desires and emotions sweep
through us. Yet one thought can change the world. Such is the
FUNDAMENTALS OF BUDDHISM 17
power of the mind.

While we are unenlightened ‘worldlings’, we are subject to all
kinds of desires. Neighbour competes with neighbour, politician
with politician, nation with nation. Desire is insatiable and merely
fuels more desires. The rich man is not satisfied with what he has
and envies the one who is richer. We become depressed for fear of
losing our possessions and at the same time resent anyone having
more than we do. Even when we do get more, what we so desired
then tends to lose its value for us. Often we get our enjoyment at the
expense of others. All over the world the greedy try to snatch the
most and by manipulating others to obtain what they desire. The
result of all this is yet more suffering, more dissatisfaction and more
destruction.
The second force in conjunction with which greed may lead men
astray is a combination of anger, hatred, provocation and ill-will. This
is also an instinct to try to dominate others. We want them to obey
our will but are not prepared to suppress our own! We can be
irritated in many ways and the resulting anger may at first be slight,
but if it is allowed to go on day after day it grows into deep hatred.
When a man is in a rage he is ‘beside himself’, swept along in the
flood of his hatred. Out of this inner anger proceed disputes. “Hatred
ceases not by hatred but by love” (Dhp 5), says the Buddha, but man
ungoverned flies in the face of this universal law. Armed conflicts
between nations are the result. There can be no hope of universal
peace in a ‘New Age’ unless man changes himself radically.
War remains as the greatest relic of barbarism in the midst of
modern civilisation, where the findings of science and technology
are applied to yet more powerful and sophisticated instruments for
the destruction of human life and property. Not even the fact that
there is already the capacity to destroy the earth many times over
puts a stop to the dangerous and spiteful ‘march of progress’. And
while we wait helplessly in the shadow of the final Armageddon,
we beguile the times by reading in the papers, almost with
tolerance, of what has come to be known as ‘conventional war’.
Under these circumstances war spreads wider desolation than
when it is waged between limited numbers of men who have
voluntarily adopted the profession of arms. In every war, a large
number of families are reduced to destitution equally by the
destruction of their property as by the loss of those on whom they
depend for support. This is the result of anger.
The third current which carries us to misery is delusion or

ignorance, which is the primary root of evil. It is more subtle than its
companions and when a man is hypnotised by it he cannot
distinguish right from wrong; good from bad. Nothing is safe from
his scoffs and sneers, not a sense of filial love nor self-sacrifice in
any form. No word of praise passes his lips. Instead he feels hurt
that his own worth is not sufficiently appreciated. Thinking much of
himself, he continually plans to feed his ambitions for personal
happiness. But the more they succeed, the more happiness eludes
him and any spirit of loving-kindness fades. He loses all feelings of
duty towards his fellow men and is deaf to prayers and appeals for
mercy. If he helps others, he does so only to increase his gains or
sense of self-esteem. He may be of advantage to those who cannot
avoid coming into contact with him and who fear to provoke his
resentment, but it is conferred without goodwill. Those who can do
so prefer to avoid his company. Perhaps there comes a day when all
men turn against him and the world yearns to be rid of him. Then
he blames them saying, “What I have done is perfectly right, but
people are too ignorant to realise it or too wicked to agree”. He is
incapable of seeing that it is the poison in himself which has upset
the world.
The Buddhist technique to overcome these raging torrents is a
careful self-culture known as the development of proper mindful-
ness (satipaþþhána). “Save yourself, by yourself” (Dhp 157), are the
words of the Buddha. This mindfulness, the guard at the gates of
the sense doors, is mastered through the practice of the Noble Eight-
fold Path: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action,
Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and
Right Concentration (see Chapter 6). By knowing that the Dhamma
can be tested by ourselves, we can realise the Truth and achieve our
deliverance, for practice makes perfect.
To plan our meritorious action, we should first understand
what merit is and the root of merit. There are bodily skills or
wholesome actions (kusala kamma): to abstain from violence and
instead devote oneself to loving-kindness; to abstain from sensual
misconduct and devote oneself to morality and self-discipline.
There are also verbal skills: to abstain from dishonesty and uphold
truth; to abstain from harsh language and malicious gossip in order
to promote peace and concord; and, by always keeping in mind
what is right and of profit to others, to abstain from frivolous
chatter. There are three mental skills proximate to Right Thought or
Right Intention, the second factor of the Path: 1) thoughts of

renunciation, 2) thoughts of loving-kindness to quell anger, and 3)
and thoughts of compassion to quell cruelty. These three skills are
the seeds of nobility within us, seeds that with careful, determined
cultivation will grow into sublime powers. Indeed, they have lain
latent within us all this time, only waiting for the sun of wisdom to
break through the clouds of ignorance, and for the soil of the heart
to be softened by love in order for them to grow.
We must abandon this ‘I’ that stands between the world and
ourselves. There is no evil in wanting universal happiness and
peace. The evil arises when our desires are only for ourselves and
not for others, or not in the sacred interests of truth. When we desire
such things as we can share with others, our desires become wiser
and more unselfish.
Unselfishness includes not only a feeling in the heart, but also
the performance of those outward actions by which the feeling is
manifested. But the internal feeling is an essential first step. It is the
desire to put others perfectly at ease, to save them from every kind
of discomfort and to do all we can to promote their happiness. An
unselfish man regrets his unwholesome acts or the good he has
omitted to do with the motive to do better in future and to make
amends for the wrong he has committed. Rather than make himself
a burden on his fellow men, he desires to be a blessing to them by
making them happy. His unselfish disposition promotes social
intercourse and adds to the pleasure of others. He appreciates
benefits conferred on him and feels joy at the kindness of his
benefactor, for whose sake he has a great desire to pass on those
benefits or to give something more when possible.
By being unselfish we develop within ourselves the sense of
sympathy. We cannot enjoy happiness worthy of the name without
being in sympathy with our fellow men. In every case, happiness is
rendered more intense, more lasting, by its being shared with
friends. Therefore the best way to be happy is to make others so. To
promote the spirit of fellowship, the unselfish man puts himself in
the position of others and tries to identify himself with all. His spirit
is like that of the trees which bear fruit for all with no sense of
discrimination. In short, whatever deed we do, whatever word we
utter, whatever thought we think, should be for the good, peace,
happiness and joy, not of ourselves only, but of others in company
with ourselves. The result of this is freedom from those roots which
have been causing unhappiness, frustration and turmoil.
To promote the spirit of world-fellowship, we must cultivate the

seeds of loving-kindness in our hearts and minds until we grow to
be all love. To love one another, we should realise that all that have
life are brothers. But brotherhood must be applied with justice, for
justice is also a natural law. If we do any harm to others, we shall be
paid back in like kind. If you throw a stone into a pond, the first
effect is that widening rings spread out from its point of contact
with the water, but when these rings reach the bank they rebound
until the stone is washed by the ripples it first created. In the same
way, the effect of our actions come back to us. If they are good, we
shall have good effects; likewise bad for bad. To produce good
actions, love is essential and so we love everyone, no matter what
the colour of his skin, whether he be rich or poor, wise or foolish,
good or bad. We should love not only human beings but all beings
in the world. In the Karaóìyametta-sutta, his discourse on love, the
Buddha said:
“As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects her child,
her only child, so let (the upright man) cultivate goodwill
without measure among all beings. Let him cultivate goodwill
without measure towards the whole world above, below,
around, unstinted, unmixed with any feeling of differing or of
opposing interests. Let a man remain steadfastly in this state of
mind, while he is awake, whether he be standing, walking,
sitting or lying down. This state of heart is the best in the
world.” (Sn 149–151)
Most of us have not yet learned this lesson and therefore the
sense of unity has faded from our minds, the world of pain and
cruelty goes on, and all wild animals flee from us. But there are a
few who have learned the lesson. They love everything. No wild
animal flees from them and even a tiger will roll at their feet as a pet
cat does at ours. Why do our pet animals love us? Because we love
them. If we take this lesson to heart, our enemies will become our
friends and wild animals our companions.
Wisdom is the power of seeing things as they truly are, and how
to act rightly when the problems of life come to us. The seeds of
wisdom are latent in us and when our heart is softened and warm
with love it grows in its powers. When a man has stilled greed, hate
and delusion, he becomes conscientious, full of sympathy, and is
anxious for the welfare of all living beings.
“He abstains from stealing and sexual misconduct. He refrains

from back-biting; what he has heard in one place he does not
repeat to another so as to cause dissention. He unites those who
are divided and encourages those who are united. He abstains
from harsh speech and uses only such words as are gentle,
soothing to the ear and which go to the heart. He abstains from
empty talk. He speaks what is useful at the right time and what
is according to the facts.” (D I 4)
It is when his mind is purified and his heart tamed by being
equipped with morality (sìla) that this very morality grows, and
sublime wisdom (paññá) comes and grows likewise. Knowledge of
the properties of the magnetic needle enables the mariner to see the
right direction in mid-ocean on the darkest night when no stars are
visible; even so, wisdom enables a man to see things as they truly
are and to perceive the right way to real peace and happiness,
Nibbána.
Chapter 4
WHAT THE BUDDHA DID FOR HUMANITY
What contribution did the Buddha make to the spiritual wealth and
social welfare of humanity? Through his great compassion and all-
seeing wisdom the Buddha’s service to humanity was, and indeed
still is, many faceted and immeasurable. He taught men that in
order to reach the highest attainable happiness there is no need for
them to rely on anyone supposedly superior to themselves for help
or grace. He taught that men could be self-reliant and strong
enough to achieve deliverance by themselves and for themselves;
deliverance from selfish craving, ill-will and delusion. He expected
them to stand on their own two feet and admonished them to strive
to attain the goal by their own efforts; he merely pointed the way.
“Oneself, indeed, is one’s own refuge, for what other refuge
could there be?
With oneself well-controlled one obtains a refuge difficult to
find.” (Dhp 160)
Consistent with this proclamation of self-help being the only
true way to deliverance, the Buddha condemned all sacrifices
performed in the name of religion, particularly those involving the
killing of animals. You are, perhaps, aware that according to some
religious beliefs ‘sin’ or evil can be atoned for, or done away with by
killing animals such as cows, horses or goats in the name of God. In
India at the time of the Buddha and before, there were animal
sacrifices. The great horse sacrifice is specifically mentioned in the
texts. Even now such cruel practices are still prevalent. The Buddha
exposed such practices as being futile as well as cruel and barbaric.
He taught that a much more beneficial sacrifice was to give up the
taking of life and other misdeeds and by so doing men would be
elevated above such primitive gods. All such cruel practices were
the antithesis of all that religion means. The followers of Buddhism
should regard all living beings as sharing the wonderful gift of life
and as deserving of protection rather than exploitation.
“Let him not destroy life nor cause others to kill, nor approve of
others’ killing. Let him refrain from oppressing all living beings
in the world, whether strong or weak.” (Sn 384)
WHAT THE BUDDHA DID FOR HUMANITY 23
The Buddha adjures men to practise active loving-kindness

towards all living beings, including animals. Inscriptions on stone
pillars in India dating from the time of Emperor Asoka reveal that
that great Emperor ordered the establishment of hospitals for both
men and beasts in his great domain, and advised his subjects to
practise kindly and considerate behaviour towards all living beings.
Not only to abstain from hunting and killing animals but to tend
them when ill and guard them from danger.
Another great contribution that the Buddha made to humanity
was his condemnation of the slave trade; 2,500 years ago, long
before the time of William Wilberforce, the Buddha had laid down a
rule for his followers that they should abstain from all trade in
human beings. Human beings might be engaged for domestic
service or as labourers but without infringing on their personal
rights. An employer was expected to take care of his servants by:
1. assigning them work according to their ability,
2. by supplying them with food and wages,
3. by tending them in sickness,
4. by sharing with them extraordinary delicacies (and windfalls
etc.),
5. by allowing them leave at times.
In return, it should be noted, the employees were expected:
1. to rise before him,
2. to sleep after him,
3. to take only what was given,
4. perform their duties satisfactorily,
5. to spread his good name. (D III 191)
The Buddha was also a pioneer in the art of peace-making. The
scriptures1 tell us of a case where the two armies of the Sakyans and
Koliyans were on the verge of war over the right to take water from
the river Rohióì that divided their countries. They were preparing
to do battle when the Buddha appeared on the scene and asked the
reason for the dispute. They told him it was about the right to take
water for irrigation. The Buddha asked them which was more
precious, blood or water. Of course they replied ‘blood’. “So then,”
he said “you are going to lose what is precious for the sake of what
is relatively worthless, is that the action of sensible men? Go away
1. Sn-a I 358; cf. J V 412; Dhp-a III 254ff.

and see if you can settle this dispute in a more reasonable way than
this.” That war was thus prevented by the Buddha’s good advice
and influence.
The Buddha did not admire the conqueror. He said:
“Victory breeds hatred. The defeated live in pain. Happily the
peaceful live, giving up both victory and defeat.” (Dhp 201)
The conqueror oppresses his victims so they scheme to rise and
overthrow their oppressors. The cycle of revenge and counter-plots
ensures that no one gets any peace. The Buddha warned men
against following their base instincts and showed them how to
settle their disputes by discussion and mediation.
The temperance movement has its predecessor in the word of
the Buddha. He enjoined his followers to abstain from intoxicating
drinks and drugs, warning that it made the user susceptible to
disease, mental disorder and many other dangers to his family and
property due to his heedlessness.
“The householder who delights in self-control, knowing that
intoxicants result in loss, should not indulge in taking
intoxicants nor should he cause others to do so nor approve of
them doing so.” (Sn 398)
“Fools commit evil deeds as a result of drunkenness and cause
other people, who are negligent, to act accordingly; this
delusion, this delight of fools.” (Sn 399)
“One should not be a drinker.” (Sn 400)
It has already been mentioned that Emperor Asoka set up
hospitals for the sick and even for animals, inspired by the
compassionate words of the Buddha.
During the lifetime of the Buddha there was a monk called
Pútigatta Tissa who was very sick but not attended to by his fellow
monks. The Buddha found him while touring the monastery and
asked the monks why they did not attend him. They replied that it
was because he had not looked after anyone himself. The Buddha
sent Ánanda for some water and tended the sick monk himself
while Ánanda washed his dirty robes. Afterwards he admonished
the monks to take care of each other and said:
“Whosoever would serve me should serve the sick.”
(Dhp-a I 319ff.)
WHAT THE BUDDHA DID FOR HUMANITY 25
It is also noteworthy that the Buddha made special provisions

for the benefit of sick monks, such as hot baths and medicinal herbs,
thus setting a standard of compassion and moderation rather than
extreme severity and self-mortification.
The Buddha was also a great benefactor and liberator of
women. In pre-Buddhist India the status of women was, in general,
extremely low. The birth of a daughter was often regarded as a
source of anxiety for the parents; they had to expect great expense
when she came to be married and face disgrace if they could not
find a suitable husband for her. A woman’s life was one of
subservience to her husband and his parents. She was allowed little
authority at home and no part in public activities. If widowed, she
became the possession of her father again, or of her son. During the
Buddhist epoch there was a dramatic change. Women came to enjoy
more equality, greater respect and authority than ever before. The
exclusive supremacy of men began to give way before the
increasing emancipation of women. This change was accelerated by
the innate intelligence of the women who showed that they were
responsible, rational beings with intelligence and will, and for the
men, being steeped in the Buddha’s tolerant teachings, it was
impossible not to respond to the constant daily evidence of the
women’s powers of devotion, sacrifice, courage and endurance.
They ceased to regard women as inferior to themselves, being more
aware of the similarities between men and women and less
obsessed by the differences.
The Buddha taught both male householders and their wives.
The women set fine examples in conduct and intelligence. The men,
for their part, appreciated the widening of the field of women’s
activities. Thus, the tide of public opinion turned, and the position
of women became not only bearable but honourable. At last,
women were acknowledged to be capable of working as a
constructive force in the society of the day. The birth of girls was no
longer met with disappointment, since girls had ceased to be
despised or regarded as burdens. They were now allowed a good
deal of liberty. Matrimony was not held before them as the end and
aim of their existence and hence it was no longer a disgrace if they
did not marry; but if they did, they were not pushed into an early
child-marriage nor forced to accept the man of their parents’ choice.
As a wife, no longer was she regarded as a servant of all but had
considerable authority in the home; ranking as her husband’s help-
mate, companion and guardian, and in matters temporal and
spiritual was regarded as his equal and worthy of respect. As a

mother her position was one of honour and unassailable. As a
widow she could continue her role without loss of honour, free
from suspicion of ill-omen and was capable of inheriting property.
More than ever before, she was an individual in command of her
own life. Whether as a spinster, wife or widow, she had rights and
duties not limited to child-bearing and became an integral part of
society.
Another great service to humanity was his condemnation of
distinctions between men based solely on birth or racial origins. In
India at the time and even today to a lesser extent, such distinctions
were the foundations of the social system. Every Hindu had his lot
determined by his father’s caste. From birth he was restricted to his
father’s profession whether priest, warrior, trader or menial
labourer with no chance of social progress. The Buddha tore apart
the hypocrisies of the day and made many enemies in so doing by
asserting that all men are equal in their right to an open path to the
highest truth they could all attain. He taught that men become noble
by virtuous conduct and charitable deeds and they become
outcastes only by misconduct and miserliness, not by any accident
of birth. Although the Buddha himself was a prince by birth and
hence of the highest caste he made no distinctions whatsoever on
account of caste. On one occasion he asked for water from a peasant.
Seeing his noble features, the peasant said, “Sir, I cannot give you
anything to eat or drink; I am not of high caste.” The Buddha
replied: “Friend, I don’t ask you for caste, I ask you for water.”
So you can see that Buddhism is a religion based on
understanding and acting in accordance with that understanding.
We have to understand what course of action leads to true
happiness of ourselves and others and what course of action leads
to our misery and the misery of others. With right understanding
who would choose the wrong course?
Chapter 5
THE APPROACH TO THE BUDDHA’S PATH
A unique feature of Buddhism is the omission of any ceremony akin

to that of baptism as found in Christianity. However, no importance
should be attached to such a ceremony as it is only comparable to
the completion of an application form for official purposes; in other
words, it signifies no more than the registering of one’s acceptance
of unrealised tenets of belief. Indeed, it should be well-known that
those who follow a religion by conviction, who adjust their lives
through self-conversion are, generally speaking, more conscientious
than those who have merely been born into that religion.
Of course, strictly speaking, Buddhism is not a religion in the
generally accepted sense of the word and it would be more accurate
to describe it as an ethico-philosophy to be practised by each
follower. And it is only by practice, by a hard, uphill spiritual
struggle, that the goal of Nibbána can possibly be attained.
What then, marks one’s entry into Buddhism? The quality
required is saddhá, meaning confidence based on knowledge. Saddhá
is occasionally interpreted as faith, meaning putting one’s trust in
something external to oneself, for example, the belief in God. But in
Buddhism saddhá does not identify itself with any such concept
which is unrelated to normal everyday human experience.
The Yogácárin philosopher Asaòga says,
“As ether is all-pervading, so also is the Buddha all-pervading
in the world of living beings. The reflection of the moon cannot
be seen in a broken water vessel, so also the reflection of the
Buddha cannot be seen in a soiled mind.”
(Maháyánasútrálaòkára Ch 9.)
Briefly then, in order to be a good Buddhist one must be ethical,
that is to say, one must live in accordance with a minimum of five
moral precepts or rules of training (sikkhápada) so as to lessen the
grip which sense desires have over the mind. A formal ceremony in
accepting them is considered quite unnecessary, the prime object
being that, through their influence, one may become one’s own
master; to be able to examine one’s state of inner life and direct
one’s thoughts and desires so as to fulfil a rational, meaningful
existence. Meditation is the main means whereby one may gain

mastery over oneself, leading inevitably to paññá or a knowledge of
things ‘as they really are’. The Buddha categorically points out how
one should tread the path, as follows:
“By confidence, by morality, by energy, by meditation, by
discernment of the law, put aside this great dissatisfaction,
endowed with knowledge, good behaviour and mindfulness.”
(Dhp 144)
Hak-Rak-Ten, a 13th century Chinese poet, author and
statesman, once visited an eminent monk and asked for instruction
in the essentials of Buddhism. Expecting some abstruse,
philosophical answer, he was taken aback when the monk replied:
“Abstention from all evil,
Perfecting of good deeds,
Purifying of one’s mind,
This is the teaching of the Buddhas.” (Dhp 183)
The poet retorted, “But every child of three summers knows this
stanza.”
“Every child of three summers may know this stanza,” replied
the monk, “but even a silvery-haired man of eighty years fails to
put it into practice.”1
Hence, as is apparent, this single simple stanza covers the whole
field of the Buddha’s teaching which is threefold: morality (sìla),
concentration (samádhi) and wisdom (paññá). In a succinct manner
this verse illustrates exactly what is good or bad or, more
accurately, what is skilful or wholesome (kusala) and what is
unskilful or unwholesome (akusala).
Morality consists of the abstention from the ten kinds of
unwholesome deeds: 1. killing (páóátipáta), 2. stealing (adinnádána), 3.
sexual misconduct (kámesu micchácárá), 4. lying (musávádá), 5. back-
biting (pisunávácá), 6. abusive speech (pharusávácá), 7. gossiping
(samphappalápá), 8. covetousness (abhijjhá), 9. ill-will (vyápáda), and 10.
holding false views (micchádiþþhi). (See A II 59, 219.)
These are the negative aspects of Buddhist ethics. For the
positive aspect we have the ten perfections of 1. charity (dána), 2.
morality (sìla), 3. wisdom (paññá), 4. renunciation (nekkhamma), 5.
1. Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot 69, 70.

THE APPROACH TO THE BUDDHA’S PATH 29
perseverance (vìriya), 6. patience (khanti), 7. truthfulness (sacca), 8.

determination (adhiþþhána), 9. loving-kindness (mettá) and 10.
equanimity (upekkhá).
Summed up, therefore, the above advises one to cease from
wrong-doing to promote well-being and to enlighten the ignorant.
There are four ways by which one may serve or help other
beings: 1. by charitable acts (dána), 2. by loving words (piyavacana),
3. by sharing one’s possessions (atthacariyá) and 4. by treating
everybody equally (samánattatá) (A II 32).
1. Charitable acts—These should be practised without expecting
any reward. In this way, one’s acts will not be soiled by craving
(taóhá), conceit (mána) and false view (diþþhi), but will be
accompanied by compassion (karuóá) and wisdom (paññá). Giving
should always be free and open, not limiting the amount or
restricting the circle of recipients to those who are one’s friends or
co-religionists.
2. Loving words—Kindly and pleasant speech should be
addressed to all sentient beings. All beings should be included
when one meditates on loving-kindness (mettá) which has the
power to transform the hearts of those who are ill-disposed towards
oneself. Just as flowers can only blossom with the aid of the sun’s
rays, so also the heart can only open itself to others with the power
of the rays of loving-kindness.
3. Sharing one’s possessions—The supreme example of this
ideal is that of the Buddha when he appeared amongst his fellow
human beings and shared his Enlightenment with them by always
caring for their welfare and holding out the opportunity of attaining
his exalted achievement in the same manner.
4. Treating everybody equally—By serving others, one serves
oneself. Hence, the spiritual law demands that one identifies oneself
with others. As the Dhammapada says:
“Likening others to oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to
kill.”1
The approach to the Buddha’s path, therefore, does not require
prayers or worship, nor does the path contain anything of an
esoteric nature, but consists simply of a day-to-day life of love and
sympathy with all that breathes.
1. Dhp 129. Cp. Bhagavadgìtá vi. 32; Mahábhárata, Anuøásanaparva, 113, 6,8;
Hitopadeøa, Analects, IV 15; xv 2.
Chapter 6
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
In the holy city of Benares, on the full-moon day of Ásá¿ha,1 the

Buddha opened his first discourse—the Discourse of Setting in
Motion the Wheel of the Doctrine2—by exhorting his first five disci-
ples to avoid the extremes of self-indulgence (kámasukhallikánuyoga)
and self-mortification (attakilamathánuyoga).
“Self-indulgence is low, coarse, vulgar, ignoble and unprofitable
and self-mortification is painful, ignoble and unprofitable” (Vin I 10;
M III 230f.; S IV 330) he said, because the former retards one’s
spiritual progress and the latter weakens one’s intellect.
Erroneous doctrines with these extremes were actually pro-
pounded by two religious groups at the time: the one, materialistic
(cárváka) and therefore supporting hedonism; the other, believing in
a transcendental self or soul bound to a material body, which
should be annihilated by severe ascetic practices in order to release
the true self. The Buddha himself put into practice both of these
doctrines before his Enlightenment; the first, when he was a prince
in his father’s palace before he renounced the world; the second, as
an ascetic in the Uruvelá forest prior to his Enlightenment. Hence,
he realised their futility and discovered that only self- conquest in
moderation leads to the ultimate goal—Nibbána. Avoiding the two
extremes, the Buddha, therefore, asked his followers to take the
Middle Way which opens the eyes and bestows understanding,
which leads to peace of mind, to the higher wisdom, and to full
enlightenment. In fact, according to the Four Noble Truths,
1. Dukkha sacca—life is subject to sorrow,
2. Samudaya sacca—this sorrow is caused by ignorance which
results in desire or attachment,
3. Nirodha sacca—this sorrow can be eliminated by the
elimination of desire,
1. In July, at the start of the rainy season in India. (BPS editor.)

2. Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Vin I 10f; S V 420ff. The name of the sutta
occurs only in the commentaries e.g. J-a I 82; D-a I 2; A-a I 69 etc. The Skt
version is in Lal 540 (416)f; Mhv III 380f.
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH 31
4. Magga sacca—the Way to eliminate desire.

One can, therefore, put an end to sorrow by adopting and
following the way—the Middle Path—which, to the Buddhist, is the
philosophy of life itself. This Middle Path of self-conquest which
leads to the ultimate goal is eightfold, namely:
1. Right Understanding (sammá diþþhi),
2. Right Thought (sammá saòkappa),
3. Right Speech (sammá vácá),
4. Right Action (sammá kammanta),
5. Right Livelihood (sammá ájìva),
6. Right Effort (sammá váyáma),
7. Right Mindfulness (sammá sati),
8. Right Concentration (sammá samádhi).
1. RIGHT UNDERSTANDING
To begin treading the path we must see life as it is, in accordance
with its three characteristics of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and
soullessness; we must possess a clear understanding of the nature of
existence, of the moral law, of the factors and component elements
that go to make up this saísára or conditioned realm of life. In short,
we must have the clear understanding of the twelve links of the
Law of Dependent Origination and the Four Noble Truths. We
should, therefore, make these the bases of our acceptance of the
vicissitudes of life.
2. RIGHT THOUGHT
This means that our mind should be pure, free from lust, ill-will and
cruelty and the like. At the same time, we should be willing to
relinquish anything that obstructs our onward march and
unselfishly transfer the merit to all sentient beings. Three other
steps follow upon and accompany Right Thought, namely, Right
Understanding, Right Effort and Right Mindfulness.
3. RIGHT SPEECH
By refraining from lying (musávádá), back-biting (pisunávácá), harsh
speech (pharusávácá) and idle gossip (samphappalápá), we create a
connecting link between thought and action, one, moreover, which
is characterised by wisdom and kindness. Correct speech should
not be unduly loud or excitable, nor prompted by infatuation, ill-
will or selfish interests; it should be free from dogmatic assertions

and discrimination; finally, it should not be such as to inflame the
passions.
4. RIGHT ACTION
This generally consists in observing the Five Precepts, which can be
shown both in their negative and positive aspects:
1. Not to kill, but to practise love and harmlessness to all.
2. Not to take that which is not given, but to practise charity
and generosity.
3. Not to commit sexual misconduct, but to practise purity and
self-control.
4. Not to indulge in false speech, but to practise sincerity and
honesty.
5. Not to partake of intoxicants or drugs which cause
heedlessness, but to practise restraint and mindfulness.
It is important to notice that ‘sexual misconduct’ or kámesu
micchácárá has wrongly been mistranslated as adultery on many
occasions. The original Pali usage kámesu, being in the plural,
denotes that all abnormal or illegal practices should be avoided in
addition to any other practice or pursuit which tends to over-
stimulate the senses. For the ordinary disciple, moreover, it is
essential for him to practise all these injunctions if he wishes to
aspire to the higher life.
In particular abstaining from taking life, from taking what is not
given and from sexual misconduct is Right Action. This is also
conjoined with the first, sixth and seventh steps.
5. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
The layman should only pursue an occupation that does not cause
harm or injustice to other beings. Deceit, treachery, divination,
trickery, usury are regarded as wrong living. The traditional trades
from which the layman is debarred are:
1. Dealing in flesh,
2. Dealing in intoxicating drinks, and
3. Dealing in poison.
He should be free from acquisitiveness or any connections with
dishonest money-making, legalised or otherwise, prostitution of
any kind and should have a sense of service and duty in life. As the
‘homeless life’ is the ideal state at which he aims, he should,

although encumbered with family and business responsibilities,
simplify his needs and devote more time to meditation.
The first, sixth and seventh steps are conjoined with Right
Livelihood in its practice.
6. RIGHT EFFORT
Self-perfection can be achieved by avoiding and rejecting ignoble
qualities while acquiring and fostering noble qualities. This stage is,
therefore, subdivided into four parts.
1. The effort to prevent the arising of evil which has not yet
arisen.
2. The effort to expel that evil which is already present.
3. The effort to induce good which has not yet arisen.
4. The effort to cultivate and maintain that good which is
already present.
By conscientiously practising the above, the layman will be
enabled more easily to cultivate the higher spiritual ideals, the best
known formulation of them being termed the Ten Perfections,
which are explained in Chapter 37.
“The effort of avoiding, overcoming,
Of developing and maintaining;
These four great efforts have been shown
By him, the scion of the sun.
And he who firmly clings to them,
May put an end to suffering.” (A II 16)
7. RIGHT MINDFULNESS
This implies a state of constant awareness with regard to: i) the
body, ii) feeling, iii) thoughts, and iv) mind objects. The
development of this type of mindfulness is necessary to protect the
practitioner from being led astray by erroneous views. Thus, it is the
culmination of the intellectual process, namely vipassaná or direct
insight into things as they truly are. This step marks a further
advance from the stage when things were known only by the
differing features each displayed, since here all such discrimination
is discarded. Although things seem corporeal, good or bad, right or
wrong, such attitudes as these only go to prove how the mind views
things on an incomplete basis. The processes of thought are only
food for the intellect to enable the mind to diagnose the truth more
clearly when those discriminations first appear. Hence, we should
transcend the intellectual mind if we are to progress further and
realise the true significance and relationship of all compound
things.
The above four fundamentals of mindfulness, practised and
developed, bring the seven factors of enlightenment (bojjhaòga) to
full perfection. They are:
1. Mindfulness (sati),
2. Investigation of States (dhammavicaya),
3. Energy (vìriya),
4. Rapture (Pìti),
5. Tranquillity (passaddhi),
6. Concentration (samádhi),
7. Equanimity (upekkhá).
RIGHT CONCENTRATION
At the final stage, we should aim at one-pointedness (ekaggatá) of
the mind directed towards a wholesome object. Through desire and
craving, the root of all evil, kamma is accumulated, making rebirth
necessary. To overcome this process, we must understand that
everything is impermanent (anicca), unsatisfactory (dukkha) and
soulless (anattá).1 True knowledge of this nature is acquired through
the practice of meditation, of which there are two aspects: the active
one, practice; and the passive one, realisation of the truths.
To do this, we should sit quietly, with tranquil mind, and, if
vagrant thoughts arise, humbly and patiently regulate the mind by
noting them until they cease. Breathe gently, slowly but evenly.
Devices like counting are usually necessary at first to assure
concentration and absorption but can be discarded once we have
got a firm grip on our mind and can prevent it from wandering
away from the task in hand. In this connection, there are five mental
hindrances (pañca nìvaraóa) to be eliminated, or at least weakened,
during the development of concentration. They are:
1. Sensuality (kámacchanda),
2. Ill-will (vyápáda),
3. Sloth and torpor (thìnamiddha),
1. See chapters 31 to 35.

4. Restlessness and worry (uddhacca kukkucca),

5. Sceptical doubt (vicikicchá).
Once their baneful influence is removed, we will be able to
concentrate more easily, enabling our ultimate goal to become
clearer. We have to undergo a long training to achieve this stage.
When it is achieved, samádhi is attained which is a prerequisite for
the realisation of Nibbána.
Chapter 7
ETHICS OF THE BUDDHIST
The Buddha’s teaching not only forms the foundation for

philosophical thought but is at the same time the basis on which it is
possible to build a system of true morality. Ethics is applied
philosophy, and if pure philosophy has led us to the discovery that
an individual is not an entity remaining unchanged under
externally changing appearances, but is a mere selfless process, then
the morality based on and deriving from such a philosophy must be
a ‘selfless’ morality.
Generally speaking there are two ideas of morality: 1) to be
good, and 2) to do good. The first is the real morality whereas the
second may be only a means to an end. One can be good in order to
do good, but this is rare. People do good actions which appear
entirely altruistic yet fundamentally they are egoistic, motivated by
acquisitiveness, desire for merit, bliss, heaven or reward, or
motivated by fear of resulting punishment or hell. All such so-called
‘good’ actions are inspired by selfishness and to the Buddhist the
idea of ‘being’ good is the only true morality.
THE BUDDHA’S LAY FOLLOWERS

The Buddha cannot be said to have issued an ethical code
independently of other considerations or in the sense that he issued
any commandments. A follower of the Buddha lives according to
the Buddha’s teaching and declares his intention of so doing in the
uttering of the formula of guidance known as Tisaraóa or Three
Refuges; see Chapter 9. Of the two classes of followers, the lay
members (upásakas) take the five precepts, corresponding to the
components of the ethical codes mentioned above, while the
ordained monks (bhikkhus) renounce the world completely and
regulate their lives according to the rules laid down in the collection
of canonical works known as the Vinaya Piþaka.
The first two lay followers of the Buddha were the merchants
Tapassu and Bhalluka. Yasa and his parents soon followed; see
Chapter 9. Gradually, in the course of his ministry, thousands of
people became lay followers of the Buddha. Lay members can
continue their secular duties at home or in public life, whilst
ETHICS OF THE BUDDHIST 37
observing the practical precepts prescribed for the laity.

As there are no commandments, there is no law-giver, but there is
an appeal to common-sense and also to social sense. One should
always act in such a way that if all others acted similarly, life in this
world would be a happier one. It therefore follows that there must be
mental control over our actions, words and thoughts. For it is only by
mental control that we can avoid the extremes of the purely
mechanical reaction of determinism, of the blind submission of
fatalism and of the dangerous guidance of emotionalism. Ideas of
right and wrong are not in-born, nor are they instinctive inclinations,
but are the result of intellectual developments. It is this right
understanding which must be the guide for the practice of morality.
Furthermore, the ethics of Buddhism are autonomous and
independent. Moral problems are basically human problems. The
universal moral law is its own foundation. Obligation to one’s family
or one’s neighbours together with such virtues as truthfulness and
honesty remain objective tasks in all circumstances; they remain
obligatory whether one moulds one’s life upon them or not. The
moral law is identical alike for individuals, societies and nations.
Conflict, suffering and sorrow are the result of a great delusion,
the delusion of believing in a separate ego-entity, a self or soul
independent of individual action. There is no such thing, according
to Buddhism, as an individual apart from his activities, just as there
is no life apart from the process of living. The Buddha repeatedly
emphasised that an individual is not an entity remaining
unchanged under changing external appearances, but consists in
mere selfless processes. This denial of the individual as an entity
separate from its activities and its relationships is not a denial of the
life and reality of the individual. The sense of a separate entity has
to be overcome because it leads to attachment, to craving, to
grasping. The goal is selflessness, and the way to this goal is the
steadfast practice in learning to see that what we call evil is always
tied to some particular want. As long as we want something, we
create the evil of being frustrated by not obtaining what we want.
Man cannot realise his supreme fulfilment because of his inveterate
tendency to identify himself in some way or another with worldly
possessions. In order to find happiness, man must alter the
direction of his living. When this is done, the oppression and
miseries of life will be overcome and there is introduced into human
life the greatest possible good that man can ever experience.
THE FIVE PRECEPTS

In order to achieve this end, the mind must be disciplined and for
that purpose the Buddha suggested that a beginning should be
made by following certain ‘rules’ of conduct which are to be
undertaken voluntarily by the seeker after harmony and happiness.
These rules are formulated as vows and are stated, not positively,
but negatively as abstinences and are known as the five precepts
(pañca sìla); see Chapter 12. They apply to all Buddhists. They are,
however, the barest statements of broader precepts which are, by
implication, far reaching to the Buddhist in all forms of life, high
and low. For example, by non-injury to life is meant all forms of
hurt and harm; all cruelty and oppression; all deprecation; for the
Buddhist concept of non-injury is not confined strictly to the
observance of the letter of the first precept.
That the Buddha knew well the precepts are not easy to keep is
clear from a very early record of a conversation he had with a well-
known Brahmin of the day, Kúþadanta. This Brahmin wanted to
perform a sacrifice, the elaborate nature of which should be in
keeping with his gratitude for gifts and possessions variously
acquired. Unfamiliar with all the details of a suitable ceremony, he
sought the Buddha’s advice. The Buddha, having remarked on the
cruelty and suffering involved in the usual type of sacrifice,
suggested better means whereby gratitude might be expressed.
There were possible, he said, open largesse, perpetual alms such as
would guarantee the upkeep of a number of monks, the building of
a dwelling place for them, but, he continued, a sacrifice bearing
greater fruit and advantage is that of one who, with devoted mind,
takes upon himself the five precepts. (D I 146).
The first precept, abstinence from taking life, embraces ethical
conduct in its entirety. Non-injury has its positive counterpart in that
it demands not only abstaining from injury but also the practice of
friendliness (mettá) that is, helping every living being on its onward
way. Mettá begins with oneself; a man who is not his own friend will
not act as the friend of another. The first precept is intimately linked
with the second precept of abstaining from stealing.
Inasmuch as the goal of the good life is one of complete freedom,
the third and fifth precepts are meant to help in the achievement of
that freedom, by gradually eliminating man’s bondage to craving and
delusion, greed and passion, confusion, false imagination and
erroneous speculations, which are called micchádiþþhi, wrong views.
On the contrary, committing these five evils is conducive to

great misery. The Buddha says:
“Now just as one man who is committing these things produces
present and future terrible misery and experiences mental pain
and grief, so one who abstains from these things produces
neither present nor future misery, nor does he experience
mental pain and grief; such evil is extinguished in him.”
(A III 204)
The morality of the Noble Eightfold Path is the true or ‘natural’
morality (pakati sìla), as compared with the prescribed rules
(paññatti sìla). The pakati sìla is the state of volition and mind
manifested in Right Action and Right Speech. That this type of
morality is attained as contingent on a sound paññatti sìla is obvious
enough, but that the components of pakati sìla should develop from
the cultivation of one or more of the paññatti sìla is less so. For
example, if the precept not to take life is extended to its full
meaning, that is not to harm in any manner whatsoever, then
observing this precept to the extent that it becomes a continuous
habit of thought will lay the foundation of at least the first three
components of the Noble Eightfold Path. If control of the emotions
is practised similarly, we have the foundations for Right Effort.
Taking a general view, the mindfulness cultivated to attain the
keeping of the precepts is the foundation of Right Mindfulness
which must eventually lead to Right Concentration and therefore to
insight which is the goal. The faultless mind can only be conducive
to samádhi, that is, real mental development. Morality is, then, the
stepping-stone to mental development, the door to the highest
perfection, the unfailing path to peace and happiness.
DUTIES OF A LAYMAN
The duties of a layman are part and parcel of morality which should
be observed in the spirit and in the letter; in this way there is peace
and happiness. In the Dhammika-sutta (Sn 376–404), Parábhava-sutta
(Sn 91–115), Mahámaògala-sutta (Sn 258–269), Dhaniyagopála-sutta
(Sn 18–34), Ámagandha-sutta (Sn 239–252), Nidhikaóða-sutta (Khp 7),
and in so many similar suttas, the virtues, duties and beatitudes of
lay disciples are distinctly and clearly treasured.
The Sigálováda-sutta (D III 180–193) shines pre-eminently among
the numerous discourses delivered by the Buddha particularly to
householders.
Sigála was the son of a wealthy family in Rájagaha near Patna in

Bihar. The parents were devout followers of the Buddha but the son
could not be persuaded to accompany them to see the Buddha and
listen to the Dhamma. Sigála was concerned only with his material
progress and to pay visits to the bhikkhus entailed for him a
material loss. He complained further that paying the conventional
respects to them would make his back ache and his knees stiff, and
as he would have to invite the bhikkhus home and give them
presents he would lose still more money. When, however, Sigála’s
father lay dying, Sigála consented to carry out any order his father
might be pleased to give him and the father asked him to “salute the
six quarters” every morning after his death. This was symbolic of
the duty to protect one’s parents, teachers, wife, children, friends
and companions, servants and workers, and religious teachers and
brahmans; each group being represented by the directions, east,
south, west, north, nadir and zenith respectively (D III 188f.). The
father’s chief hope, however, lay in the possibility that the Buddha
might at some time pass by and, seeing Sigála so engaged might
speak to him. This occurred and the Buddha asked Sigála what he
was doing. Sigála replied that he was carrying out the order of his
late father, whereupon the Buddha explained to him the whole duty
of a layman, that such a person guarded the six quarters if he
avoided the following evils:
1. The four vices of conduct; destruction of life, taking that
which is not given, adultery and lying speech.
2. Committing any action from the motives of either partiality,
enmity, stupidity or fear.
3. Pursuing the ways of dissipating wealth; taking intoxicants,
frequenting streets at late hours, attending fairs, gambling,
consorting with bad companions and idleness. (D III 182)
As Mrs Rhys Davids says: “The Buddha’s doctrine of love and
goodwill between man and man is here set forth in domestic and
social ethics with more comprehensive detail than elsewhere. And
truly we may say even now of this vinaya, or code of discipline, so
fundamental are the human interests involved, so sane and wide is
the wisdom that envisages them, that the utterances are as fresh and
practically binding today and here as they were then at Rájagaha.”1
1. Dialogues of the Buddha: Translated from the Pali of the Dìgha Nikáya, Vol.
III 169f., London 1907.
“Happy would have been the village or the clan on the bank of
the Ganges,” says Dr T.W. Rhys Davids, commenting on the
Sigálováda-sutta, “where the people were full of the kindly spirit of
fellow-feeling, the noble spirit of justice, which breathes through
these naive and simple sayings.”1 “Not less happy,” adds Mrs Rhys
Davids, “would be the village, or the family on the banks of the
Thames today, of which this could be said.”2
Commenting on this sutta, the Venerable Buddhaghosa says:
“Nothing in the duties of the householder is left unmentioned. This
sutta is called the ‘Vinaya of the Householders’. Hence in one who
practises what he has been taught in it, growth is to be looked for
and not decay.” But, as the Buddha often pointed out, it is necessary
to have a clear understanding in order to be able to avoid the bad
things in life; and understanding not only of the evil results they
engender but also of the control of one’s own mind which will
enable one to recognise their causes and so counter them.
Continuous mindfulness and awareness are outstanding features of
the Buddha’s teaching, but since these and similar features
naturally form a part of his positive teaching, we must consider
what that positive teaching is, taking as a particular case the well-
being of the Buddhist laity.
ADVICE FOR THE LAYMAN

According to the Byagghapajja-sutta (A IV 280–283) the Buddha was
once visited by Dìghajánu who asked for his advice for laymen who
lived with their families and enjoyed the pleasures of the world. The
Buddha expounded to him four things conducive to their well-
being and happiness in this life and four things conducive to
happiness hereafter. They were:
1. Accomplishment in alertness (uþþhána-sampadá), i.e.,
dexterity and diligence accompanied with ingenuity in
finding ways and means in the performance of duties
connected with one’s profession.
2. Accomplishment in caution (árakkha-sampadá) by protecting
one’s property against thieves, floods, etc.
1. Buddhism: Being a Sketch of the Life and Teachings of Gautama, the Buddha,
London, 1912, p. 148.
2. Dialogues of the Buddha, III 169f.
3. The keeping of good company (kalyáóa-mittatá) with those

who have confidence, virtue, charity and wisdom, and
emulating them.
4. The leading of a regulated life in accordance with one’s
income (samajìvikatá). Here the four channels of dissipating
wealth are enumerated as before. (A IV 281)
5. Accomplishment in confidence (saddhá-sampadá), knowing
the nine good qualities of the Enlightened One.
6. Accomplishment in morality (sìla-sampadá) by keeping the
five precepts.
7. Accomplishment in charity (cága-sampadá), being free from
meanness; generous, open-handed, easily approachable and
cheerful in sharing.
8. Accomplishment in wisdom (paññá-sampadá) leading to
spiritual growth, penetrating insight and so to the utter
destruction of all ills. (A IV 283)
Of the foregoing eight, it is recognition of the development of
the duties and conduct of ordinary life to the connection between
the accomplishment in wisdom and insight that constitute a
characteristic unique to Buddhism. The development and culture of
the essential concomitant of our everyday consciousness bring one
to a cultured consciousness where one sees yathábhúta, according to
the way things really are. As may be inferred from the preceding
remarks, perfection in morality is not possible without culture of the
mental faculties. Study and perfection in ethics lead also to the
entire realisation of the philosophy which ends all ills. In other
words, ethics constitute not only an applied philosophy but should,
if they are to have more than passing value, lead to that philosophy.
One recalls the words of the Buddha:
“Just as one washes one hand with the other or one foot with the
other, so morality is washed around with wisdom and wisdom
with morality. The two together constitute the highest in the
world.” (D I 124)
Ethical ideas are the foundation for attaining a higher life either
in this world or beyond it. Observance is a means to a higher goal
and this is always good in every walk of life. By it, man becomes
pure and calm. A mind tainted with defilements (kilesa) is always
shaky and weak. To attain to the higher life, moral strength is
equally essential.
The code of discipline for lay disciples as expounded in the

Sigálováda-sutta is a refined form of sìla expounded to householders
whose lives lie largely in the material world. By observing this
discipline, lay disciples attain to a purer state of mind, lead a more
peaceful life and progress to a better state of mind in subsequent
births until they reach the unconditioned state called Nibbána. But
the Buddha delivered the perfect summary of his own teaching,
covering on both his philosophy and ethics, when he uttered his last
words, “All conditioned things are impermanent, strive on with
vigilance.” (D II 156).
Chapter 8
THE IDEAL INDIVIDUAL
Ethics are rules of conduct; the meaning of the word is the system of
morals. The study of this system by an individual and the practice
of its lessons by him or her, produce a truly good human being. The
beauty of such a person’s character and the extent of its influence
for good, are expressed in the Buddhist scriptures. Once the
Venerable Ánanda said to the Buddha:
“Lord, there are three sorts of scents whose fragrance spreads
along with the wind, but not against the wind; root-scent,
heartwood-scent and the scent of flowers. Is there any sort of
scent whose fragrance spreads with and against the wind?”
“There is Ánanda. In this connection, Ánanda, in
whatsoever village or district there is a woman or a man who
has taken refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Saògha, who
abstains from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, falsehood
and from intoxicants; who is virtuous, of a lovely nature, who
dwells at home with a heart free from the taint of stinginess,
who is open-handed, pure-handed, delighting in giving up, one
to ask a favour of, one who delights in sharing gifts with
others—of such a one recluses and hermits sing the praises in all
quarters. Moreover the gods (devas) and non-human beings sing
his praises in like manner. This Ánanda is the sort of scent
whose fragrance goes with and against the wind alike.
The scent of flowers goes not against the wind,
Nor scent of sandal-wood, musk or jasmine.
The good man’s scent goes even against the wind:
The fragrance of the saint goes everywhere. (A I 226)
It is of particular interest that the Buddha speaks of ‘glory’ as
the reward to be attained by humility and industry:
“The wise and virtuous person,
Gentle and of deep understanding,
Humble and docile,
Such a one to glory may attain.
THE IDEAL INDIVIDUAL 45
“Energetic and not indolent,

In misfortune he is unshaken,
Humble in manners, and intelligent,
Such a one to glory may attain.” (D III 192)
Again the Buddha sketches a way of life which is in itself the
highest blessing:
“To reside in a suitable locality,
Meritorious deeds done in the past,
To set oneself in the right course—
This is the highest blessing.”
“Vast learning, perfect handicraft,
A highly trained discipline,
And pleasant speech—
This is the highest blessing.” (Sn 260–261)
THE INDIVIDUAL
Two old Brahmins, who had reached life’s end, one hundred and
twenty years of age, once came to the Buddha and said:
“We are Brahmins, master Gotama, aged, far gone in years, but
we have done no noble deeds, no meritorious deeds, no deeds
that can bring assurance to our fears. Let the worthy Gotama
cheer us. Let the worthy Gotama comfort us, so that it may be a
profit and blessing to us for a long time.”
“Indeed Brahmins, this world is swept onwards by old age,
by sickness and by death. Since this is so, self-restraint in body,
speech and thought in this life, let this be a refuge, cave of
shelter, island of defence, resting-place and support for him
who has gone beyond.”
“Life is swept onward; brief is our span of years.
One swept away by old age has no defence.
Then keep the fear of death before your eyes,
And do good deeds that lead to happiness.
The self-restraint of body, speech and thought,
In this life practised, meritorious deeds.” (A I 155)
The story of the two aged Brahmins emphasises the eternal
quality of goodness; good deeds would have lived on after the
period in which they were performed had passed into nothingness.
Furthermore, the memory of such deeds is a positive necessity to
the individual after death. The Blessed One does not comfort the
two frightened men; he only gives them their own statement back
again: “You have done no deeds that can bring assurance to your
fears.” Their own actions, their own practise of the virtue of self-
restraint would have supported them; nothing else can do so.
Goodness is the only security after death; and, although it
should be pursued simply because it is right, it is also frequently of
great use in the affairs of the world. To be good is not necessarily to
be impractical.
“Who so, O monkey-king, like you combines truth,
foresight, fixed resolve, and fearless,
Shall see his routed foemen turn and flee?” (J-a I 280.)
The king enlists four virtues in the defence of his country and
they serve him well.
The two following passages, which are very similar in content,
are identical in idea; the existence of a good man benefits all those
who have anything to do with him, and it is well for such a person
to be in a position of influence.
“Monks, when a worthy man is born into a family, it is for the
good, benefit and happiness of his parents, of his wife and
children, workmen and servants, of his friends and companions,
of his departed forbearers, of the king, of the devas, and of
recluses and godly men.
“Monks, just as abundance of rain brings to perfection all
crops for the good, benefit and happiness of many folk, even so
a worthy man is born into a family for the good, benefit and
happiness of many folk.”
“Ah, well it is for many when within
The home a wise man’s born!
Untiring, night and day,
He honours mother, father, forebears,
In fitting manner, mindful of their care
In former days.
“The homeless wanderers, who live the godly life,
He honours firm in saddhá,
He knows therefore things proper, right.
He is the king’s friend and favourite,
The friend of devas, kith and kin of all
Firm set in righteousness, with stain of stint

Put by, he wayfares to the world of bliss.
(A IV 244, translated by E.M. Hare.)
“For many let the good man wealth pursue.
Him Dhamma-warded doth a deva ward.
For him well taught, moral and dutiful,
Will honour never wane.
On Dhamma standing,
Virtuous, truth-speaking, conscientious,
Of such a man who’s fit to appraise the worth?
‘Tis even like red gold from Jambu’s stream.
Him devas praise, by Brahmá praised is he.”
(A III 46, translated by E.M. Hare.)
Benefits are exchanged by good men to the advantage of both
parties. This mutual benefit is well illustrated by the story of Sigála.
Sigála was the son of a devout man, but he himself refused to
have anything to do with religion; he was of the opinion that any
association with monks would entail duties and expenses and bring
him nothing worth having. His father, on his death-bed, gave him
one last piece of advice which he did promise to carry out, “Dear
son, after your morning bath salute the six quarters.”
Sigála obeyed this command literally, saluting with joined
hands the various quarters; namely the East, the South, the West,
the North, the Nadir and the Zenith. The story itself illustrates the
place of ritual; the young man made his promise to please his father
and kept it scrupulously. His motive was good as far as it went. The
gestures were in themselves futile, but they symbolise important
rules of life and it was through the symbols that Sigála was to learn
their true significance. Ritual, properly understood, is a reminder of
what it signifies; but even if not understood, it can lead an
intelligent man to ponder, investigate and find out its meaning. One
reason for the ritual is to provoke questions, as it is said of the
stones set up by the Jews to mark their entry into their Promised
Land, “That this may be a sign among you, that when your children
ask their fathers in time to come saying, ‘What mean ye by these
stones?’ Then you shall answer them.” (Joshua, IV 6–7).
The mutual benefit is shown, for example, in this passage from
the Sigálováda-sutta:
“In five ways should a master minister to servants and

employees as the Nadir:
1. By assigning them work according to their ability.
2. By supplying them with goods and wages.
3. By tending them in sickness,
4. By sharing with them any extra profits.
5. By relieving them at times.
“The servants and employees who are thus ministered to as the
Nadir by their master show their gratitude to him in five ways:
1. They rise before him.
2. They sleep after him.
3. They take only what is given.
4. They perform their duties to his satisfaction.
5. They spread his good name and fame.
“The servants and employees who are thus ministered to as the
Nadir show their gratitude towards him in these five ways and
thus is the Nadir covered by him and made safe and secure.”
(D III 191f.)
The most forceful way of showing what is right is often by
describing vividly what is wrong; the device is used here.
“There are, householder’s son, these six evil consequences in
sauntering in streets at unseemly hours, namely:
1. He himself is unprotected and unguarded.
2. His wife and children are unprotected and unguarded.
3. His property is unprotected and unguarded.
4. He is subject to suspicion with respect to evil deeds.
5. He becomes the subject of false allegations.
6. He is beset with misfortune.” (D III 183.)
Certain duties are incumbent upon the man who means to live
rightly. There is the duty of kindness to others, a duty strongly
urged by Judaism and Christianity. Jesus Christ quoted the Old
Testament in thus summing up the law of man’s conduct towards
man, “Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself” (Leviticus, xix. 18).
The principle is brought out in this story:
When the Buddha was once at Sávatthì, the king, the Kosalan
Pasenadi, happened to be upon the upper terrace of the palace with
Malliká, his queen. And he asked her, “Is there now anyone dearer,
Malliká, to you than yourself?” “There is no one, sire, dearer than

myself.” Then the king went down from the terrace, sought the
Buddha and told him of this talk. The Buddha, in reply, uttered this
verse:
“The whole wide world we traverse with our thoughts,
And nothing find to man more dear than self.
Since ever so dear the self to others is,
Let the self-lover harm no other man.” (S I 75)
This same duty of kindness, and that of gratitude for kindness
done, is emphasised in the following saying of the Buddha.
“Monks, these two persons are hard to find in the world. What
two? The one who is first to do a favour, and he who is grateful
for what is done. These are the two persons hard to find in the
world.” (A I 86)
The value of gratitude is enhanced by its rarity, and ingratitude
is as common as it is vile. Gratitude and ingratitude are shown
below as standing for the worth or unworthiness of a person’s
whole character.
GRATITUDE
“Monks, I will teach you the condition of the unworthy
(asappurisa-bhúmií) and that of the worthy. Monks, the
unworthy man is ungrateful, forgetful of benefit (akatavedií).
This ingratitude, this forgetfulness is congenial to mean people
(asabbhi) and is altogether a feature of unworthy people.
“But monks, the worthy person is grateful and mindful of
benefit done to him. This gratitude, this mindfulness, is
congenial with the best people, and is altogether a feature of the
best people.” (A I 61)
The following story demonstrates that it is man’s duty to suit
his actions to his words.
PERSONAL CONDUCT
On a certain occasion the Buddha was staying near Sávatthì at the
Jeta Grove in Anáthapióðika’s monastery. Then the Buddha
addressed the monks:
“Monks, there are these four rain-clouds. What four? The

thunderer that doesn’t rain. The rainer that doesn’t thunder. The
neither thunderer nor rainer. The cloud that rains and thunders.
These are the four.
“Likewise, monks, these four person resembling rain-clouds
are to be found existing in the world. And how is a person a
thunderer that doesn’t rain. Thus he is one who speaks but acts
not. And how is a person a rainer but no thunderer? In this case,
monks, a person is one who acts but speaks not. And how is a
person neither a thunderer nor a rainer? In this case a person
neither speaks nor acts. And how is a person both a thunderer
and a rainer? In this case a person both speaks and acts
accordingly. So these are the four persons found in the world.”
(A II 100)
The following discourse, which like the previous one is
arranged under four headings, enlarges upon the discipline of fear.
“Monks, these are the four fears. What four? Fear of self-
reproach, fear of others’ reproach, fear of punishment and fear of
rebirth in states of woe.
“And what is the fear of self-reproach? Herein, monks, a
certain person reflects thus, ‘If I were to practise evil conduct in
body, speech and thought, it would be a source of self-reproach
to me.’ So, afraid of self-reproach, he abandons evil conduct and
develops good conduct. This monks is called the fear of self-
reproach.
“And what, monks, is the fear of others’ reproach? Herein,
monks, a certain person reflects thus, ‘If I were to practise evil
conduct in body, speech and thought, others would reproach
me.’ So, afraid of others’ reproach he abandons evil conduct and
develops good conduct. This, monks, is called the fear of others’
reproach.
“And what, monks, is the fear of punishment? Herein,
monks, a certain person sees the king seizing a bandit or
miscreant and subjecting him to various forms of punishment.
Then he reflects thus, ‘If I were to practise evil conduct such as
that for which the king has seized this bandit or miscreant and
so punishes him they would surely treat me in like manner.’ So,
afraid of punishment he abandons evil conduct and develops
good conduct. This, monks, is called the fear of punishment.
“And what is the fear of rebirth in states of woe? Herein,

monks, a certain person reflects thus, ‘If I were to practise evil
conduct in body, speech and thought, I might be reborn in states
of woe after my death. So, afraid of rebirth in states of woe he
abandons evil conduct and develops good conduct.’ This,
monks, is called the fear of rebirth in states of woe. So these,
monks, are the four fears.” (A II 121)
Inevitably there is something distasteful about the above
passage. The discipline of fear may have good results if it is applied
by virtuous authorities to young or ignorant subjects, because it
may create a habit of doing right. There is, however, no moral virtue
in fear, except in the case of fear of self-reproach. A man who is
afraid of doing wrong solely for fear of good men’s reproaches will
lack the moral courage to do right in the face of evil men’s derision.
A man whose only restraint from crime is the dread of punishment
will commit crimes under coercion. Even the fear of damnation can
exist without any link with morality. A mistaken idea of religious
duty can impel a man to cruelty, and it may be the most virtuous act
of a man’s life to disobey the dictates of such a duty. In Mark
Twain’s book, Huckleberry Finn, the incident occurs where a boy,
good-hearted and simple, who genuinely believes that he will be
damned eternally if he does not betray his negro friend into slavery,
and it is only by defying that terrible belief, with a cry of, “All right
then, I will go to hell”, that he is able to do what is morally right and
remain true to his friend.
It is better to be reminded of the courage which is needed to live
a good life, than of the fear which may keep a coward from an
actively evil one.
“Toil on, my brother; still in hope stand fast; nor let thy courage
flag and tire.” (J-a I 267)
For the perseverance required for a growth in virtue, the Buddha
says:
“Monks, growing in five ways of growth, the noble disciple
grows in noble growth; he heeds what is essential and best for
his whole being. In what five? He grows in confidence, virtue,
learning, giving up and insight.” (A III 79)
Perfect goodness and enlightenment can only be attained by

effort—such effort as is called upon by an intense and sincere desire
for the thing to be attained.
“Monks, these five sleep little by night, they are much awake.
What five? A woman longing for a man sleeps little by night, is
much awake. So too a man longing for a woman; a thief longing
for booty; a minister bent on official business; and a monk
longing for release from the bondage of defilements sleeps little
at night, is much awake.” (A III 152)
The sheer longing of the monk is stressed by placing it beside
other persons’ longings for different and more base objects; one
quality—whole-hearted desire—is isolated and emphasised.
Fear of self-reproach is the sure guide to right if the heart and
mind are fully taught and trained. Training is important, for
knowledge alone is inadequate; the two hapless old Brahmins knew
what they should have done, but had failed to do it.
“Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by
faith alone.” (Epistle of James, II 24.)
“Goodwill and wisdom, mind by method trained,
The highest conduct on good morals based,
This makes mortals pure, not rank or wealth.
Hence, his own good discerning, let the wise
Thoroughly examine how to train the mind.” (S I 33)
The aim of education is to perfect the pupil; ignorance hampers
a man in every way.
“Monks, possessed of two qualities, the foolish, ignorant and
evil man goes about like a lifeless uprooted thing, is
blameworthy, censured by the intelligent and begets much
demerit. What two things? Through lack of observation
(ananuvicca) and penetration (apariyogáhetvá) he speaks in praise
of him who does not deserve praise and for the same reason
blames him who should be praised.” (A I 88)
Furthermore, ignorance is not only disadvantageous; it is
reprehensible.
“Monks, there are these eight stains. What eight? Monks, non-
recitation is the mantra’s stain, not rising is the stain of
households, sluggishness is the stain of beauty, carelessness is
the stain of a watchman, misconduct is the stain of a woman,

stint is the stain of a donor, evil and unrighteous states are
stains in this world and the next; but there is a greater stain than
these, ignorance is the greatest stain.” (A IV 194)
The horror of ignorance is made vivid here, by its being
presented as the culmination of besetting sins whose danger is
obvious. The device is similar to that used in Proverbs where pages
of comment upon the active spitefulness of a jealous spirit are
compressed into one sentence, “Wrath is cruel and anger is
outrageous; but who is able to stand before envy?” (D III 190).
Socrates agrees with the Buddha in naming ignorance as the
supreme evil to be overcome; Christianity, on the other hand, makes
pride the first and most pernicious of the Seven Deadly Sins, and its
conquest is the prime essential for followers of that religion. Jesus
said, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of
heaven.” (Matthew v. 3.) The idea of this need to subdue pride exists
already in the Old Testament, where it is the barrier which separates
the Jews from their God. “It is a stiff-necked people” (Exodus, xxxii
9), is an often repeated accusation. Christianity, which has at its core
submission to a personal God, abhors pride more than ignorance.
According to Buddhism, however, the root of all evil in the world is
ignorance (avijjá) synonymous with delusion (moha).
From the Buddha’s detestation of ignorance follows its
exaltation of the character of the teacher. The pupil must respect
him who must never fail the pupil.
“In five ways, householder’s son, a pupil should minister to a
teacher as the South:
1. By rising from his seat to show respect.
2. By attending upon him.
3. By listening attentively.
4. By personal service.
5. By respectfully receiving instruction.
“In five ways, householder’s son, do teachers who are thus
ministered to by pupils show their compassion:
1. They train them in the best discipline.
2. They make them receive that which is well held by them.
3. They teach them every suitable art and science.
4. They introduce them to their friends and associates.
5. They provide for their safety in every quarter.” (D III 190)

Even the Buddha is shown as wishing for some figure of a
teacher to revere and obey:
On a certain occasion the Exalted One was staying near Sávatthì,
at the Jeta Grove in Anáthapióðika’s monastery. Then the Exalted
One addressed the monks, “On a certain occasion, monks, I
myself was staying at Uruvelá, on the bank of the river Nerañjará,
under the Goatherd’s banyan tree, just after I had become fully
enlightened. To me then occurred this thought as I was
meditating alone, ‘Ill at ease dwells the man who has no one to
revere and obey. What if I were to dwell doing honour and
paying reverence to some recluse or Brahmin and serving him?’
Then, monks, I had this thought, ‘For perfection of the sum total
of virtues still imperfect I would dwell doing honour, obeying
and reverencing a recluse or Brahmin; but in this world with its
Devas (gods), Márás (evil beings) and Brahmins, among the hosts
of recluses and Brahmins, in the whole world of gods and
mankind I do not perceive any other recluse or Brahmin more
perfect in virtue than myself, whom I could dwell reverencing,
obeying and serving him.
‘For the perfection of the sum total of concentration ... the
sum total of wisdom ... the sum total of release still imperfect I
would dwell doing honour ... but not in this world of gods and
mankind do I perceive any other recluse or Brahmin more
perfect in concentration, wisdom, in release than myself, whom
honouring I could dwell reverencing, obeying and serving him.’
“Then, monks, I had this thought, ‘Suppose I should dwell
honouring this Dhamma by which I have become perfectly
enlightened; suppose I should dwell reverencing, obeying and
serving this very Dhamma’.” (A II 20)
This shows that humility has a very important place in
Buddhism. There is no element of conceit in the Buddha’s claim to
supremacy; he is beyond personal pride and states the truth about
himself as he would state it on any other subject. There is a sublime
humility in his sense of needing an object of reverence.
This also shows that the perfection which is the aim of
Buddhism is not a static, lifeless state. Even the Enlightened One
speaks in terms of growth, hence, the individual can always learn
from ethics.
Chapter 9
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ETHICS
If a careful and far-reaching survey were to be made of the ways of

life and social systems of the civilised world, it would reveal that the
ethical aspect of the Dhamma, at least in part if not in its entirety, is
the moral code of all civilised people. Among the civilised people of
the world there is in fact no difference in the fundamental ideas of
ethics and there is really no such thing as a system of Buddhist ethics
or Christian ethics. It is one and the same all over the world; such
epithets as ‘Buddhist’ and ‘Christian’ merely denote certain specific
modes of comprehension, approach, observance and purpose.
Morality is observed in specific ways by various communities and
even by the most blatant sceptics who boast that they believe in no
moral obligations, and who may succeed in blinding themselves to
the truth but contradict their assertions in act and word. Those
extremists who remain desperately true to their convictions can find
no place in society for themselves and are forced to lead a life of self-
inflicted loneliness. In the words of the Dhammapada:
“Those who mistake the false for the true, and the true for the
false,
they who abide in the pasture ground of wrong thoughts, never
arrive at the real.
They who know the true as the true and the false as false,
who abide in right mindedness, they arrive at the real.”
(Dhp 11, 12)
Apart from Buddhists, individuals can, generally speaking, be
divided into two groups, each with its own conception of ethics and
their relation to life. The first group are followers of a revealed
religion, and the second group are unbelievers or sceptics. All
religions with the exception of Buddhism are revealed religions.
Their adherence depends wholly on extraneous aid, that being a
divine agency, which is omnipotent and eternal. Such religions are
of necessity animistic; and in them greater reliance is placed upon
the value of simple faith and ceremonial observances than upon the
following of precepts.
It is held that an arbitrary creator laid down the necessary and

indispensable moral laws, the neglect of which must needs be
detrimental to any civilised society, but nevertheless, to live in
accordance with them is deemed useless and unprofitable unless
certain ritualism is observed. Ethics are thus related to an idea
which exists only in the adherent’s mind and which has no direct
connection either with the application of ethics or with life as it
really is.
In revealed religions there is an element of mystery which no
adherent dares attempt honestly to unravel for fear that a detached
and penetrating investigation of such facts would confront his
intelligence with conclusions directly opposed to his animistic
beliefs; these beliefs, implicitly and unquestionably accepted by the
followers of revealed religions, would appear to the Buddhist as
mere consoling delusions. A Buddhist would be inclined to
dispense with all of them as unnecessary to the interpretation of life;
he would see them as positive encumbrances, irrelevant to life and
therefore essential only to revealed religions. Such ‘interpretation’
is, for this reason, never undertaken but always shelved by the
misguided, though well-meaning, exponents of animistic creeds. As
a result of this confusion of ethical principles with subjective ideas,
their application to life is, in the opinion of Buddhists, very
haphazard.
Even where there is careful and strict observance of moral
precepts together with ascetic practices, it is mistakenly assumed
that such observances must necessarily be painful. To suffer this
pain bravely causes the ‘martyr’ to cherish the spirit of endurance as
do those Jain and Hindu ascetics who voluntarily go through the
most ghastly extremes of self-inflicted bodily torture.
“Not nakedness, nor matted hair, nor filth, nor long fasting, nor
lying on the ground, nor dust and dirt, nor squatting on the
heels; can cleanse a man that is full of doubt. But one that lives a
calm and tranquil life, though gaily decked, if tamed, restrained
he lives; walking the holy path of righteousness, laying aside all
harm to living things—a true mendicant, ascetic, Brahmin is
he.” (Dhp 141, 142)
Animists attempt to live in a state of optimism in the belief that
everything is ordered for the best, but in the eyes of the Buddhist
these attempts are of little value. Among animists, the ethical side is
inevitably distorted. It is like a tree which is hemmed in on every
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ETHICS 57
side and compelled to grow into an unnatural shape and retains

that shape because the peculiarities of an existing phase of
civilisation give rise to certain rules of conduct from which it is
injurious to deviate. The tree, however, is liable to change its shape
if the obstacle were to be removed. In the same way a civilisation
can relapse into a state of barbarism and, under the pressure of the
new conditions, what was held to be right may come to be classed
as wrong. The animist ethic is never divorced from its communal
aspect and observed for its own intrinsic worth.
The thorough-going sceptic is to some extent saner than the
animist in his idea of ethics. At the very least he accepts nothing on
the authority of some popular sage. Nevertheless, owing to his
narrow definition of ‘reality’, he too, falls short of the truth. Both
are, however, the victims of illusion, the difference between them
being that the ‘revealed religionist’, because of the apparent
mystery of things, imagines the self to be something divine,
glorious and wonderful, whilst the sceptic, turning away from the
idea of mystery, has too limited a vision of things. The former,
perhaps unconsciously, seeks to justify the maintenance of self-
hood and the latter carelessly continues to gratify the senses.
The sceptic’s behaviour conforms to a recognised code only
because a certain degree of conformity is part of the means
whereby, without thinking very much about it, he sustains himself.
Pure ethics have little place in his life, and it is only by chance that
they have any place at all; his motive for acting in accordance with
them is an unacknowledged selfishness. He is simply following the
line of least resistance. He abstains from certain wrong, doing for
the sake of indulgence as others do that which appears to him to be
right.
Neither the animist nor the sceptic is prepared to accept the
Dhamma. To the animist it appears to be a moral code which lacks
the one and only incentive to right living; namely, it fails to include
faith in God. The average animist, whether cultured or not, is a
sentimentalist whose thoughts are under the influence of his
emotions. On the other hand, the sceptic may be a thorough
hedonist or materialist who does not value ethics at all; he may be
an aesthetic dilettante who considers himself to be an intellectual,
who dismisses the Dhamma as trite and stale; or he may be a
commonplace, mediocre worldling who is guided by traditional
ideals of decent behaviour who adheres to the tradition without
understanding it, and the Dhamma seems to him a mere imperfect
repetition of tradition lacking the sentimental appeal to which he is

accustomed. The Buddha-Dhamma rests upon no other foundation
than the doctrines of impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness
(dukkha), and anattá (non-soul, not-self, egolessness, absence of an
eternal ego either within or outside the body).
It may be paradoxical, both to the revealed religionist and to the
sceptic that such a code should instil into its adherents the most
clearly elucidated, the most lofty and completely evolved ethics in
the world. Yet the reason is not far to find, for the first thing about
the Dhamma which strikes the unbiased and earnest seeker after
truth is its perfect relevance to life. The Dhamma may be vast and
profound when we come to examine its fundamental teaching in
detail but it contains nothing which fails to harmonise with the
personal experience of the genuine thinker who is striving
diligently to apprehend the actual. All its cogent and
comprehensive expositions combine to make it more evident to him
that, far from being mere personal sentiments or tribal taboos, it is
the most satisfactory and necessary stepping stone to the attainment
of that perfect security, that only true happiness, which is
emancipation of mind.
“Better than a hundred years lived not perceiving the rise and fall
of things, is a single day lived in the perception of how all things
arise only to pass away again.”
“Better than a hundred years lived without seeing the
deathless goal, is a single day of lived beholding the deathless
goal.” (Dhp 113, 114)
Knowing the world to be but the individual, the Buddha did not
base the ethical system of the Dhamma on an observation of all the
material artificialities of the civilisations around him. Such things as
manners, modes and physical conveniences which are commonly
regarded as making up the ‘world’ are ever liable to break up and
assume quite different forms, and a pre-occupation with them tends
to support the delusion of self. They are the thirst for life or craving
(taóhá), that is, craving for the past, present and future which binds
us to the wheel of birth and death as the carefully spun threads of
the spider bind its prey with a silken thread whose strength is like
steel and as difficult to break.
The Buddha with his supreme knowledge saw this and as he
enquired into the causes that gave rise to this constant becoming,
there could not but come to his mind the exact course of action that
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ETHICS 59
should be pursued in order that sorrow might be definitely

overcome. The Buddha’s ethical system depends chiefly upon the
“non-self” or anattá doctrine (see Chapters 34 & 35) which teaches
that since there can be no actor apart from the action, it follows that
there can be no extraneous aid. Blind faith is no use since it leads
nowhere and is strongly repudiated in the Buddha-Dhamma; we
must do away with the props and act on life’s stage alone, for:
“You yourselves must make the effort.
Tathágatas only point the way.” (Dhp 276)
Chapter 10
THE CONCEPT OF CONFIDENCE
IN BUDDHISM
In Buddhism the concept of confidence is referred to as saddhá in

Pali and øraddhá in Sanskrit. Saddhá is not faith, as usually
translated, but is confidence born out of conviction. According to
Buddhist philosophy it is a purifying mental factor in the mind and
has a deeper philosophical meaning than that of mere confidence.
Asaòga, the well-known Buddhist philosopher of the fourth
century C.E., described the three aspects of øraddhá as: i) conviction
with regards true objects; ii) clarity with regards good qualities; and
iii) aspiration with regards what one can achieve.1 Thus, firstly,
saddhá is a confidence born out of understanding or conviction of
the Four Noble Truths; secondly, it is a feeling of reverence or
esteem towards the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saògha, also
known as the Triple Gem; and thirdly, it is an earnest hope of
realizing one’s moral principles and one’s goal, Nibbána.
Buddhism places emphasis on seeing (dassana) things in their true
perspective, on not being blinded by delusion or selfish desire. If one
sees clearly, one knows that even the so-called Self (attá, átman) does
not and cannot exist. It is very important that one who wishes to
obtain unfailing success in spiritual progress has confidence in the
Dhamma because such development is based principally on
confidence. Because inner development is so based, he who lacks it is
sure to fall from his virtue and practice of meditation.
Confidence is the first of the seven treasures (dhana) of the noble
person (ariya). It is the first mental power (bala); it is the first ethical
faculty (indriya) of the mind. It has a great magnetic power which
generates essential mental properties of energy, mindfulness,
concentration and right understanding. It also eliminates the mental
hindrances of sensual desire (kámacchanda), ill-will (vyápáda),
obduracy of mind and mental factors (thìnamiddha), restlessness and
anxiety (uddhacca kukkucca) and uncertainty (vicikicchá). It maintains
a brightness and clarity of mind.
1. Abhidharmasamuccaya, Ed. Pralhad Pradhan, Visva-Bhárati, Santinikelan,

1950, p. 6.
THE CONCEPT OF CONFIDENCE IN BUDDHISM 61
Confidence in the Dhamma begins with a temporary conviction

of a morally wholesome object, but gradually develops to a form of
unshakeable trust in the Perfect One, his teaching, and his noble
Order. The Buddha denounced blind faith and pointed out that it
cannot help self-purification in any way. He always emphasised
that one should believe in his teaching only after having understood
it. He said:
“As a wise man tests gold on a touchstone, by heating and
cutting, so you monks should test my words by practice, and not
accept them simply due to reverence towards me.”1
The Buddha often praised the one who is endowed with
confidence based on knowledge. The Buddha compared this
confidence, saddhá, to the confidence which a patient has in his
doctor, or a student in his teacher. The understanding on which
it is based may sometimes be weak and sometimes strong. The
more benefit the patient receives from his doctor’s treatment
and advice, the more saddhá he has in him. Similarly, the more
easily the student learns his lessons and the more successful he
is in his examinations, the more confidence he has in his teacher.
The Buddhist’s confidence in the Buddha is just the kind one
has in a good physician or teacher. They have substantial grounds
for it. The teachings of the Buddha offer them what they can
observe and prove empirically as to the nature of the world. They
know that his method is effective in putting an end to unhappy
conditions. Lastly, they are invited to “come and see” (ehipassiko) for
themselves; they are asked to suspend all doubts until after they
have clear proof by direct experience that the teaching is acceptable.
This comes with the first attainment after which normal doubts
arise no more.
In the Buddha’s teaching the supreme power is the natural law of
cause and effect, from which comes the moral order of kamma or
volitional actions (cetaná) and results (vipáka). The ethical teaching of
the Buddha is intrinsically a part of man’s highest purpose, which is
to gain his release from the painful condition of repeated births which
is called saísára. The Buddha has said that he only points out the way
exactly as the doctor advises treatment for his patient:
1. Tatvasaígraha, vol. II v. 3588.

“It is for you to exert and practise; Tathágatas only point out the
way.” (Dhp 276)
The Buddha is regarded as a teacher (satthá). After realising the
truth himself, he taught it to the world. Buddhism is not a revelation
but a path of deliverance discovered by the Buddha through his
own efforts. Out of compassion he taught it to humanity. He asked
them to test its validity in the light of their own reason,
understanding and experience. The Buddha most emphatically
warned his disciples against putting blind faith in the authority of
his Triple Canon (Tipiþaka) or tradition. This is clear in a formal
discourse called the Káláma-sutta—the Charter of Free Inquiry given
by the Buddha. He said in it:
“Come, O Kálámas, do not go upon tradition; do not go upon
hearsay; do not go upon correspondence with the scriptures; do
not go upon supposition; do not go upon inference; do not go
upon mere reasoning (logic); do not go upon your pre-
conceived notions; do not go upon a person’s seeming ability;
do not go upon the thought that this ascetic is our teacher. But,
Kálámas, when you yourselves know (by observation,
experience, and right judgement) ‘Such things are bad; such
things when undertaken and followed lead to harm and ill’—
then you should not accept and follow such things. Kálámas,
when you know for yourselves ‘These things are moral; these
things are blameless; these things are praised by the wise; these
things when undertaken and performed, conduce to well-being
and happiness’—then do you live acting accordingly.” (A I 189)
The Buddha never attempted to persuade his followers to have
any submissive faith in him or his teaching. He trained his disciples
in the ways of intelligent enquiry. The enquiring Kálámas he
answered saying:
“It is proper for you, Kálámas, to doubt, to be uncertain;
uncertainty has arisen in you about what is doubtful.” (A I 189)
He does not want us to accept anything that does not accord
with truth, without reasoning. He asks us to apprehend things as
they really are (yathábhúta).
On one occasion a millionaire named Upáli, a fervent follower
of Nigaóþha Nátaputta (i.e. Mahávìra, the founder of Jainism),
approached the Buddha, and thoughtfully listened to his teaching;
saddhá arose in him and forthwith he expressed his willingness to

become a follower of the Buddha. But the Buddha said: “Of a truth,
Upáli, make a thorough investigation.” Then in his great delight
Upáli said: “Had I manifested my readiness to become a follower of
another creed they would have taken me around the city in
procession and proclaimed that such and such a millionaire had
embraced their faith. But, sir, your reverence counsels me to make
further investigation. I feel the more delighted at this saying of
yours.” Upáli then sought refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and
Saògha (M I 371f.).
According to the Buddha one should not follow a teacher
blindly nor seek refuge in the hope that he will be saved by mere
glimpses of the serene personality of the master. He should not
aspire to be purified by the master’s own purity. Vakkali, a Brahmin
who was proficient in the Vedas, became a monk. He never tired of
glimpsing the Buddha and spent all his time following him about.
The Buddha said to him:
“O Vakkali, what is the use of seeing my foul body. One who
sees the Dhamma sees me.” (S II 120; It 90f.)
The Pali Canon (Tipiþaka) contains the early Buddhist scriptures.
The disciples of the Buddha compiled these at Rájagaha in northern
India during the First Council which was held under the patronage
of King Ajátasattu after the passing away of the Buddha. It is quite
possible that in the course of the twenty-five centuries which have
elapsed some interpolation may have crept in here and there. Still, it
can be said with full confidence that this collection of books is the
nearest and most reliable source of the teachings of the Buddha. The
Buddhists read these books in order to understand the teachings of
the Buddha and to get inspiration to follow the path taught by him.
They are regarded as the advice of the great teacher to his disciples.
They are not to be accepted and believed, but to be understood and
practised.
The Buddha likened his teaching to a raft:
“The doctrine I teach you, O monks, is like a raft to be used to
cross over saísára (the stream of existence), not as something to
be held fast to. If a man comes by a great stretch of water and
sees no way of crossing to the opposite shore which is safe and
secure so he fashions a raft out of sticks, branches, leaves, and
grasses and lashings and uses it to cross over to the opposite
bank. Suppose now, O monks, he were to say ‘This raft has been
of much use to me so I will put it on my head and carry it with
me as I proceed on my journey’—will he be doing the correct
thing with this raft?” (M I 134f.)
The monks agreed this action was not correct and the Buddha
added the obvious answer: “Even so, monks, the doctrine taught by
me is for crossing over and not for holding fast to.” Merely to hold
fast means to adopt the ‘labels’ of the belief without taking the
trouble to practise what the belief advises, implies or involves.
In one of the discourses the Buddha warned a Brahmin not to
rush to hasty conclusions about him or the path he has shown or his
disciples who have reached that path. In respect to everything there
are degrees and grades, and one should not think of anything as
belonging to the highest state in the absence of sufficient evidence.
He went on to explain this fact with the help of the elephant’s
footprint simile:
“An ordinary man, on entering a forest, sees a large footprint
and comes to the conclusion, ‘Indeed, it is the footprint of the great
royal elephant.’ But the skilled elephant-tracker looking at the
footprint would say: ‘This is not necessarily the footprint of the
royal elephant. There are stunted she-elephants who also have such
large footprints.’ The skilled elephant-tracker follows the footprints
until he perceives the elephant’s shoulder has knocked against the
trees at a high level and has grazed off high things in the forest.
Even then he does not come to the conclusion that one of them is the
footprint of the royal elephant, as there are other elephants, too,
who could cause the same signs as the great royal elephant himself.
The skilled elephant-tracker only comes to the conclusion that it is
the great royal elephant when he sees it with his own eyes. Just so,
the individual should go through various stages in inner
development, not counting any as the highest stage, but persevere
until he ultimately realises the truth.” (M I 134f. Cf. M I 175–84.)
The Buddha said, “Confidence is a companion to a person and
wisdom properly commands him.” (S I 38). In the same connection,
the great Maháyánist philosopher Nágárjuna says in a section of the
voluminous Prajñápáramitá literature: “Confidence is the entrance to
the ocean of the Laws of the Buddha and knowledge is the ship in
which one can sail on it.”
What does a Buddhist with saddhá do when he visits the temple?
In the temple he finds the image of the Buddha which serves as a
token of inspiration. He finds it helpful in concentrating on his

teachings. He also makes an offering to the shrine. The offering of
flowers and incense express his homage and gratitude and indicate
no intrinsic value. His offerings are his recognition of the Buddha’s
sublime qualities. They are an outward indication and expression
that he takes the Buddha and Dhamma as his guide. He accepts the
way of life as laid down by the Buddha. Almost all religions refer to
confidence in terms of faith. The Buddha, however, urged his
followers to see and to understand things for themselves.
Chapter 11
THE THREE REFUGES
There is only one way to become a Buddhist and that is to follow in

the footsteps of the Buddha and put his teaching into practice in
one’s life. Buddhist philosophy recognises certain ‘fetters’ which
hamper an individual’s growth towards liberation. One of these is
‘the belief in rites and rituals’, the mistaken assumption that by
going through a special ceremony or by following some religious
duty, one can be saved. Little wonder then that there is no
baptismal service in Buddhism.
What, then, marks one’s entry into Buddhism? The required
quality is saddhá which is ‘confidence based on knowledge’. Before
one can begin to seriously follow the Buddha’s path, there must
arise within one—however falteringly—the confidence that there is
a path to be trodden and a goal to be reached. This initial confidence
may then be strengthened gradually, as experience teaches us that it
was well founded. It in recognition of this repeated pattern—initial
confidence leading to a willingness to experiment, which in its turn
brings confirmation of the original vision and provides the basis
from which a further step can be envisaged—that the Buddhist
custom of saraóagamana—going for refuge—was instituted and
developed.
Every religion worthy of the name has certain articles in which
its followers have confidence. It is these articles of belief which
awaken the religious impulse and inspire a person to lead the
religious life. They give a concrete shape, as it were, to abstract
principles around which the followers of a religion rally. It may
thus be said that it is these articles of belief which give rise to the
institutional forms of religion. The organised form of a religion
cannot exist without them, in fact no movement whatsoever can be
operative and successful unless organised in the institutional form.
Buddhism is no exception; the Three Refuges are the articles in
which its followers show their confidence.
The Buddha, Dhamma and Saògha, also known as the Tirataóa
or the Triple Gem, form the Three Refuges (tisaraóa). The Buddha is
the one who has attained to full enlightenment after fulfilling the
Ten Perfections. The Dhamma is the doctrine preached by a
THE THREE REFUGES 67
Buddha. The Saògha is the Order of the Noble Disciples who have
practised the teachings and realised the Dhamma to varying
degrees. For the same reason they are known as the Ariya Saògha or
community of Noble Ones (as opposed to the community of
ordained monks and nuns).
Some early Buddhist scholars have referred to another
interpretation of Saraóa, and for that matter Tisaraóa, based on the
following saying of the Buddha:
“O young man, living beings have kamma as their property,
their inheritance, progenitor, relative and refuge.”
(M III 203–6; A V 288, 291)
In this passage emphasis is on paþisaraóa or saraóa. Kamma in the
present context refers to the kusala dhammas or skilful states. Now
the Buddha, Dhamma and Saògha can be objects of wholesome
thoughts (kusala cittáni) so while saraóa has a direct reference to
kamma it would have only an indirect reference to the Triple Gem.
For the same reason, according to this interpretation, saraóa in its
primary sense means kusala, but has a secondary meaning, the
Triple Gem. This interpretation of saraóa is too wide and also too
superficial in nature. Many other things, both relevant and
irrelevant, could be included within such a definition; therefore, we
reject it and keep within the bounds of the traditional interpretation.
Accordingly, by saraóa one has to understand tisaraóa or the Three
Refuges.
The taking of the Refuges or saraóagamana, is as old as
Buddhism itself. It is recorded that shortly after the enlightenment
of the Master, two merchants named Tapassu and Bhalluka of
Ukkala who, while on their way to Rájagaha, happened to meet the
Buddha. They offered him rice cakes and honey and expressed their
complete confidence in the Buddha and Dhamma (Vin I 3f; A I 26;
Ud-a 54; J-a I 80). By their taking of refuge, the foundation of the
institutional form of the religion was laid. The question of taking
refuge in the Saògha could not at that time arise, for the Saògha had
not yet come into existence. The five ascetics (pañcavaggiya) to
whom the Buddha preached the first discourse formed the initial
nucleus of the Saògha. After hearing the Buddha’s first discourse,
Yasa of Benares, having forsaken a life of great luxury, entered the
Deer Park in Benares at night where the Buddha preached to him
and was afterwards admitted to the Order. His father, who had
come to seek his son, was also captivated by the Buddha’s teaching
and was the first person to become a lay disciple by reciting the
formula of the Three Refuges, i.e. the Buddha, Dhamma and
Saògha. The mother and wife of Yasa became the first female lay
follower (Vin I 17ff.).1
The taking of the Three Refuges involves the three-fold
repetition of the following Pali formula:
Buddhaí saraóaí gacchámi.
Dhammaí saraóaí gacchámi.
Saòghaí saraóaí gacchámi.
To the Buddha I go for refuge.
To the Dhamma (teaching) I go for refuge.
To the Saògha (Order of monks) I go for refuge.
To the sceptical westerner, such incantation no doubt smacks of
idolatry, superstition and ‘oriental passiveness’. Yet taking refuge in
the Buddha implies no guarantee that Buddha himself will effect
the arrival at the goal of any of his followers. On the contrary, he
says,
“Surely by oneself is evil done, by oneself one becomes pure;
By oneself is evil avoided, by oneself one becomes pure.
Purity and impurity are of the individual.
No one can purify another.” (Dhp 165)
When referring to progress towards the goal Buddha frequently
used the expression “Having thoroughly understood and experi-
enced for himself’ (sayaí abhiññá sacchikatvá; Vin I 9, 35; D I 12; M I
35, Sn p. 16).
Indeed the Three Refuges would probably be more acceptable
to the western mind if, instead of the time-honoured ‘refuge’ the
word ‘guide’ were used. The first refuge might then be translated as
“I seek to rely on the Buddha to guide me in my search.”
According to the doctrine of kamma, future happiness is a direct
result of maintaining a satisfactory standard of conduct in the
present. But there was wrong action in the past which must produce
its effect in the present and in the future. If, inevitably, one reaps the
results of one’s actions, good or bad, and there is no means of
avoiding these results on the strength of the moral excellence of
another person, the best that can be done to gain secure and lasting
1. For more details; see Chapter 13.

happiness is to cut down the evil actions and increase the good
ones. There is freedom of will in making a choice, but clearly there
must be cultivation of vision and discernment to detect which
choice should be made. The Buddha’s teaching stresses the
cultivation of discernment more than the cultivation of will-power,
for, since blind obedience is not encouraged, unless a person is
convinced that he is pursuing a wrong course he is unlikely to
abandon it if it seems attractive. We find in the Dhammapada:
“If, by renouncing a relatively small happiness,
one sees a greater happiness;
the wise man abandons the small happiness
in consideration of the greater happiness.” (Dhp 290)
It is therefore necessary that one should be willing to discern a
possible comparison and be able to draw it.
Such matters, are, however, not evident in the devotion and
pageantry associated with Buddhism in the Buddhist countries, and
the mental attitude of persons participating in these must be made
clear. The central tangible object of a ceremonial display consists,
almost always, in an image of the Buddha or Buddha-rúpa, though
such images were unknown until the first century B.C.E.
Previously, the Buddha was depicted in scenes with a bodhi tree,
wheel, lotus or a footprint representing the Buddha. It is generally
considered that non-Indian influences, notably perhaps the Greek,
brought about the representation of the Buddha in the manner of a
human figure. But a Buddhist goes before an image and offers
flowers or incense not to the figure but to the Buddha, recollecting
his virtues such as his Enlightenment, and as a mark of gratitude,
reflecting on the perfection of the Buddha and meditating on the
transiency of the fading flowers. As he offers the flowers, the
Buddhist recites:
Pújemi buddhaí kusumena ‘nena
Puññenam etena labhámi mokkhaí;
Pupphaí miláyáti yathá idam me,
Káyo tathá yáti vinásabhávaí.
“With diverse flowers I do homage to the Buddha
and through this merit may there be release.
Even as these flowers fade,
so does my body approach dissolution.”1
This is not from a canonical text but it is a very old traditional

verse. Though an image or some such symbol is useful to the
ordinary person in the matter of helping him to concentrate his
attention, an intellectual could dispense with it since he would
direct his thoughts, probably concentrating on a passage such as the
following:
Iti pi so bhagavá, arahaí, sammásambuddho, vijjácaraóa- sampanno,
sugato lokavidú, anuttaro, purisadammasárathì satthá
devamanussánaí, buddho bhagavá ti
“Such indeed is the Exalted One, an Arahant, Fully Enlightened,
complete in special wisdom and virtue, happy, knower of the
worlds, an incomparable guide of trainable men, a teacher of
gods and men, a Buddha.”
(Vin III 8; M I 335; S I 155; A V 65, etc.)
But genuine reverence for the Buddha is to be measured only by the
extent to which one follows his teachings.
“He who, having entered on the course, practises in conformity
with the Dhamma, pays reverence to the Tathágata.”
(S III 85; A II 33)
How does this attitude affect the moral outlook of the Buddhist?
In contrast to the theistic religions where man is a subservient
creature, for ever below God or gods until he or they should feel
inclined to raise his status, the Buddhist has it in his power to rise as
high as he likes provided he is willing to make the effort. The
Buddhist’s mentality is never enslaved; he does not sacrifice
freedom of thought or freedom of will. Here is the advantage of
saddhá, confidence born of knowledge, over blind faith. The
Buddhist pilgrim starts out on a worthwhile journey in happy
expectancy, with plenty of equipment and a good chance of success;
he is never a “miserable sinner”.
The second Refuge or ‘guide’ is the Dhamma, the teaching. The
example of the Buddha’s own life is a great help to those wishing to
attain a similar goal, just as the life of Christ affords a pattern to
inspire and guide the sincere Christian. The Buddhist has a second
guide in the detailed teaching handed down through the ages, just
1. For this and other similar verses see The Mirror of the Dhamma by
Nárada Thera and Bhikkhu Kassapa, BPS, Kandy, 2003.
as the Christian has a guide in the sermons and parables of Christ

recorded in the gospels. The Buddhist, however, is yet more
fortunate in that the Buddha lived for many years after his
enlightenment and had the time to develop and perfect a detailed
philosophy, a code of discipline and a careful step by step analysis
of the path to be taken and the various states to be achieved and
transcended.
In the course of his teaching life the Buddha encountered
thousands of people with differing educational, social, moral and
religious backgrounds. He adapted and refined his message to suit
the needs and capabilities of kings and beggars, prostitutes and
ascetics. The modern-day Buddhist can, therefore, turn confidently
to the Dhamma for support, knowing that this teaching has been
developed to incorporate all sorts and conditions of men. As he
begins to put the teaching into practice, however, the follower of the
Buddha comes to have a much surer and intimate reason for relying
on the Dhamma: he comes to realise the truth of it by his own
personal experience. Though he still may know only a little he no
longer relies on hearsay but has confidence based on knowledge.
He reaffirms his ‘going for refuge in the Dhamma’ because he finds
that it is in accordance with his own, probably painfully acquired,
experience.
The third Refuge is the Saògha, the Community of Noble Ones;
past, present and future. The realisation that millions of men and
women have followed the Buddha’s teaching, have decided to
devote their whole energy and attention to it, and have found it a
valid and satisfying way of life—this is the third guide for the
Buddhist. Saògha often refers in particular to the monks but strictly
speaking it refers to those who have walked in the footsteps of the
Buddha and reaped the fruit of their labours.
The Three Refuges have a significance not only to the lay
devotee but to the members of the monastic order as well. It is
evident from the books of discipline (vinaya) that in the beginning
the going forth (pabbajjá) and higher ordination (upasampadá) were
performed by taking the Three Refuges and it was only at a later
stage that rules and regulations were introduced. Therefore the
Three Refuges occupy a very important place in the institutional
form of Buddhism.
Chapter 12
THE FIVE PRECEPTS
The taking of the Threefold Refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and

Saògha—called saraóágamana in Pali—is not a mere formal act; it is a
profound undertaking to attain the goal represented by the Triple
Gem. This goal is not easily attained and the devotee has to reach it
by treading the path gradually (M I 479).
In keeping with the Buddhist spirit the going for refuge should
be based on experience and reason. Although the goal of Buddhism
is supramundane, its practice is down to earth. In Buddhism no
intercessor between God and man calls forth a divine blessing;
instead, man, exercising his will, reason and experience has shown
that by taking a certain path he will contribute not only to his own
welfare but also to the welfare of the human race. He wills to take
that path. Here is the recognition of manhood, of man’s own power
and responsibility. Blind faith is entirely absent but it is a confidence
(saddhá) closely linked to the world of experience; it is just such a
confidence, based on observation and knowledge as is necessary for
any right action or study. Men have confidence in the Buddha and
go to him for refuge, not because he is said to be this or that but
because his teaching corresponds to what they personally know of
the actual world.
The path leading out of suffering (dukkha) to Nibbána is three-
fold: morality, meditation and wisdom:
1. Sìla—Morality, the first step, includes all the virtues of an honest
respectable person. It is identified with virtues in general, and with
the many admirable qualities related to the ideals of purification and
restraint as they are realised with the body, speech and mind. It is
usually understood as referring to the five moral precepts which
constitute the layman’s definitive code of practical ethics. He begins
the spiritual journey by taking the five precepts and every lay
devotee is expected to observe these five elementary rules of conduct.
In the observance of the five precepts the Buddhist is kept in
close touch with reality. Man is a social being and develops his
character in relation to the society in which he belongs, so whatever
he does, leaves its impression not only on himself but also on that
society. The observance of the moral precepts must, therefore, also
THE FIVE PRECEPTS 73
leave their impression..

The five precepts (pañca sìla) apply to all Buddhists and are as
follows:
1. I undertake the precept to abstain from the taking of life.
2. I undertake the precept to abstain from taking what is not
given.
3. I undertake the precept to abstain from sexual misconduct.
4. I undertake the precept to abstain from false speech.
5. I undertake the precept to abstain from intoxicating drinks
and drugs.
When we take precepts, we should learn the meaning and the
practical application which will lead to the experience of purifying
the mind and of establishing a certain harmless way of life, a different
attitude towards life, seen intelligently and compassionately. Having
acquired this attitude these simple precepts when applied daily will
diminish the suffering for us and for others. The significance of the
precepts is of wide social significance. We should try to keep them at
all times. We should reflect that the first precept will awaken and
increase the sentiments of loving-kindness. It will certainly establish
friendliness between men. In this precept is embodied the principle of
all-embracing compassion and goodwill which alone could save
humanity from destruction.
The five precepts do not represent the main teachings of
Buddhism; they represent a course of action based on that teaching.
For the man who has come to the knowledge of the Dhamma, they
are the rudiments of how to behave in the external world. In these
precepts is expressed the foundation of civilisation and it is for this
reason that there is, for Buddhists, no ceremony so profound and so
exalted in meaning as that of repeating them. History shows that
Buddhism was the first religion in which the moral element was
emphasised. In reciting these precepts, man is asserting his
emergence from the savage state. He is taking upon himself a new
character and helping to establish a cultured civilisation. Where
these precepts are broken, civilisation degenerates.
Twenty five centuries ago the Buddha gave the precepts not to
kill or steal. Today the world is perceiving the necessity of enjoining
these two precepts upon nations and their enforcement has been
attempted through such organisations as the U.N. In general,
however, they are only applied to human beings whereas the
Buddha applied them to all life. Incidentally, his religion was the
first to establish hospitals for both men and animals. Thus the first
precept refers not only to human beings but to all living beings
without exception, and acknowledges the universal desire for self-
preservation. Explaining this instinct of all beings, the Buddha said:
“All tremble before punishment; all fear death. Comparing others
to oneself, one should not kill nor cause to kill. All tremble before
punishment; to all life is dear. Comparing others with oneself,
one should not kill nor cause to kill.” (Dhp 129, 130)
“Comparing oneself to others in such terms as ‘Just as I am so
are they, just as they are so am I’, he should neither kill nor
cause others to kill.” (Sn 705)
As regards the second precept, on the one hand it inculcates
respect for the property of others, and on the other it exercises
control over the acquisitive instincts of the individual. Then again,
the second precept affirms the necessity of fair play. It renounces
greed and grasping, unfair competition that leads one, at any cost,
to acquire and accumulate riches by ruining others, as well as by
flagrant thieving. One should, in fact, respect the rights of others.
One should not steal even a leaf or a blade of grass. One should not
commit any sort of dishonesty.
“Then because the disciple knows that it belongs to others,
stealing anything from any place should be avoided. Let him
not cause to steal, nor approve of others’ stealing. All stealing
should be avoided.” (Dhp 395)
These two precepts in particular have a markedly double aspect
in that they are subjective as well as objective. It is worse to have the
nature of a killer and a thief, than to be killed and robbed. A woman
killing flies may have murder in her heart; if a person who has been
in the habit of killing will refrain from taking the life of any living
creature, he will find his consciousness gaining a new quality which
will repay the effort. Killing, stealing, and also lying are
obstructions which prevent a man from knowing his true self.
Through them he imposes upon others but even more he imposes
upon himself; in this matter virtue is surely its own reward.
The third precept is of great social importance; in the first place,
it preserves the integrity of family life which is the basic unit of
human society, and in the second place it exercises control within
reasonable limits over the libido. By observance of this precept
mankind would achieve that control over his sexual appetite by
which individual and social welfare can be gained. On the

observance of this precept the Buddha admonished thus:
“The wise man should avoid non-celibate life as if it were a
burning charcoal pit. If he is unable to lead a celibate life fully,
let him not transgress with another’s wife.” (Dhp 396)
The fourth precept affirms the necessity of care in speech. Who
would deny that lying leads to corruption of one’s own mind as
well as hurting others. Like the other precepts, it is for the good of
both the individual and the community. A man who can be trusted
will prosper and so will a nation, but the greatest value of the
precept is in its subjective effect. A dishonest person can no more
see clearly than a muddy pool can reflect distinctly. This honesty is
more difficult to attain than it at first appears to be, but truthfulness
is progressive like all the virtues. Each truthful act and word creates
an aptitude for further truth. It is the search for truth that has
produced the greatest literature. Abusing and slandering others are
forms of cheating. Maligning a man’s good character may be more
harmful than stealing his wallet. When nations fail to keep treaties
with other nations, we can understand the social catastrophe of
dissimulation. One’s actions should be in harmony with one’s
words. Truth is great and prevails over all the powers of evil. Again,
one’s speech should have some worthwhile purpose; if it is only for
the sake of passing time or amusing others it is better left unsaid.
With regards to this precept the Buddha said:
“Whether he is in an assembly or in a public place let him not
tell lies to another. Let him not cause others to tell lies nor
approve of others’ telling lies.” (Dhp 397)
“For one who transgresses the truth and is given to lying, and
who is unconcerned with the life hereafter, there is no evil he
dare not do.” (Dhp 176)
The Buddha did not base his religion on speculation and
imagination, or on what he would have liked to be true; he based it
on the facts of observation, most carefully and accurately studied.
The Buddhist, following him, tries to see things ‘as they really are’
(A III 429). He has been taught the folly of trying to deal with
problems which are by their very nature outside the possibility of
finite comprehension. Einstein was acting in the spirit of Buddhism
when he refused to recognise the Absolute; the Buddha refused to
consider such contradictions in thought as a First Cause and an

Absolute. He saw that there is relative knowledge which men can
attain. They know how they themselves respond to the world about
them; they know that they suffer and they perceive that, in
proportion as they tread the path taught by the Buddha, this
suffering ceases. These are facts which can be and have been
verified; such is the honesty of Buddhism, which gives special
weight to the fourth precept.
The fifth precept forbids the use of intoxicating liquors and
drugs. The habit of drinking or taking drugs weakens the moral and
physical stamina of a man and society at large also suffers because
of his degeneration. The precept is one which mankind, outside the
Buddhist and Islamic worlds, has been slow to follow, although
attempts have been made in the United States and in France to
enforce it through their Constitutions. The ideals embodied in the
Buddhist religion so many years ago are those which the nations of
the world are still struggling to realise. It has been said that
Buddhism is opposed to social progress and ignores sociological
problems; this is the direct opposite of the truth. The fourth and
fifth precepts—not to tell lies and not to take intoxicants—have their
bearing both on society and on the individual. The moral culture of
the individual leaves its influence on society also. These five
precepts are at the very heart of Buddhism, and constitute its most
important and constantly repeated observance; they are a social
code which rescues man from barbarism.
“He who destroys life, tells lies, takes what is not given,
commits adultery and takes intoxicating drinks, digs up his own
roots even in this very life.” (Dhp 246, 247)
Some minds are so austere as to rebel even against so simple an
observance as this, but human nature is prone to sloth and
ignorance and relapses all too readily without some form of
observance to keep it in mind of those ideals to which it would
attain. Coué perceived the value of repetition, seeing how a word
can thereby be stamped on our subconscious, and used it in his
treatment of physical illness. He advised the patient to repeat
certain formulae twenty times, twice a day, and the body was
forced, in certain ways at least, to respond to the suggestive
statements made about it. When rightly used and understood,
religious formulae undoubtedly have a beneficial effect on the
mind.
It can easily be seen that the misery of the world comes very
largely from the breaking of these five precepts. The world today
stands more in need of Buddhism than ever before; there is no other
religion to which it could so well turn for succour. Showing the way
to peace, closely in harmony with scientific and psychological
research and frankly agnostic where man must be agnostic,
Buddhism offers a teaching which the modern man can follow
without doing violence to his reason.
The observance of the five precepts themselves mark the
difference between barbarism and civilisation and in them abides
the secret of future evolution. In following them the Buddhist is
ensuring a continuance of the civilising process and securing for the
world a better future and he will, in a later life, participate in that
better future. Here in these precepts, therefore, is the beginning of
the path which will eventually lead to the complete liberation of
Nibbána.
The devotee should not rest satisfied with the observance of
these five precepts. From time to time, especially on full-moon or
new-moon days, he should also observe the eight or ten precepts,1
thereby taking another step forward on the path.
2. Samádhi—Meditation is the second step. In order to maintain a
good standard of moral conduct, it is also essential to practise
meditation, which is called samádhi. The word samádhi means a
fixed or tranquil state of the mind. The undisciplined mind is in the
habit of wandering here and there and is difficult to control. It may
follow any harmful idea or imagination. In order to prevent this
unhealthy tendency, the mind should be concentrated on a selected
object of meditation. In the course of practice, the mind will
gradually become more restrained and remain obediently fixed on
the object to which it is directed. By choosing suitable objects we can
counteract specific mental weaknesses. For example, by meditating
on loving-kindness we can assuage the traits of enmity, wrath and
envy. By meditating on the repulsive aspects of the body we can
1. The eight precepts are the five precepts, with the third precept
tightened to abstinence from sex, and the additional precepts of abstinence
from eating after midday; abstinence from singing, dancing or watching
entertainments and abstinence from using ornaments, cosmetics or
perfumes; and abstinence from using high or large beds and seats. The ten
precepts are the eight precepts with the seventh precept split into two and
the additional precept of abstinence from using money. (BPS editor).
diminish lust and infatuation. By contemplating the inevitability

and unpredictability of death we can dispel complacency and
apathy. By recollecting the special qualities of the Buddha we can
overcome depression, anxiety and negativity. By the development
of compassion one forgets one’s own troubles and realises the
omnipresence of suffering.
By repeated practice of meditative absorption, the Buddha and
his disciples came to possess psychic powers. Such powers are only
developed by very deep concentration and they are not considered,
by most schools of Buddhism, to be essential to the attainment of
the main goal of Buddhism, Nibbána. Nibbána is the extinction of
desire, hatred and delusion.
There are many advantages to be gained from secluded
meditation. In the Milindapañhá, ‘The Questions of King Milinda’,
the monk, Nágasena, enumerates the benefits of seclusion:
“There are, O king, twenty-eight virtues of these vows on
account of which the Buddhas have a high regard for them. The
keeping of the vows is a pure mode of livelihood, its fruit is
blissful, it is blameless, it brings no suffering to others, it gives
confidence,1 it doesn’t oppress,2 it is certain to bring growth in
good qualities, it prevents back-sliding, it doesn’t delude, it is a
protection, it fulfils one’s desires, it tames all beings, it is good
for self-discipline, it is proper for a recluse, he is independent,3
he is free,4 it destroys greed, it destroys hatred, it destroys
delusion, it humbles pride, it cuts off discursive thoughts and
makes the mind one-pointed, it overcomes doubts, it drives
away sloth, it banishes discontent, it makes him tolerant, it is
incalculable, it is beyond measure, and it leads to the
destruction of all suffering.” (Mil 351)
Meditation is not only a remedy for mental imperfections but
also for physical ailments.
3. Paññá—Wisdom is the third and last stage of the path. After
undertaking the observance of morality, the aspirant practises med-
itation. When the mind is well-concentrated, he is able to under-
1. A user of rag-robes is unafraid of robbers.

2. He is not oppressed by the need to protect property.
3. He is unattached to dwellings.
4. Free to go anywhere.
stand the true nature of things. Wisdom is the right understanding

of the world in the light of its transience, unsatisfactoriness and
insubstantiality. Knowledge is of three kinds: i) that acquired by
learning, ii) that acquired by thinking, and iii) that acquired by med-
itation. This wisdom is the apex of the three-fold training which
leads to Nibbána.
Chapter 13
THE BUDDHIST MONK
In the very early days after the Buddha’s enlightenment, before the
formation of the Saògha, only two refuges could be taken, as was
done by the two tradesmen Tapassu and Bhalluka, the first lay-
disciples of the Buddha. The circumstances were as follows. For
seven weeks after his enlightenment, the Buddha remained in the
neighbourhood of the Bodhi tree at Buddhagayá, experiencing the
bliss of Nibbána. At the close of the seventh week, when he was at
the foot of the Rájáyatana tree, two merchants passed on the road
from Ukkalá.1 A deva spoke to them, and, pointing out the tree
where the Buddha sat, told them he had recently become
enlightened and instructed them to offer him rice cakes and
honeycomb as a sign of reverence. The Buddha accepted the food,
and when he had finished the meal, they said, “We take our Refuge,
Sir, in the Blessed One and in your Dhamma; may you receive us as
lay devotees (upásakas) who from this day on, while our life lasts,
have taken their refuge.” Since they could take only the two
Refuges, they were known as the dvevácika upásakas (Vin I 4).
After the seven weeks, the Buddha went to the Isipatana Deer
Park near Benares, where he gave his first discourse to the five
ascetics who were his associates when he was endeavouring to
attain enlightenment. These five were the first to receive and realize
his Dhamma teaching and formed the nucleus of the Order of
Bhikkhus.
The term tevácika (three-word formula) is used in Pali literature
for the first time in connection with the parents of Yasa of Benares.
During the Buddha’s stay in the vicinity of that great city, his
expositions attracted many people, and one night he was visited by
Yasa, the son of a wealthy goldsmith. Yasa, tired of the luxury and
1. Ukkalá is a district in the region identified with modern Orissa (see

Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 733). They were on the way to
Rájagaha in the middle country of India (J I 80). The Mahávastu places
Ukkalá in the Uttarápatha or Northern district, (Mvu III 303). The
Mahábhárata mentions Ukkalá in the lists of tribes (Mhvu IV 122; ix. 365).
Some say that these two tradesmen were Burmese coming from Rangoon.
constant entertainment in which he had been brought up, came to

the Deer Park and was instructed by the Buddha on the evils and
vanity connected to worldly desires, and the path to deliverance.
Yasa’s father, missing his son, went in search of him and followed
his track to the Buddha. The Buddha comforted him and taught him
also, whereupon he took the Threefold Refuge (tisaraóa) thereby
becoming the first tevácika upásaka, using the three-word formula. In
the meantime Yasa, who had heard the instruction given to his
father, attained to arahantship. As Yasa was now free from all
attachments and could not therefore return to the worldly life, he
was ordained and became the seventh member of the Saògha.
Yasa’s mother and wife were the first women to become lay-
disciples (upásiká), both by the tevácika formula (Vin I 15–18).
Later, fifty more people heard his teaching and entered the
Order. After the rainy season the Buddha sent them in different
directions to teach the Dhamma that they had realized to others.
The Buddha set out from Benares eastwards—in the direction of the
great cities of the time, the first being the Magadhan capital,
Rájagaha. In course of his travels the Buddha accepted a great
number of followers and they were ordained into the Order by his
senior disciples.
The word saògha derives from sam plus hr, and means, literally:
‘comprising’. In practice it signifies ‘multitude’ or ‘assemblage’, but
in Buddhist terminology the Saògha is one assembly and one only,
namely, the Order of Bhikkhus and the Order of Bhikkhunìs. The
Saògha is without distinction of race, nationality, caste or age. The
only distinction is that of the Ariya Saògha, the ‘Saògha of Noble
Ones’ and the Sammuti Saògha, the ‘Conventional Saògha’. The
former Noble Ones sometimes referred to as ‘saints’ but actually
they are those who have ‘entered the stream’ (sotápatti), or in other
words, attained to the supramundane plane. The Ariya Saògha is
represented conventionally by the Sammuti Saògha, but it is in the
Ariya Saògha that the Buddhist takes refuge since it consists of those
who have realised the Truth and are able to teach it from their own
experience.
Here, however, we have something of an anomaly. Of the
persons who have ‘entered the stream’, and who therefore belong to
the Ariya Saògha, some may be laymen and not, therefore, a member
of the Sammuti Saògha. The Saògha, in the usual sense comprises
exclusively bhikkhus and bhikkhunìs; it does not include novices,
upásakas and upásikás. A term parisa meaning ‘company’ may be
used correctly to include both lay and ordained disciples but the
terms parisa and saògha are not interchangeable. The Vinaya text
called Mahávagga (Vin I 319) categorically explains that an
assembly of at least four bhikkhus is called a Saògha.
In practice, both lay disciples and monks assent to the doctrine
and though the preaching of the Dhamma is an auxiliary activity for
the bhikkhu he is not a ‘missionary’ in the modern sense of the term
since he does not engage in proselytizing.
Various definitions have been offered for the word bhikkhu.
Buddhaghosa (Vism I.8/p. 3) defines a bhikkhu as one who sees
danger in the stream of existence (saísára). Therefore ‘seer’ could be
an alternative rendering for bhikkhu. The Sanskrit bhikåu derives
from bhikå, ‘to beg, and long before the Buddha’s day a bhikåu
represented one of many types of ascetics, as did the wanderers
(paribbájaka), finders of subsistence (ájìvaka) and others. Now the
terms bhikkhu and bhikåu are exclusively Buddhist and they are not
beggars. Though they may make spontaneous requests to their
parents or close relatives, and may also state a need to professed
supporters who have previously requested them to ask for anything
they want, the rules of a bhikkhu do not permit him to ask for
anything from any other person though he may accept gifts of the
four requisites, viz. robes, alms-food, shelter and medicine, if they
are offered to him.
Most important in view of frequent mistranslation, a bhikkhu is
not a ‘priest’. Buddhism recognises no God, so there is no being on
whose behalf the bhikkhu could act as intermediary with man, either
for the asking of favours, or for any other reason. Moreover, no such
intervention as the asking of pardon for misdeeds is possible since,
automatically, one suffers or enjoys the results of one’s kamma.
Although it is perhaps the nearest translation of the word
bhikkhu, it is not entirely correct to refer to the bhikkhu as a ‘monk’
since he is not bound by any vows; he may, in fact, leave the Order
at any time he pleases.
The Buddha was once asked by Maháli the Licchavi if it was for
the cultivation of concentration (samádhi) that the bhikkhus led the
religious life under him. He replied that it was not, but that there
were “other things, higher and more excellent” for which they did
so (D I 156). The form in which he proceeded to describe them,
though considerably simpler than that adopted in many other
places (D III 234; M I 432), brings forward clearly the continuity
between the moralities of his teaching and the conditions necessary
to attain to the supramundane (lokutara) state by the destruction of

fetters and is therefore quoted here.
“First from the destruction of the three fetters, the bhikkhu
becomes a stream enterer (sotápanna), one who is sure to have
done with all suffering and is sure of liberation at the final end.
Further, the bhikkhu, from the destruction of the three fetters and
from the reduction of the foolishness of sensuous craving and ill-
will, becomes a once-returner (sakadágámì), one who having come
once more to this world, makes an end to suffering”.
(D I 156)
Any senior qualified bhikkhu who has counted more than ten
years in the Order is empowered to ordain a candidate as a novice
(sámaóera). No self-ordination is permissible. To be initiated into the
higher Order (upasampadá) there should be at least five bhikkhus at
the ceremony, one of whom must be of at least ten years standing. A
newly ordained bhikkhu is obliged to remain under a competent
teacher for a period of not less than five years, studying and
practising the Dhamma, until the teacher considers it advisable for
him to live by himself.
According to his temperament a bhikkhu may choose either the
duty of study and teaching (ganthadhura) or that of meditation
(vipassanádhura). Those who adopt the former course study and
practise the Dhamma, and may travel from place to place teaching
the doctrine to others throughout the year except during the rainy
season. Those who prefer the latter course retire to a place of
solitude and engage in meditation.
Having renounced everything worldly, the bhikkhu claims no
property, does not regret his past, and does not worry about the
future; he lives essentially for the present, free from responsibilities
and the trammels of the world (See S I 5; J-a VI 25; Sn 851; Nid I 222).
He clings to no abode and in all vicissitudes maintains a balanced
mind. His energy is directed to the activities that tend to universal
happiness. Clearly the bhikkhu’s task is no easy one for he has no
centralized authority in the shape of a governing body on which to
base any claim or to which he can look for any support. Though the
tradition of the Saògha maintained over a period of some 2,500
years must count for much in many countries, in the main it is by
the example of his own life that he must achieve the good for others
that he sets out to do. Besides preaching, no social activities were
formulated by the Buddha for the monks.
There are two vital aspects of the Buddha’s life: great wisdom
and compassion. Out of his great wisdom, he showed the Middle
Path to liberation from the sorrowful mundane world, and out of
compassion, he preached. He sent out his disciples also for the same
purpose. In the Buddha’s time there were evil practices taking place
in the name of God, gods or religion, such as animal sacrifices, caste
prejudices, slavery of womankind, and wars between petty
kingdoms. The Buddha, and his disciples, wandered far and wide
in India, refuting those evils practices and did their best to lift the
people into another world—a world of people differing from
ordinary man, not in habits alone, but in mind culture.
During later centuries scholar monks were teaching both lay
and ordained students. Then these monastic institutions developed
as universities like Taxila, Nálandá, Vickramasìlá, Odantapurì,
Jagaddalá, Dhannyakaþaka, etc.
It is interesting to study the way in which the Buddhist
monkhood has existed for twenty-five centuries; how it has gained
the support, respect and admiration of the people of many
countries; how it has always held in its hands the education of the
people. This brotherhood of monks is today as it was twenty-five
centuries ago, a community of men seeking the truth. First of all we
must dismiss any idea of priesthood or any idea of extra-human
sanctity with regards Buddhist monks.
Besides being the ideal of the Buddhists, the monk is more: he is
the teacher of all. However, teaching is a service apart from his
meditative life. The aim and object of the monkhood is to lead a life
of purity and detachment from the world. If the monk acts as a
teacher that is a thing apart. A monk need not necessarily teach
secular subjects to children. And yet before Western style education
was instituted, all monasteries were temple schools. All the
monasteries were, and still are, full of scholar monks and many
monks taught and teach. This is so for much the same reason in
Buddhist Asia as in western nations: the desire of parents that their
children should learn religion. The men who entered the Order
were often the wisest ones and furthermore had time available to
engage in teaching.
Faithful veneration pervades the mass of lay Buddhists. The
laity admire and venerate the monks and voluntarily and cheerfully
contribute to their maintenance and welfare. From the ranks of the
laity the bhikkhus are recruited. The life of the monk is one of
restraint and perpetual control of the senses. He has forgone all
sense pleasures and diversions. Such a system of self-denial is

always maintained. It cannot be denied that human motives often
influence both the laity and the religious. The monastic life is the
example and the proof of how the people live and believe.
Every man in Burma and Thailand practices the monastic life at
least for some time and thereby learns a great deal of Buddhism and
its practice. The young boys who live in monasteries have to learn
by heart certain portions of the sacred books. After dusk and again
before dawn, one will hear the young novices and boys intoning
clearly and loudly some of the sacred teachings of the Buddha. It is
one of the most inspiring sights to see monks and children kneeling
on the bare ground reciting while the dawn comes. The Buddhist
education in the monasteries is very good, not only in precept but
also in practice; for in the monastery the young boys must live a
pure and happy life like the monks do.
When civilisation evolves and more education is required, are
the monasteries able to provide it? The education given now is
mostly a means to an end; to learning the precepts of religion.
Whether the monks will provide an education beyond such a want,
I doubt. The monk is, by his vows, by the whole tenor of his life,
apart from the world. To pursue the search after knowledge and
truth, any kind of secular knowledge, would rekindle in him the
desires that the whole meaning of his life is to annihilate.
Besides, no knowledge, except mere theoretical knowledge, can
be acquired without going about in the world. You cannot cut
yourself off from the world and get knowledge of it. Yet the monk
has no antagonism to science—he has every sympathy with, and
respect for it. Buddhism will never try to block the progress of true
knowledge, of light, secular or religious; but whether the monks
will find it within their vows to provide that science, only time can
prove. However it may be, it will not make any difference to the
esteem in which the monks are held.
Monks are not honoured for their wisdom—though they often
have it; nor for their industry—though they are ever industrious;
nor for their learning—though they are usually learned; but because
they are noble-minded men trying to live—nay, succeeding in
living—a life devoid of evil deeds, words and thoughts. Up till now
the education given by the monks has met the needs of the people;
in the future it will do so less and less. But a community that has
lived through twenty-five centuries of change, and still has the
vitality that the Buddhist monkhood has, cannot have fear of
change. Today, meditation and other practices are continuing: if

they cease to be, perhaps the pattern and example of purity and
piety may diminish.
At present there are hundreds of monastic colleges (piriveóas) in
Sri Lanka itself. In those colleges, Pali, Sanskrit and Sinhalese are
being taught along with other subjects. But recently two big
monastic institutions, Vidyodaya and Vidyálaòkára, were given
University status by the Government. It was a tragedy because the
Government turned these institutions into the pattern of the other
Universities in the world with the result that, though education
remains, much of the discipline maintained by the monks ceases to
exist.
The Buddhist monks are supported by the laity. Therefore, it is a
duty of the monks to see to the laity’s mundane welfare too. In Sri
Lanka, many Buddhist monks are doing social service among the
people in rural areas. If such a monk lives in a village monastery the
people of the village are well disciplined. There are no quarrels or
crimes in that village. Monks give counsel and advice to the people
for their household life whenever necessary. The monks are the
people who reconcile rival groups in a town or village. The monks
conduct meditation courses for the people who are in need of such
retreats from time to time. During such courses they get an
opportunity to verify their studies on the teaching of the Buddha.
On the occasion of sorrowful as well as happy events, the good
Buddhist laity expects monks to come and chant suttas and invoke
the blessings of the Triple Gem. Often the laity comes to the temple
to receive blessings from the monks, who conduct services
especially on the days of Buddhist Uposatha (the equivalent of
Sabbath), i.e. full-moon days, new-moon days, and half-moon days.
Buddhist services are always followed by sermons given by the
monks. It is the monks who lead the people to righteous and
religious lives.
Between lay Buddhists and the monks there is an important
relationship. This relationship is set out formally in a discourse
called the Sigálováda-sutta (D III 180–193), which is one of the best
known suttas among the Buddhists of South-East Asia. In this
discourse none of the duties of the householder is left unmentioned.
Among others, the reciprocal duties of householders and members
of the Order are set out: The good householder ministers to the
monks by showing reverential affection for them in his actions, in
his speech and in his thoughts, by giving them a warm welcome
and ample hospitality and by providing generally for their material

needs. In return, the members of the Order are to show their
affection for householders by restraining them from evil courses of
action, by exhorting them to do what is honourable, by entertaining
kindly feelings towards them, by imparting knowledge to them, by
dealing with their difficulties and doubts, and revealing to them the
spiritual way. Those who have been acquainted with the life of a
country like Burma, where Buddhist culture is still a living force,
will know how true these reciprocal duties are among the
householders and the monks.
The duties thus envisaged for the monk in relation with the
householder require constant, day-to-day contacts between the two.
That is why I mentioned that the word ‘monk’, if it means a person
who lives apart from the world, is inappropriate as a translation for
bhikkhu. The bhikkhu has to exhort the householder, restrain him
when necessary, instruct him, clear up his doubts, and constantly
direct his attention to the right path. This is followed by him most
effectively and he is providing an example and an inspiration to the
householder.
The life of the Buddhist monk who has given up the comforts of
household life thus has an important social function.
Chapter 14
THE DEBT TO OUR PARENTS
When a child is born into this world it has no ability to live even for
a few days without the help of someone else. It is the parents who
look after and foster it. The parents have to undergo a lot of troubles
until it becomes a grown-up boy or girl, who perhaps, would be in a
position to live without others’ help. The love of parents towards
their children is beyond description. They do everything humanly
possible to help their children. They nurse, feed, wash, clean and
arrange comforts to the best of their ability. The parents are ready to
sacrifice their every comfort for the sake of their children. They look
after their children without proper sleep. When the child is ill they
are willing to spend their entire wealth for the child’s care.
They give their best to their children, they forget themselves
and regard only the comfort, well-being and happiness of their
children. Their main aim in life is to see that their children prosper
and live happily. They consider their children as part and parcel of
their lives. Their children’s joy is their joy, their children’s
prosperity is their prosperity, their children are the main source of
their delight and happiness. If their children fall into any difficulty
they are depressed and miserable.
The assistance which is rendered by parents to their children is
limitless. Explaining the greatness of parents the Buddha said:
“Brahmá, monks, is a term for mother and father. ‘First teacher’,
monks, is a name for mother and father. ‘Worthy of offerings’,
monks, is a term for mother and father. Because mother and
father do much for their children; they bring them up, nourish
and introduce them to the world.” (A I 131)
Why are these supreme terms given to parents? Four excellent
qualities—loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and
equanimity—are the four Brahmaviháras or divine abidings. The
parents maintain these four qualities towards their children.
Therefore the parents are like Brahmas to their children.
Sons and daughters learn under various teachers as they grow
up. But they learn the first and most valuable lessons from their
parents—the lessons like how to talk, how to eat, how to clean
THE DEBT TO OUR PARENTS 89
themselves, how to behave etc. Therefore they are ‘first teachers’.

Therefore parents are worthy of offerings. Wherever the parents
may be in their old age, the children should go and offer the
necessary requirements and gifts.
Children are deeply indebted to their parents. According to the
Buddha they are so indebted to them that one could not repay them
even if one were to minister to them with every possible service for
a hundred years. Even if one were to establish one’s parents in
absolute sovereignty over the whole earth—not even thus could one
repay one’s parents. The Buddha points out that it is because
parents do much for their children in bringing them up, nourishing
them and introducing them to the world.
There are, however, ways to repay the great debt to parents to
some extent. That is by dissuading them from evil, inducing them to
do good and be good, and by living as ideal children. They should,
in brief, be provided not only with fleeting material pleasures but
also with spiritual treasures like confidence, morality, wisdom etc.
Dutiful and loving children should always be obedient to their
parents who bestow their unfailing love on them. They should
revere them and respect their wishes. They should never anger nor
provoke them nor hurt their feelings. They should always maintain
their parents’ honour and good name by their own excellent
character, refined behaviour, charming manners and noble
demeanour. In every way they should try to the best of their ability
to be the worthy children of their parents and do nothing to bring
discredit to their good name even after their death.
Most children do not realise the amount of affection and care
their parents have towards them. Always the parental love is far
greater than filial love. One cannot expect that children, who are
less mature, to be grateful and dutiful. But it is very wrong for them
to be ungrateful and stubborn when they are grown up.
Three types of children have been enumerated in the Buddhist
scriptures. Firstly, those who are inferior to their parents in every
respect (avajáta); second, those who are on the same level with their
parents (anujáta); and thirdly, those who excel their parents in every
way (atijáta). All parents without exception want their children to
excel them in learning, virtue and social position etc. Therefore
every child must endeavour to be such.
Parents’ one and only hope is to see their children grow up as
good and ideal people. They would be happy if they surpass them.
They would surely be unhappy if they fall below their expected
standard. In order to lead their children onto the right path parents
should set a good example.
According to the Sigálováda-sutta, the following five duties
should be performed by parents:
1. They should dissuade their children from evil. Home is the
first school where the children learn their elementary lessons in
good and bad behaviour from their parents. Therefore the parents
should be very careful to dissuade them from evils such as lying,
dishonesty, stealing, vindictiveness etc.
2. They should persuade them to do good. Parents should, by
words and example, try to persuade their children to emulate and
practise good behaviour such as kindness, obedience, courage,
honesty, perseverance etc.
3. They should give their children a good education. The best
legacy that parents can bequeath to their children is a good
education. There is no more valuable thing than knowledge. The
parents should see that their children learn a suitable art or science
along with good ethical principles. Education affords discipline and
a disciplined person is a blessing to himself and to society.
4. They should give them in marriage to a suitable partner.
Marriages may be either based on love or arranged by parents. It is
a paramount duty of parents to see whether the marriage of their
children would develop to a life-long companionship. If husband
and wife do not assist each other, love each other, share their
happiness and sorrow with each other, look after each other, and
respect each other, the marriage would be a life-long misery. The
parents have the right to advise their children with regard to their
proposed marriage. They should admonish them and explain the
duties of husband and wife as given in the Sigálováda-sutta.
5. At the proper time they should hand over their inheritance.
Loving parents not only do everything for the prosperity of their
children during their youth but they also make preparations for
their future comfort and well-being with their ancestral inheritance.
Their own hard-earned wealth is also bequeathed to their children
as a legacy.
In return there are five duties that children should perform
towards their parents.
1. Being supported by them, they should support them in
return. This is one of the paramount duties of children. They should
THE DEBT TO OUR PARENTS 91
obey them and not displease, ill-treat or disrespect them at any cost.
They should attend to their needs when they are sick or getting old.
In fact, they should deem it a great blessing and privilege to
minister to them when they are helpless, weak or destitute.
2. They should perform the necessary duties. They should
always try to know what are their parents’ needs and try to provide
them. The Bodhisattva considered it as his greatest privilege to
sacrifice even his life for the sake of his parents.
3. They should maintain the family traditions. It is an important
duty of children to continue the good works started by their
parents. They thereby preserve the family traditions. They should
carry on any philanthropic or social work started by their parents
especially after their death.
4. They should act in such a way as to be worthy of their
inheritance. Whatever property or legacy they receive from their
parents it should be protected and increased.
5. They should offer alms in honour of their departed parents. It
is a noble custom to remember and revere one’s parents after their
death. One should offer alms to the monks or the needy and transfer
the merits thereby acquired to the departed parents. (D III 189)
Buddhists believe in rebirth. They know that their departed
parents have taken rebirth somewhere else. Therefore after doing
suitable meritorious deeds they emanate their thoughts towards
their deceased parents and invite them to rejoice in their good
deeds. Periodical almsgivings are held, or donations are given to
charitable institutions, books on the Dhamma are published,
schools, hospitals, orphanages etc., are established in the names of
parents. Dutiful and loving children perform all kinds of
philanthropic work in order to perpetuate the hallowed name of
their parents as a mark of their gratitude.
Chapter 15
THE DOCTRINE OF NON-VIOLENCE
IN BUDDHISM
Let us examine the Buddhist doctrine of non-violence, ahiísá. It

must be emphasized that there is nothing obscure or ambiguous in
the manner in which this is set forth in the Buddhist Canonical texts.
The Buddha categorically denounced violence, hiísá, and asked his
followers to cultivate and practise non-violence towards all beings.
This sublime Buddhist principle is fully explained in Buddhist
literature as loving-kindness, mettá, and compassion, karuóá. In the
entire Buddhist Canon there is no single saying of the Buddha in
which he advocated or even permitted any kind of killing on any
pretext whatsoever. He was, of all teachers, the most
compassionate—mahákáruóika—and he taught us to spread peace
and good-will among all without distinction.
Let us consider a few of his many sayings on this particular
subject.
“All tremble before violence; life is dear to all. Comparing
others with oneself, one should not kill nor cause to kill.”
(Dhp 130)
“A man is no ‘noble’ in that he does harm to living beings. He
who is harmless to all living beings, that one is called ‘noble’.”
(Dhp 270)
In the Karaóìyametta-sutta of the Suttanipáta, five of the ten
stanzas are devoted to the non-violence aspect of loving-kindness,
which is to say, to the loving-kindness which knows no injury and
which is ever compassionate.
“Whatever living beings there are, feeble or strong, tall, stout or
medium, short, small or large; seen or unseen, those dwelling
near or far away, those who are born and those who are yet to be
born—may all beings be well and happy.
“Let no one deceive or despise another person anywhere; let
no one wish harm to another out of ill-will or anger. Just as a
mother protects her only child with her own life, so should there
be developed in all living beings a mind without limit.
THE DOCTRINE OF NON-VIOLENCE IN BUDDHISM 93
“In all the world let there be developed a mind of loving-

kindness without limit, above, below, across, without
obstruction, without enmity, without rivalry.” (Sn 146–150)
Of the five precepts which every Buddhist undertakes to
observe, the first consists of the declaration, “I undertake the
precept to abstain from the taking of life.” The Buddhist must then
neither destroy nor cause, nor allow to be destroyed any living
thing. Further the Buddha says:
“Do not kill a living being. You should not kill or condone
killing by others. Having abandoned the use of violence, you
should not use force against either the strong or the feeble.”
(Sn 394)
“He who for a hundred years makes a thousand sacrifices each
month is not worth the sixteenth part of a person who is
compassionate to living creatures.” (Dhp 106)
Therefore Buddhists all over the world have abstained from
killing animals either for food, sport or sacrifices. In ancient India,
before the birth of Buddhism, the slaughtering of animals—horses,
bulls, rams and cattle—was very common. Animal sacrifices are still
common in Hindu temples. The Vedas, the Brahminic scriptures,
enjoined this as a duty, though every Hindu will quote the saying,
“Non-violence is the greatest religion.”1 Moreover, the stanza
quoted above occurs similarly at Manusmºþi (V 53). The Buddha
condemned these blood sacrifices outright.
The same attitude applies in the case of mosquitoes and other
disease-carrying insects, however dangerous they may be.
Buddhists may sometimes destroy them as a preventative measure
against malaria but they cannot escape the consequences of their
unwholesome volitional action. It is a selfish idea to preserve one’s
life at the expense of another, whatever form it may be. If one
destroys life in order to help others, one is not on that account
absolved from the crime one has already committed. One has to
reap the consequences. Buddhism does not take the view that the
end justifies the means. Good actions bring about good results
while evil actions bring about evil consequences. They are two
different actions and one cannot cancel one action by another. There
1. Ahiísá paramo dharmaý. Cf. Mahábharata, 1.11.13; xiii 115,25 (Calcutta

Edition); iii 198,19,69; xiii.
is no ‘lesser evil’ in Buddhism. Nevertheless, so long as we are still

worldlings we cannot altogether escape harming other beings. But
we should try to avoid it as much as possible until we reach our
goal of Nibbána, then one is incapable of harming other beings even
to save one’s own life.
The greatest Buddhist Emperor, Asoka, who reigned from
approximately 273–232 B.C.E., which would be about three
hundred years after the Parinibbána of the Buddha, said:
“Here no animal shall be slaughtered and sacrificed.”
(Rock Edict 1)
“Abstention from slaughter of living creatures is a meritorious
thing.” (Rock Edict 3)
The underlying philosophy behind this attitude is that of
compassion. Buddhists do not consider that man is made in the
image of a deity and therefore fundamentally different from other
living beings; on the contrary, we consider that man is akin to
animals although he represents a higher stage of evolution. Since
life is dear to all beings we Buddhists regard even the least
significant life to be sacred and therefore try to develop loving-
kindness to all without limit, preference or prejudice.
The Buddhist appeal to humanity was so strong that it created a
horror of the practice of blood sacrifice which overcame even
devout belief in the authority of the Vedas. In all Buddhist lands the
love of animals is widespread. For instance; it is not uncommon for
rich Thais to buy live fish in order to gain merit by restoring them to
the sea, while in Sri Lanka people will buy caged birds and restore
them to freedom.
Violence does, of course, occur in Buddhist countries. There
have been wars and killings, but this does not mean that such
violence is sanctioned. The Buddha made no specific statement
concerning war, but the seven conditions of welfare laid down for
the Vajjians and recorded at the beginning of the Maháparinibbána-
sutta (D II 72–76) are worthy of close study:
“As long as the Vajjians are established in these seven things
which do not bring loss and ruin, and remain in concord with
them, so long may they be expected to prosper and not to decline:
1. As long as they gather together in public meetings frequently,
2. As long as they meet and disperse in concord,
3. As long as they abide by the Vajjian traditions,

4. As long as they respect the elders,
5. As long as they abduct no women,
6. As long as they worship the Vajjian shrines,
7. As long as they provide support and protection for the
arahants; so long may they be expected to prosper and not
to decline.” (D II 75)
Thus it is seen that as long as a society lives together in harmony with
its own members and does not actively oppress others it has little to
fear from any outside antagonism. This is equally true of individuals.
The essential point to bear in mind is the Buddhist
understanding that we are all responsible for our actions, whether
good or bad; if these actions lead to evils we must bear the
consequences. Non-violence is the aim, but, since we are all at
different stages of development, it is an aim which will not easily be
realised. At the same time, the fact that it may not be possible
immediately to attain complete ahiísá is no excuse or justification
for not practising it on every occasion that we can in our present
state of understanding; rather must it be so that, by practising
ahiísá to the greatest possible extent in our own immediate
environment, the circumstances under which we should at present
consider it impossible to practise ahiísá will never arise.
A leading principle of the Buddha is peace, goodwill and
harmony among all living beings and because of this he has been
called santináyaka—a leader who is a promoter of peace. Buddhism
teaches one how to live peacefully in society. The result is that by
keeping the Buddhist code of ethics as well as one can and by
training one’s mind in meditation, one has inner harmony and is at
peace with all one’s moods and thoughts, with one’s concepts and
ideas and with one’s feelings. One does not repress the emotions;
one controls them and does not give vent to one’s harsher feelings;
one tries to live in a way which harms no one and so one finds, with
practice, that what we know as ‘self’ is just a collection of mental
states which arise, persist briefly and then pass away as though they
had never been. This awareness is the pivot of the Buddha’s
teaching. Through it, one finds inner peace, and can thus live in
harmony with others. The Buddha worked to spread this ‘Kingdom
of Peace’ on earth.
What is this mindfulness or awareness? It is awareness of
everything that we think, say and do. The training is ethical and the
Buddha emphasized how important it is that we try to follow

ethical concepts as well as possible. The ethics of Buddhism is
founded on one’s mental attitude since all thought, speech and
action spring from our minds, and our minds are just mental states
which come and go as quickly as a flash of lightning. It is most
important to guard our minds against ill-will and to practise loving-
kindness and friendliness towards all living beings. It is not
sentimentality. It is joyful because it does not cling. It understands
impermanence and so it lives in the present. It looks to the ‘now’
and not to a future which is not yet come.
As well as loving-kindness; there are three other virtues which
should be practised. We should be compassionate. What is true
compassion? It is the emotion which makes the heart of the strong
man quiver when he sees the suffering of others. It is neither grief
nor is it affection. It is a ‘sympathy’ with the suffering person or
being and an understanding that although, like all states, it will
change, nevertheless recognising it is a sadness for the being
experiencing the discomfort or grief.
Then there is sympathetic joy: the Pali word is muditá. This is
what we should feel for those who have success in life. We should
be glad for their success and happy that they have achieved fame
and fortune; that they have passed their examination or have been
able to buy a fine house or a new car. It is not an easy virtue to
cultivate. But if we ourselves are frugal and industrious and easily
contented then it will be easier.
The fourth virtue is upekkhá, equanimity. One tries not to be
influenced by the praise and blame of others. One remembers that
in sickness and health, pleasure and pain, one’s mind can only be
affected if one allows it to be. If one knows that the circumstances
will change one will maintain an inner calm—one should not be
affected by ‘the passing show’. The goal of the holy life is complete
freedom from all conflicts—both within and without.
Buddhism teaches peace and it has often been remarked that
there was never any blood shed in order to propagate it. The great
Emperor Asoka said, “All men are my children and, as I desire for
my children that they obtain every kind of welfare and happiness
both in this world and in the next world, so do I desire for all men.”
In the early years of his reign Asoka extended his empire by force of
arms but when he realised the validity of Buddha’s teaching he saw
that the best way to conquer others was by one’s own good example
and kindness. So he instituted social reforms, built roads and
hospitals, improved the education system and ruled his country

with benevolence and justice.
“Victory breeds hatred, for the conquered lie down in sorrow;
casting aside both victory and defeat, the peaceful dwell at
ease.” (Dhp 207)
Asoka followed the Buddha’s teaching and proved that it is
quite possible to rule a country without undue harshness and
without engaging in military conquests.
The Buddha once intervened in a dispute between the Sakyans
and Koliyas who were disputing how the waters of the river Rohini
should be used in a time of drought—both clans needed water to
irrigate their crops. The Buddha settled the argument by pointing
out that blood is far more precious than water and taught that
mutual help is the best assistance one can give and obtain.1
Governments should realise this and bring an end to the arms race.
Peace, good-will and harmony are essential to a happy life. One
should feel that one fears no one and is feared by no one. If we look
at our fear, it dies away. The same is true of anger. If we learn how
to ‘watch’ our mental states we will never have to suffer from fear
or worry, despair or frustration to the same extent again. So being
mindful of our mental states is very important. Systematic
mindfulness—that is, slowing down and watching objectively—is
the most important of all the Buddha’s teachings and is fully
described in the Satipaþþhána-suttas (D II 290; M I 56). “Don’t wish,
just watch!” is an excellent reminder.
“All that we are is all that we have thought” (cf. Dhp 1–2, 165) is
no idle saying. If we are truly aware and mindful of what we think,
say and do, then we guard ourselves well. If we are well-guarded,
watching our reactions and our words, our emotions and feelings,
then we are people of peace and we, in helping ourselves, help
others; and in helping others to be peaceful we are truly helping
society. As more and more people become aware and mindful,
society becomes more and more peaceful. If we all cultivate the four
great virtues of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and
equanimity, we have a solid foundation for ethical conduct. Thus
we can develop our spiritual maturity and through seeing things as
they really are, we can attain full knowledge and the ultimate bliss
of Nibbána.
1. Sn-a I 358; Cp I 42; Dhp-a III 254ff.

Chapter 16
THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO FOOD
In a Buddhist Canonical text, arranged in a numerical form for ease

of learning, it is asked: “What is the one principle of life?” And the
answer is “Food is the sustenance of all beings.” (Khp 2). And
elsewhere it is stated: “All that lives subsists on nourishment.” (D III
211; A V 50). Again it is said to be the “one thing that must be
thoroughly understood”( D III 273).
Thus from the outset, Buddhism recognises the fact that food is
the vital nutriment sustaining life, in whatever form it may take.
Indeed, health is considered the greatest wealth (Dhp 204). As food
is the main pre-requisite for existence the Buddha therefore rightly
says:
“Monks, in giving a meal, a giver gives five things to the
receiver. What five? He gives longevity, beauty, comfort,
strength and the power of understanding.” (A III 42)
Since long before the time of the Buddha, Brahmins, the
hereditary priests of their religion, wastefully sacrificed foodstuffs
like wheat, corn, butter, milk etc., in the sacrificial fire in the form of
offerings to the gods and thereby exploited all producers of food.
The Buddha condemned such wasteful and futile practices. Besides
these baneful practices they hoarded large quantities of foodstuffs
for themselves. In a Játaka it is said:
“If he wins merit who to feed the flame
Piles wood and straw, the merit is the same
When cooks light fires or blacksmiths at their trade,
Or those who burn the corpses of the dead.
“Some worship as a god the breasted flame,
Barbarians give to water that high name:
But both alike have wandered from their road
Neither is worthy to be called a god.
“These greedy liars propagate deceit,
And fools believe the fictions they repeat;
Why do fraud, lies, ignorance prevail?
THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO FOOD 99
Why triumphs falsehood—truth and justice fail?”

(Selected from J-a VI 206–208.)
Through the influence of Buddhism, Indian society largely
adopted vegetarianism. However, although many Buddhists, even
now, refrain from eating meat, it must be clearly stressed that no
prohibitive decree was ever promulgated, doubtless based on the
pragmatic principle that in certain areas of the world people would
be compelled to eat meat due to various reasons, such as the
infertility of the soil. Also the principle of choice must be left to each
individual and not be violated with trifling lists of “do’s” and
“don’ts” on issues of secondary importance, the most important
issue being one’s intention. Buddhism did, for instance, condemn
the killing and selling of animals for food.
It is of vital importance that we should understand the necessity
of food based solely on its values to health and well-being if we are
to keep free from sickness and live long. Without proper food one
cannot lead a healthy life. Many people are susceptible to various
diseases mainly due to the lack of nourishing food. Hunger leads to
death. Therefore hunger is the greatest illness. One anecdote will
illustrate the importance the Buddha himself attached to the
importance of food.
The Buddha went to Á¿avi to preach the Dhamma to a certain
poor man. On that very day the man had gone to seek an ox which
he had lost, and the Buddha waited for him to return. When he
returned, the Buddha, observing that he was hungry, saw to it that
he was well served with food. As soon as the poor man’s physical
suffering had been relieved, his mind became tranquil (Dhp-a III
261). Then the Buddha taught him the Dhamma. At the conclusion
of his teaching he said:
“Hunger is the greatest disease.
The aggregates of being are the greatest suffering.
If a man thoroughly understands this,
He has attained Nibbána, supreme bliss.” (Dhp 203)
From the above anecdote we should understand that the
hunger-stricken devotee should not be inflicted with a sermon. One
will not benefit so much from any teaching of religion if one’s
attention is disturbed by an empty stomach. We must remember the
golden saying, “First things first.”
Health embraces both body and mind. It is composed not only of

resistance to diseases, not only of physiological endurance and the
capacity for effort; it consists also in moral strength, mental
equilibrium and wisdom. It is therefore useless to teach the Dhamma
on the three main Buddhist tenets—morality, concentration and
wisdom—if the devotees are afflicted with hunger.
Although food is the main pre-requisite for survival, good
health and long life, if one eats too much it paves the way to
temptation, craving, disease, ugliness and untimely death. The
Buddha advised people to be moderate in food, to live with a light
stomach, be moderate in food, easily satisfied and not gluttonous
(see S I 172; Sn 78, 712).
The following anecdote (from Dhp-a III 264 and S I 81) will
illustrate the virtues of moderation in eating. One day King
Pasenadi of Kosala visited the Buddha while still suffering from the
effects of his enormous meal. The Buddha, having noticed the
king’s uneasiness, instructed the king on the evils of over-eating. He
also asked the king’s nephew, Sudassana to memorize the following
admonition and recite it before the king at meal times.
“If a man gives way to indolence, eats overmuch,
Spends his time in sleep, and
Rolls about like a great hog fed on grain,
Such a simpleton enters the womb again and again.” (Dhp 325)
“If a man be ever mindful,
If he observes moderation in food,
His suffering will be slight;
He will grow slowly, preserving his life.” (S I 81, Dhp-a IV 15)
The king gradually reduced his meals and found the practice
more healthy. His body became light and agile. Later he visited the
Buddha and told him that his health had improved considerably.
It is clearly stated that a person who is immoderate as regards
his food and who takes it thoughtlessly and unwisely just for the
sake of amusement, pride, etc., will have to bear the consequences
(Pug 21). It is for reasons of health and general well-being that
Buddhist monks have been advised to take only one meal a day
before noon and thereafter to drink some kind of fruit juice to slake
their thirst.
Buddhism constitutes the Middle Path between the two
extremes of self-indulgence (kámasukhallikánuyoga) and self-mortifi-
THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO FOOD 101
cation (attakilamathánuyoga). Today we see these two extremes in

practice in certain parts of the world. On the one hand we see in the
affluent societies, people over-eating and drinking while in some
parts of the world people do not have the wherewithal to keep
themselves alive. They live on the borderline of starvation. This is
potentially a very explosive situation. If not corrected it could lead
to bloody revolutions endangering the lives or economic stability of
millions. Therefore it is of prime importance to ponder over this
matter and use the food resources of the world to solve this very
urgent problem.
More than a third of the world is desperately poor. In the slums
around such cities as Rio de Janeiro and Calcutta many thousands
of people live in tiny shacks made out of tin and old wooden crates
and exist on the few coins they can earn each day by cleaning the
cars of the wealthy. The great powers should realise that spiritual
development far outweighs material prosperity which is here today
and gone tomorrow. Supply and demand fluctuate—when there is
a lot of grain in the West, demand falls and prices fall too. So in the
EU there are ‘butter mountains’ and ‘wine lakes’ and farmers
destroy their crops because they are too cheap to harvest profitably,
whilst in other parts of the world people starve. Greed is a great
evil. Buddhism teaches compassion for those in need and
sympathetic-joy for those who are prosperous.
“Thus as a result of goods not accruing to those who are
destitute, poverty becomes rife; from poverty becoming rife,
stealing increases; from the spread of stealing, violence grows
apace; from the growth of violence, the destruction of life
becomes commonplace; from the frequency of murder, both the
span of life in those beings and their beauty wastes away. Thus
as a result of goods not accruing to those who were destitute,
poverty becomes rife, from poverty becoming rife, stealing,
violence, murder, lying, evil speech, adultery, abusive and idle
talk, covetousness and ill-will, false views, incest, wanton greed
and perverted lust, until finally lack of filial and religious piety
and lack of regard for the head of the clan grows great.”
(D III 66ff.)
We cannot possibly expect society to be good if the people are
poor and destitute. Each individual in any society contributes to the
whole. If people are helped through aid programmes to help
themselves, even the poorest countries in the world will grow rich.
Wealth should be given to those who are poor by training them to

make a living, by building hospitals and creating welfare services
and above all by teaching the poorest among them a trade. Christian
Aid in India and Africa runs schemes whereby boys and girls in the
villages are taught how to grow crops apart from the traditional
ones of jute and rice. Weaving and basket-making are taught and
schools have been started to teach literacy. There is a sponsorship
scheme whereby people in more affluent countries can sponsor
children from poorer countries by buying their books and
contributing towards the cost of their education. This is a very good
form of help. When the children leave the villages they can support
themselves with their skills and earn for their families. Many now
go on to further or even higher education. Some train as doctors and
dentists, as teachers and welfare workers and so actively help their
fellow countrymen. Everyone and everything is interdependent.
Religious leaders of the world should concentrate on this
pressing problem and not spend vast sums on building religious
edifices which are not in keeping with the surroundings. Social
workers too, should seriously view this matter and pool all their
abilities to find ways and means of solving this very urgent
problem. In the Kúþadanta-sutta it is said:
“Whosoever there be in the King’s realm who devote
themselves to keeping cattle and farming, to them let His
Majesty the King give food and seed-corn.” (D I 135)
In the light of this advice it is clear that governments should
help farmers with subsidies, machinery etc., when and wherever
necessary. Scientists and politicians, before embarking on
spectacular conquests of other planets, let alone other nations,
should urgently confer and ensure a just and equitable distribution
of the world’s natural resources for the welfare of all humanity.
Chapter 17
KAMMA
Kamma in Pali or karma in Sanskrit in its most general sense means all
good and bad actions, Kamma is neither fatalism nor a doctrine of
predetermination. The past influences the present, for kamma is past
as well as present. The past and present influence the future—in this
life or in the life to come. It has a cause first and an effect afterwards.
We, therefore, speak of kamma as the law of cause and effect.
What is the cause of the inequality that exists in the world.
Buddhists cannot attribute it to a God, a Creator of the manifold
destinies of men and the infinite gradations of beings that dwell in
the universe. Neither can Buddhists believe that this heterogeneity
of the world is the result of blind chance. Science itself is against the
theory of ‘chance’ because scientists work in accordance with the
laws of cause and effect. We see one born affluent and endowed
with fine mental, moral and physical qualities and another born into
miserable poverty and wretchedness. A man may be virtuous but
have continuous bad luck, the world running counter to his
ambitions. Another may be vicious but rewarded in spite of his evil
mode of life. Why should one be inferior and another superior?
Why should one be taken from the hands of his mother at an early
age, another perish at ripe manhood and yet another at the age of 90
or 100? One is sick and infirm and another is strong and healthy.
One lives in the lap of luxury surrounded by amusements and
pleasures and another experiences tears and misery; one is a
millionaire and the other a pauper; and again one is brilliant and
gifted and another an idiot? These are some problems which
perplex thinking men. Variations due to heredity and environment
are, no doubt, partly instrumental but cannot be responsible for all
the subtle distinctions that exist in beings. Twins are often
temperamentally and physically different in spite of this fact.
According to Buddhism these variations are due to our own
kamma or the law of causation. We ourselves are responsible for
our own happiness or misery. We build our own heavens and hells.
We are the architects of our own fate. We ourselves, in short, are our
own kamma, there being just the act and the result of the act. Hence,
the Buddha said:
“Every living being has kamma as its own, its inheritance, its
cause, its kinsman, its refuge. Kamma is also that which
differentiates beings into low and high states.”
(M III 203; cf. A III 186, V 87 f.).
The literal meaning of kamma is action. Buddhism briefly
defines meritorious or demeritorious volition, cetaná, as kamma.
The Buddha said:
“It is mental volition, O monks, that I call kamma. Having
willed, one acts through body, speech or mind.”
(A III 415)
Where there is no consciousness, such as in inanimate objects,
there is no kamma, nor is any action kamma which is unintentional.
Kamma is not merely the affair of external or visible deeds, it is the
motive or volition involved in thinking, speaking or acting. Any
deed devoid of willing or intention cannot properly be called
kamma. Hinduism and Jainism are in perfect harmony with
Buddhism in as far as they attribute unevenness of states to kamma
but Jainism goes off at a tangent when it stipulates that unconscious
or unintentional actions are kamma.
When did kamma begin? Kamma which is a law in itself, like all
general laws of nature cannot be said to have a beginning. If kamma
has an identity then it must have a beginning, but kamma is a force,
an energy and like electricity, necessitates a beginningless past.
What is the cause of kamma? The beginning cannot be determined
but the result is discernible. The ‘I’ is impelled to act. It receives
sensations and impressions which arise as a result of craving (taóhá)
and grasping (upádána) owing to ignorance (avijjá), which thus
results in the acquisition of kamma. Craving or ignorance is,
therefore, the cause of kamma. Who is the ‘doer’ of kamma if we say
that there is no self (attá)? Who reaps the fruit? Is it as in Hinduism
where the one soul builds about itself a divine essence? Not at all;
for the Ancients1 said:
“No doer is there who does the deed nor is there one who feels
the fruit; empty phenomena roll on—this indeed is right
discernment.” (Vism XIX.20/p. 602)
1. The Poráóas referred to frequently in the Visuddhimagga are the saintly

elders of the time of the Buddha and after, whose sayings were found in
old commentaries at the time of Buddhaghosa.
KAMMA 105
In the ultimate sense, Buddhism cannot conceive of an

unchanging entity. A being or a deva or a man are forms which are
only temporary manifestations of this kammic force. A being is only
a concept used for conventional purposes, i.e., a combination of
mind and matter. Matter, according to Buddhism, is a manifestation
of forces and qualities: solidity (paþhavi), cohesion (ápo), heat (tejo)
and motion (váyo). There are also twenty-four material qualities
derived from these. Mind is composed only of fleeting mental
states, each unit of consciousness consisting of three phases; that of
arising (uppáda), peak (þhiti) and dissolution (bhaòga). One unit of
consciousness perishes and gives birth to another consequent
thought-moment which is not the same nor yet different; it is just
kammic energy. Consciousness is not joined up like a chain but
flows persistently like a river receiving impressions from the
streams of sense contact and ever dispersing the thought stuff
gathered by the way. The rapidity of thought is too swift to measure
by any standard. It is like a flash of lightning which consists of
sparks following each other in such rapid succession that the
intervals cannot be seen. As the wheel of a car rests upon the
ground on one point only, so does a being live for one thought-
moment, always in the present but slipping back into the past.
There is no actor apart from action, no perceiver apart from
perception and no substantial subject behind them. Where is
kamma, either good or bad, stored? It is not stored in either the
mind or the body. The whole kammic force depends upon a flux
which is ready to manifest itself as occasion arises. The working of
kamma is not easy to grasp; the Buddha termed it one of the four
incomprehensible things.1
In order to comprehend the working of kamma one must first
understand the process of consciousness (citta-vìthi): When a person
is asleep the mind is in a state of subconsciousness or life-
continuum (bhavaòga). When the mind is not receiving impressions
it experiences this subconsciousness state which, however, is
interrupted whenever an object enters the mind. Then the natural
flow of consciousness is checked and it turns towards the object
coming in through one of the five sense doors (pañcadvárávajjana).
The object is then received by the mind, investigated (santìraóa) and
decided upon (voþþhapana). Then follow seven apperceptive
1. Namely:. 1. the scope of a Buddha, 2. the scope of jhána, 3. the scope of

kamma, and 4. world speculation; see A II 80.
moments (javana) when kamma is made, both good and bad. Then
follow the two registration moments (tadálambana). The effects of
the first apperception moment are reaped in this life itself and are
known as immediately effective kamma. If not in this life it becomes
ineffective because the opportunity has been missed. The seventh
javana is reaped in the next birth. This is also ineffective if it does not
operate in the next life. The intermediate javanas may operate at any
time until Nibbána is attained.
Classification of Kamma
A. Kamma is classified into four kinds according to the time at
which results are produced:
1. Kamma that ripens in the same life-time (diþþhadhamma-
vedanìya);
2. Kamma that ripens in the next life (upapajja-vedanìya);
3. Kamma that ripens indefinitely in successive births (apará-
pariyavedanìya). These kammas are bound to produce
results, just as seeds are to sprout. For a seed to sprout,
certain auxiliary conditions such as soil, rain, attention,
protection, good season etc., are required. In the same way
for kamma to produce an effect, several auxiliary causes
such as circumstances, surroundings, etc., are required. It
sometimes happens that for want of such auxiliary causes,
kamma does not produce any result.
4. Kamma which is ineffective (ahosikamma).
B. Kamma is also classified according to function:
1. Regenerative (janaka) kamma which conditions the birth;
2. Supportive (upatthambhaka) kamma which assists or
maintains the results of already existing kamma;
3. Counteractive (upapì¿aka) kamma which suppresses or
modifies the result of the regenerative kamma;
4. Destructive (upaghátaka) kamma which destroys the force of
existing kamma and substitutes its own resultants.
C. Kamma is also classified according to the priority of results:
1. Serious or weighty (garu) kamma which produces its
resultant in the present life or in the next. On the moral side,
ecstasies (jhánas) are weighty as they are refined mental
KAMMA 107
states. On the immoral side, crimes such as matricide,

patricide, murder of a perfect saint, wounding of a Buddha
and creating a schism in the Saògha are weighty.
2. Death proximate (ásanna) kamma is the kamma which one
does at the moment before death by having good or bad
thoughts. If there is no weighty kamma it determines the
condition of the subsequent rebirth.
3. Habitual (ációóa) kamma is the action which one constantly
does. In the absence of death-proximate kamma this
determines the next birth.
4. Reserve (katatta) kamma is the last in the priority of results.
This represents the unexpended kamma of a particular
being and it conditions the next birth in the absence of
habitual kamma.
The previous classification clearly explains that every birth is
conditioned by past good or bad kamma predominating at the
moment of death. In the absence of this kamma, death-proximate
kamma might take effect. This would be immediately before the
dying thought-moment, hence the importance attached in Buddhist
countries to the practice of reminding a dying person of his good
deeds.
Is everything due to kamma? Buddhists say “No.” Kamma is
only one of various conditions recognised as having effect because
if everything were due to kamma it follows that a man with bad
kamma must always be bad. Not everything is due to kamma and
one does not necessarily reap all that one has sown. The Buddha
said:
“If a man must reap everything according to his deeds, no
righteous life, O monks, would be possible, nor any escape from
sorrow.” (A I 249)
In Buddhism it is possible to mould one’s own kamma. One is not
bound to pay for all the errors and one is not the slave of kamma. It is
possible for anyone to obliterate most of his kamma through mental
culture (bhávaná); if it were otherwise Nibbána could not be attained
and there would be just continuous rolling on. There is no one who
rewards or punishes since Buddhism does not recognise a Creator
God but rather that we are the architects of our own destinies.
D. A further classification of kamma is according to the place in
which the results are produced, namely:
1. Immoral kamma which produces its effect in the planes of

misery.
2. Moral kamma which produces its effect in the plane of the
world of desires.
3. Moral kamma which produces its effect in the plane of form.
4. Moral kamma which produces its effect in the plane of the
formless.
1. TEN IMMORAL KAMMAS AND THEIR EFFECTS

1. Killing. This includes the destruction of any living being
including animals of all kinds. To complete the offence of
killing, five conditions are necessary: i) a being, ii)
knowledge that it is a being, iii) intention to cause death, iv)
making an effort, and v) the consequent death.
The evil effects of killing are: having a short life, frequent illness,
constant grief caused by the separation from the loved and constant
fear.
2. Stealing, To complete the offence of stealing, five conditions
are necessary; i) property of other people, ii) knowledge that
it is so, iii) intention to steal it, iv) making an effort, and v)
the consequent removal of it from its place.
The evil effects of stealing are: poverty, wretchedness,
unfulfilled desires and dependent livelihood.
3. Sexual misconduct. To complete the offence of sexual
misconduct, three conditions are necessary: i) intention to
enjoy illicit sex, ii) making an effort, and iii) possession of
the object.
The evil effects of sexual misconduct are: having many enemies,
getting undesirable wives, birth as a women or an eunuch.
4. Lying. To complete the offence of lying, four conditions are
necessary: i) consciousness of falsehood, ii) intention to
deceive, iii) making an effort, and iv) communication of the
falsehood to another. (It is not necessary for them to actually
believe it).
The evil effects of lying are: being tormented by abusive speech,
being subject to vilification, incredibility and stinking mouth.
5. Abusive speech. To complete the offence of abusing three
conditions are necessary: i) someone to be abused, ii) ill-
will, and iii) using abusive language.
KAMMA 109
The evil effects of abusing are: being detested by others although

blameless and a harsh voice.
6. Slander. To complete the offence of slander, four conditions
are necessary: i) persons to be disunited, ii) intention to
disunite them, iii) making an effort, and iv) communication
of slanderous speech.
The evil effect of slandering is the dissolution of friendship without
any sufficient cause.
7. Frivolous speech. To complete the offence of frivolous
speech two conditions are necessary: i) the inclination
towards frivolous speech, and ii) its narration.
The evil effects of frivolous speech are: disorderliness of the bodily
organs and incredibility.
8. Covetousness. To complete the offence of covetousness, two
conditions are necessary: i) another’s property, and ii) a
strong desire for it, thinking for example, “If only such
property were mine.”
The evil effect of covetousness is non-fulfilment of one’s wishes.
9. Ill-will. To complete the offence of ill-will, two conditions
are necessary: i) another being, and ii) the intention to do
harm.
The evil effects of ill-will are: ugliness, many diseases and detestable
nature.
10. Wrong view. To complete the offence of wrong view two
conditions are necessary: i. perverted manner in which the
object is viewed, and ii) the misunderstanding of it
according to that view.
The evil effects of wrong view are: base attachment, lack of
wisdom, dull wit, chronic diseases and blameworthy ideas.
(Atthasálinì 97–101)
2. TEN MORAL KAMMAS WHICH PRODUCE THEIR EFFECTS

IN THE SENSUAL PLANES
The work of moral and spiritual culture has been compared with
that of the farmer. First, a farmer has to plough the land and prepare
the ground, then he sows the seed which in due course germinates,
grows up and bears fruit. In this way the farmer has to follow a
twofold method, one of destruction, the other of production. In the
same way moral and spiritual culture is based on a two-fold

method, one of elimination and the other of cultivation. The akusala
kammas, or evils, are to be eliminated and the kusala kammas, or
virtues, are to be cultivated. The one is as important as the other.
The principles explained under the heading of sìla, moral
conduct, are more or less negative in character, so here we present
instead a positive programme based on the ten domains of
meritorious deeds.1 Many such positive schemes have been set forth
both in the canonical and in the exegetical literature; the one here is
one of those schemes with perhaps a wider scope of application.
As is so frequently the case in expressing the various aspects of
the Dhamma the matter in question is dealt with analytically. In this
particular instance our author deals with the cultivation of moral
states under the heading of the tenfold group of meritorious deeds
(dasa kusala kammapatha; see M I 47, 489 f.). This group of
meritorious deeds is as follows: i) charity, ii) morality, iii) mental
culture, iv) reverence, v) service, vi) transference of merit, vii)
rejoicing in other’s merit, viii) listening to the doctrine, ix) teaching
the doctrine, x) straightening one’s views.
1) Charity (dána)—literally giving, is the moral volition of giving
one’s possessions to others. Charity is practised in two ways:
1. By offering one’s possessions to those fit to receive
offerings, i.e. the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saògha.
2. By giving one’s possessions to others in need, which act is
performed out of compassion.
There are three periods during which volitions arise in the act of
giving:
1. Before the act (pubbacetaná) which occur in the thought
processes arising during the preparation of material for
offering.
2. During the act (muñcanacetaná) which occur at the actual
time of giving or making the offering.
3. After the act (aparacetaná) which occur in thought processes
whenever the act is contemplated with joy.
1. Dasapuññakiriyávatthúni. For details see the Abhidhammatthavibhávinì,

98–100; Peþakopadesa, 237.
KAMMA 111
Again, according to their different intensities, volitions are

threefold; namely, weak, moderate and intense. They are weak
when the four factors of potency (iddhi)—namely, the wish to act
(chanda), energy (vìriya), thought (citta) and investigation
(vimaísá)—are weak at the time of offering. Volitions can also be
moderate or intense at the time of offering. Again, volitions become
weak when the charity is given with the impure and defiled thought
which hopes for worldly pleasure in this phenomenal existence, in
subsequent existences in the devaloka and brahmaloka and in the final
emancipation of oneself alone. They become intense when given
with the hope of attaining the four paths (magga), the four fruitions
(phala) and Nibbána and in hoping that all sentient beings may
escape from sorrow and attain Nibbána. To practise in this way is to
fulfil the first of the perfections (páramitá) which is also dána.
These grades are applicable to the other moral acts such as
morality (sìla), concentration (samádhi) and wisdom (paññá).
The beneficial effects of giving are: wealth, the fulfilment of
one’s wishes, long life, beauty, happiness and strength. The specific
result can be affected by making an aspiration at the time of giving.
The Buddhist custom is to make the aspiration, “By the power of
this meritorious deed may I attain Nibbána.”
2) Morality (sìla)—is the moral volition of refraining from evil done
through the doors of the body and speech, hence it is the volition of
right speech, right action and right livelihood.
Morality is of four kinds;
1. the morality of bhikkhus (bhikkhu-sìla),
2. the morality of bhikkhunìs (bhikkhunì-sìla),
3. the morality of the novice (sámaóera-sìla),
4. the morality of the laity (gahaþþha-sìla).
The morality of the laity is the observance of the three refuges
and the five precepts throughout one’s life and in the observance of
the eight precepts or of ten precepts on Uposatha days or any other
day convenient for the observance of a higher ethical code.
If, without specifically taking the precepts, one were to refrain
spontaneously from doing evil either of body or speech, such ability
would be known as sampatta-virati.1 In the event of the five precepts
1. Sampatta-viratti means “opportunity/occasion of refraining” i.e.

refraining from evil action when an opportunity arises.” (BPS editor)
having been specifically taken together (samádána-virati) even if a

single precept is violated, then all are thereby violated and the
householder becomes defiled (dussìla).
The beneficial effects of morality are: rebirth in noble families or
in heavenly planes, beauty, fame and having many friends.
3) Mental culture (bhávaná)—is the moral volition arising with
consciousness when a man is practising any of the forty exercises
prescribed for the attainment of mental tranquillity or calm
(samatha); or it is the development of insight into the three salient
characteristics by contemplating the mental and physical process
again and again up to the stage of gotrabhú ñáóa which immediately
precedes the attainment of the path leading to Nibbána. The
volition arising in the processes of thought during the time of
learning the doctrine or any other arts, sciences, and so on may also
be included under the heading of mental culture.1
The beneficial effects of mental culture are: development of
wisdom, good reputation, and rebirth in higher planes.
4) Reverence (apacáyana)—is the moral volition of paying respect
and reverence to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saògha; to one’s
parents and elders, to teachers, and other who lead virtuous lives
without the impure motives of personal gain and similar
undesirable qualities. It is demonstrated by rising from one’s seat in
their presence, by saluting them, by offering flowers and by other
respectful actions.
The beneficial effects of reverence are: noble parentage,
commanding respect and influential positions.
5) Service (veyyávacca)—is the moral volition of rendering service to
those mentioned in the previous section as well as to strangers and
those about to set out on a journey; to the sick, the old, and the feeble.
Stitching and darning the robes of bhikkhus and rendering assistance
to the moral deeds of others are included under this heading.
The beneficial effects of service are: having a large following
and many friends.
6) Transference of merit (pattidána)—is the moral volition of
requesting others to participate in the wholesome deeds done by a
person and thereby to share in the resultant merit.
1. Upásakajanálaòkára, PTS, p. 288: Niravajjavijjápariyápunanacetaná pi etth'

eva saògayhati.
KAMMA 113
The beneficial effects of transference of merit is the ability to be

able to give in abundance.
7) Rejoicing in other’s merit (pattánumodaná)—is the moral volition
of partaking of the merit offered by others and rejoicing therein. Patti
is of two kinds; namely, uddissika and anuddissika. Uddissika is giving
to a particular individual, anuddissika is giving in general. Both
pattidána and pattánumodaná are often referred to as types of charity.
The beneficial effect of rejoicing in others’ merit is finding joy
wherever one is born.
8) Listening to the Dhamma (dhammassasavana)—is the moral voli-
tion of listening attentively and with purity of mind for the purpose
of practising morality, concentration and insight, for attaining the
four paths (magga), the four fruitions (phala) and Nibbána; and for the
learning of Dhamma with the aim of preaching it to those not versed
in it. Listening to lectures on arts, sciences and other kindred subjects
can also be included to some extent in this category.1
The beneficial effect of listening to the Dhamma is the
development of wisdom.
9) Teaching the Dhamma (dhammadesaná)—is the moral volition of
teaching Dhamma to others out of compassion for them, teaching
them with purity of mind without any impure motive of obtaining
offerings, honour, praise, fame, or glory. Teaching arts, sciences and
so on can also be included to some extent in this category.2
The beneficial effects of teaching the Dhamma are a pleasing
voice and the development of wisdom.
10) Straightening one’s views (diþþhijjukamma)—is the moral
volition of establishing right understanding (samma diþþhi). It is
freedom from incorrect views and ideas such as the ten kinds of
erroneous opinion (dasavatthuka micchadiþþhi), the creation by gods
such as Iøvara (issaranimmánádi) and that fortune depends upon
objects seen and so on (diþþha-maògalikádi).
The beneficial effect of straightening one’s views is intelligence
and the attainment of Nibbána.
1. Upásakajanálaòkára, PTS, p. 290: Niravajjavijjádisavanacetaná pi etth' eva

sangayhati.
2. Ibid. Tatheva niravajjavijjáyatanádikaí upadisantassa ca pavattá cetaná
dhammadesaná náma.
3. MORAL KAMMA WHICH PRODUCES ITS EFFECT IN THE

PLANES OF FORM
It is of five types which are purely mental and done in the process of
meditation:
1. The first jhána—absorption of the mind which has five
constituents: initial application, sustained application,
rapture, bliss and one-pointedness of mind.
2. The second jhána—absorption of the mind which has four
constituents: sustained application, rapture, bliss and one-
pointedness of mind.
3. The third jhána—absorption of the mind which has three
constituents: rapture, bliss and one-pointedness of mind.
4. The fourth jhána—absorption of the mind which has two
constituents: bliss and one-pointedness of mind.
5. The fifth jhána—absorption of the mind which has two
constituents: equanimity and one-pointedness of mind.
4. MORAL KAMMA WHICH PRODUCES ITS EFFECT IN THE

FORMLESS PLANES
It is of four types which are also purely mental and done in the
process of meditation:
1. Moral consciousness of the attainment of the infinity of space.
2. Moral consciousness of the attainment of the infinity of
consciousness.
3. Moral consciousness of the attainment of nothingness.
4. Moral consciousness of the attainment wherein perception
is so extremely subtle that it cannot be said whether it is, nor
that it is not.
FREE WILL
Kamma as has been stated above, is not fate, nor irrevocable
destiny. Nor is one bound to reap all that one has sown in just
proportion. Most actions of men are not absolutely irrevocable; only
a very few of them are. If, for example, one fires off a bullet out of a
rifle, one cannot call it back or turn it aside from its mark. But, if,
instead of a bullet moving through the air, it is a snooker ball on the
green baize that one sets moving with a cue, one can send another
after it and change its course, bring it to a halt or even reverse its
direction. It is much the same way that kamma operates in the
KAMMA 115
broad stream of general life. There, too, one’s action of a later day
may modify, or nullify one’s action of a former day. If this were not
possible, what chance would there ever be of a man getting free
from all kamma for ever? It would be a self-perpetuating energy
that could never come to an end. Man has, therefore, a large amount
of free-will and there is almost unlimited possibility for him to
mould his life or to modify his actions.
Even a most vicious man can, by his own free will and effort,
become the most virtuous person. One may at any moment change
for the better or for the worse. But everything in the world,
including man himself, is dependent on conditions and, without
conditions, nothing whatsoever can arise or enter into existence.
Man therefore has ‘conditioned free-will’ and not ‘absolute free-
will’. According to Buddhist philosophy, everything, mental or
physical, arises in accordance with the law of conditionality. If it
were not so, there would be chaos and blind chance. Such a thing is
impossible and if it were otherwise, all the laws of nature that man
has discovered would be powerless.
The essential nature of man’s action is mental. When a given
thought has arisen in one’s mind a number of times, there is a
definite tendency to the recurrence of that thought. When a given
act has been performed a number of times, there is a definite
tendency to the repetition of that act. Thus each thought becomes
habit and habit builds character. Having become a bad man he will
gravitate to the company of bad people and having become good he
will gravitate to the company of the good. But having become wise
he will be free from these laws of gravity and instead will attract
wise and good people to him.
The more we understand it, we see that the more careful we must
be in our acts, words and thoughts, and how totally responsible we
are for our own happiness. Living in the light of this knowledge, we
will learn patience, confidence, self-reliance, restraint and power.
PATIENCE
Knowing that the law of kamma is our great helper if we live by it,
and that no harm can come to us if we work with it, knowing also
that it blesses us at just the right time, we learn the grand lesson of
patience, not to get excited, and that impatience is a check to
progress. In suffering, we know that we are paying a debt and we
learn, if we are wise, not to create more suffering for the future. In
rejoicing, we are thankful for its sweetness and learn, if we are wise,
to be still better. Patience brings forth peace, success, happiness and

security.
CONFIDENCE
The law of kamma being just and perfect, it is not possible for an
understanding person to feel uneasy about it. If we are uneasy and
if we have no confidence it shows that we have not grasped the
significance of the law. We are really quite safe beneath its wings
and there is nothing to fear in the whole universe except for one’s
own misdeeds. The Law makes a man stand on his own feet and
rouses his self-confidence. Confidence strengthens, or rather
deepens, our peace and happiness and makes us comfortable,
courageous and wherever we go, the Law is our protector.
SELF-RELIANCE
As we in the past have caused ourselves to be what we now are, so
by what we do now will our future be determined. A knowledge of
this fact and that the glory of the future is limitless, gives us great
self-reliance and takes away that tendency to appeal for external
help which is really no help at all. “Purity and impurity belong to
oneself. No one can purify another”, said the Buddha (Dhp 165).
RESTRAINT
Naturally, if we realise that the evil we do will return to strike us,
we shall be very careful lest we do or say or think something that is
not good, pure and true. Knowledge of kamma will restrain us from
wrong-doing for others’ sake as well as for our own.
POWER
The more we make the doctrine of kamma a part of our lives, the
more power we gain not only to direct our future, but also to help
our fellow beings more effectively. The practice of good kamma,
when fully developed, will enable us to overcome evil and our
limitations; and to destroy all the fetters that keep us away from our
goal, Nibbána.
Chapter 18
KAMMA:
THE PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINT
One of the main themes in the Dhamma is that of anicca,

impermanence; hence there is nothing of a tangible nature which
can pass over into a new life. It follows, therefore, that if all is anattá,
soulless, there can be nothing which survives this life. Life or
saísára, moreover, is best illustrated by the spectacle of waves in an
ocean; each wave, to be sure, is separate, but all are connected
nevertheless by the same law of cause and effect. However, as the
Buddha has stated, “It is our kamma”, so we all are subject to the
process of rising and passing away, of birth and death. Hence,
although, philosophically speaking, a permanent soul-entity is
denied, yet from the ethical standpoint, a continuity of the
personality is accepted. Among Occidental thinkers, Kant was an
intellectual follower of the Tathágata when, in his Critique of Pure
Reason, he denied the existence of the soul, but, in his Critique of
Practical Reason, accepted its existence as a meaningful necessity.
According to Buddhism, misfortune of any kind is not
attributed to a power outside ourselves, but to some cause in our
past lives—and nothing is exempt from this law; witness, in this
connection, the figure of Fate constantly standing above Zeus in
Greek mythology. Even divine or superhuman creatures—angels,
archangels, gods—call them what you will, attain to such eminence
or forfeit their lofty status solely through what actions they have
committed in their lives—past or present. Since one reaps as one
sows, so Buddhism can well be represented as ‘an automatic system
of morality’ in which the man, or otherwise, is a completely free
agent. Indeed, no dependence on other than actions is implied in
the Maháparinibbána-sutta where the Buddha says:
“Be islands unto yourselves, be refuges to yourselves, seek no
external refuge.” (D II 100, III 58, 77; S III 42.)
The influence of such a doctrine has produced nothing but good
as reflected in the temperament of those native to the Far East. For a
start, it has strengthened their moral responsibility in that they are
not swayed by either ‘God’s decree’, a capricious deity, or inflexible

fate or blind chance. Being dissuaded from vice, they recognise the
fact that man is master of his own destiny. In this respect, of course,
the Buddha clearly saw that his own enlightened system of
‘automatic morality’ was vastly superior to those contemporary
schools of thought which made God responsible for all that lived
and acted accordingly. In short, therefore, our tomorrows are
begotten of our todays, as surely as our todays were begotten of our
yesterdays; the three divisions of past, present and future are,
through the agency of kamma, eternally begotten in the same life-
span.
Kamma (Pali) or karma (Sanskrit), means, etymologically, ‘deed’.
Philosophically speaking, however, its meaning has a more far-
reaching effect as it is that which moulds man’s destiny. Kamma
can be regarded in three ways:
1. From the purely ethical viewpoint.
2. From the standpoint of the individual.
3. From the standpoint of physical phenomena.
Kamma, alone, follows a man after his death. Ethics in
Buddhism is absolutely automatic from beginning to end; hence
everything arising from the performance of deeds returns thereto.
Individual kamma is supreme in the moral sphere. Buddhism does
not agree with the oft-quoted Semitic doctrine that “The sins of the
fathers will be visited upon the children up to the third or fourth
generation.” No inheritance of deeds committed by our parents, etc.
is possible. The combined doctrine of kamma and results (vipáka)
ensures that, having experienced many previous lives, we will
experience yet more. In widening our vision, we will eventually
come to the quite plausible conclusion that all beings have, at one
time or another, been our relatives.
Following on from this view, we must accept that whatever
occurs around us is a manifestation of our own thought processes,
and does not merely reflect the strength of the human will. Our will
is but a part of our character and is composed of the physical and
mental aggregates, in turn, a result of kamma. For example,
geniuses like Gotama the Buddha, Plato, Shakespeare or Einstein
are not just products of our age. There must have been many
approaching their level in other places at other times. If heredity
were the only connecting link, as scientists would have us believe,
how, then, can we explain the gulf between a minor king, like
KAMMA: THE PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINT 119
Suddhodana, and his world-renowned son, Gotama; or between a

humble carpenter, like Joseph, and his equally renowned son, Jesus
of Nazareth?
Chapter 19
THE ROOT CAUSES OF KAMMA
The Pali term for ‘root cause’ is hetu. Paccaya is synonymous with it
and means ‘condition’. A condition is something upon which
something else depends, and if absent, the latter cannot be.
Manifold are the ways in which a thing or an occurrence may be the
condition for some other thing or occurrence. In the Paþþhána, the
last book of the Abhidhamma Piþaka, twenty-four aspects of
conditions are enumerated, explained and then applied to all
conceivable phenomena and occurrences, in addition to their
conditioned nature being demonstrated.
Hetu-paccaya or root-condition is the first of the twenty-four
modes of condition.1 Root-condition is that which resembles the
root of a tree. Just as a tree rests on its roots and remains alive only
as long as its roots are not destroyed, so kammically unwholesome
as well as wholesome mental states are entirely dependent on the
presence of their respective roots; i.e. greed (lobha), hate (dosa) and
delusion (moha), or absence of freed (alobha), absence of hate (adosa)
and absence of delusion (amoha).
These conditions which through their presence determine the
actual moral quality of a volitional state (cetaná), together with their
associated consciousness and mental factors give rise to the type
and quality of a particular kamma. Therefore, we see that greed,
hate, and delusion are kammically unwholesome and their opposite
roots wholesome.
Greed is a state associated with a consciousness that causes
attachment to an object. In the Pali literature, it is compared to: a
soiled garment; a piece of flesh inside the body; an unused vessel
made of clay; and a sticky substance improvised for the purpose of
entrapping monkeys. In this case, when any food, such as a ripe
fruit, is placed over the sticky substance the monkey tries to grasp
the fruit with one limb after another, and lastly with his mouth; then
1. For details see: Conditional Relations tr. of Paþþhána by U Nárada Vol. I

1969, Vol. II 1981, PTS; An Approach to Paþþhána by Paþþhána Sayadaw U
Withuddha, Rangoon; Causality: The General Philosophy of Buddhism by
David Kalupahana, Honolulu, 1975.
THE ROOT CAUSES OF KAMMA 121
he is finally trapped, unable to move. In the same manner, people

who have a craving for sensuous pleasures become attached to the
five objects of the senses and indulge in them to excess. When greed
is absent in the consciousness, there is no attachment to the object. It
is only when greed is associated with consciousness that attachment
to the object takes place. This is a root of immoral consciousness and
a very powerful one. It is this greed that is the cause of illness,
mental or physical, of dukkha as we find in the second Noble Truth.
Hate is a state associated with consciousness in which arises
anger and aversion on perceiving unpleasant objects; like a snake
emerging from a hiding place and attacking those who pelt it with
stones, or strike it with sticks or other weapons. The mental
property lies in the heart-base like a snake in a hidden place until
irritated by any of the ten causes that produce consciousness rooted
in hate or aversion and accompanied by grief, which suddenly
arises doing harm to himself as well as to others. Such a person may
even go to the extent of committing murder. Just as rust in iron
causes corrosion, even so the individual who becomes angry does
harm to another, and perhaps, ultimately destroys himself.
Delusion or dullness is the state associated with consciousness
which prevents one from seeing a thing as it really is—that is, in the
ultimate and highest sense. It is as if one looked at an object with the
eyes half closed or through coloured glass. When there is no
dullness in consciousness, only then will a true cognizance of the
object occur; but when dullness is present, the real nature of the
object cannot be seen. It is synonymous with ignorance (avijjá),
which according to the Law of Dependent Origination (paþicca-
samuppáda) is one of the spokes of the wheel of saísára or the cycle
of birth and death in a world that has neither beginning nor end.
How is the real nature of the object obscured by dullness? The
characteristic feature of dullness is ignorance of both the beginning
and end, and of the Law of Dependent Origination which teaches
that all phenomena arise depending on one or more causes and that
all conditioned and composite things are subject to impermanence,
sorrow and pain and are devoid of a substantial entity. Because of
dullness, one is prevented from seeing the truth of the three salient
marks of impermanence, sorrow, and soullessness. By reason of this
dullness or ignorance, one goes in the opposite direction.
When there is absence of greed, there is a state associated with
consciousness which keeps it detached from objects, taking no
interest in them. It may be compared to an arahant in whom there is
the extinction of the ásavas (taints).1 How so? When an arahant

dwelling in a monastery who is provided by a householder with
robes, meals, bedding and medicine indispensable for his
sustenance, leaves his dwelling, he does so without attachment to
the monastery or its belongings. Therefore, in one who is without
greed, there is no attachment; that is why this state is compared to
an arahant. Similarly, just as water poured over a lotus leaf falls
down without a drop remaining on its petals, even so the mental
concomitant of indifference prevents attachment to any object. This
is the root of moral consciousness.
The absence of hate is a condition associated with consciousness
that prevents the arising of hate or aversion towards an object. How
can this be illustrated? Just as a friend who has been away in some
remote place for a considerable period is given, on his return, a
warm welcome by his relatives and friends with congratulations
being offered on his achievement of success, even so does mental
amity show forth benevolence and goodwill towards all beings.
This is a great moral act and a root of moral consciousness. It is
mettá, benevolence or goodwill: the first of the four brahmaviháras or
sublime states.2
The absence of delusion is insight, wisdom, clear understanding
or knowledge of all conditioned and composite things, as possessing
the three salient characteristics of impermanence, sorrow and absence
of a substantial entity. This begets very strong and great moral
thought and is a root of the moral class of consciousness.3
1. Ásava (Pali) or ásráva (Skt; cf. Divyávadána, p. 391) means that which
flows out, spirit or the intoxicating extract or secretion of a tree or flower.
(Vin IV 110). It also means that which discharges from a sore (A I 124, 127;
Pug 30). In psychology it is a technical term for specified ideas which
intoxicate the mind and muddle it so that it cannot rise to higher things.
The 4 ásavas are 1. sensuality (kámásáva), 2. lust for rebirth (bhavásáva), 3.
wrong views (diþþhásáva) and 4. ignorance (avijjásáva). See D II 81, 84
passim.
2. Or divine abodes, the remaining three being compassion (karuóá),
sympathetic joy (muditá) and equanimity (upekkhá). For more on these, see
Chapter 28.
3. The once-returner (sakadágámi) is free from coarse greed and hate; the
non-returner (anágámi) is free from subtle greed and hate; and only the
arahant is free from delusion; see Paþisambhidámagga II 94, Kathávatthu
104f. See also Chapter 30. (BPS editor.)
Insight is described under the factors pertaining to enlightenment

such as: potency of investigation (vìmaísiddhipáda); faculty of reason
(paññindriya); the force of reason (paññábala); the factor of
enlightenment of investigation (dhammavicaya-sambojjhaòga); and the
path factor of right view (sammá-diþþhi). In the highest possible degree
it is omniscient. This has the power of controlling all other mental
concomitants associated with the state of consciousness of any of the
Four Paths or their Fruition. It may be compared to a sharp arrow
that is capable of piercing a thick tree. Just as a skilful marksman can
send a sharp arrow right through a thick tree, even so could this
faculty of reason comprehend all phenomena present in the world,
for in the ultimate and highest sense, such is reality.
Again, just as any object in darkness can only be seen by
lighting a lamp, so can the faculty of reason realise the three salient
characteristics of all phenomena by the analysis of mind and body
with reference to their features, essential properties, results and
proximate causes. This is to comprehend fully the Law of
Dependent Origination which had been concealed by the darkness
of ignorance.
It is said that greed arises though unwise reflection on an
attractive object (A I 3). Thus greed (lobha or rága) comprises all
phases of attraction towards an object from the faintest trace of
personal desire up to the grossest egoism; whilst hatred (dosa)
comprises all phases of repulsion from the faintest trace of dislike
up to the highest pitch of hate and wrath.
The three skilful (kusala) roots—non-greed, non-hatred, and
non-delusion or alobha, adosa and amoha—are the very opposite of
greed, hate and delusion, and although being negative in form, are
nevertheless of a distinctly positive character. Just as it is often the
case with negative terms in other languages. For example the
negative ‘immortality’ has a decidedly positive character. Thus,
liberality and unselfishness are the attributes of alobha; loving-
kindness and good-will are the attributes of adosa; while the
attribute of amoha is wisdom (paññá). On the contrary, lobha, dosa
and moha have a blinding and agitating influence upon the person
under which he loses his self- control and reasoning faculty.
It is often thought permissible by some people to sacrifice
animals at a certain place, or to gamble on a certain day, to tell a lie
to fool others or even worse, to rob and take a man’s life if he does
not belong to one’s own faith. Such wrong views are called diþþhi.
They pretend to justify their vicious behaviour but really they have
lobha at heart. If the immoral consciousness is accompanied by such

a diþþhi, it is called diþþhigata-sampayutta.
The consciousness of one who is very quick in performing a
moral or immoral act is called asaòkhárika, or that which is neither
hesitating nor urged by others. Sasaòkhárika consciousness, on the
other hand, is that which is either preceded by some hesitation or
persuaded by someone else.
TYPES OF IMMORAL CONSCIOUSNESS

Taking these classifications together, we get the following eight
types of immoral consciousness rooted in lobha:
1. Delighted, accompanied by wrong view, without hesitation
and unprompted.
2. Delighted, accompanied by wrong view, with hesitation or
prompted.
3. Delighted, unaccompanied by wrong view, without
hesitation and unprompted.
4. Delighted, unaccompanied by wrong view, with hesitation
or prompted.
5. Indifferent, accompanied by wrong view, without hesitation
and unprompted.
6. Indifferent, accompanied by wrong view, with hesitation or
prompted.
7. Indifferent, unaccompanied by wrong view, without
hesitation and unprompted.
8. Indifferent, unaccompanied by wrong view, with hesitation
or prompted.
For example; a man, hankering after the flesh of an animal, may
sacrifice the beast in the name of some deity and take delight in it
thinking that he is doing the correct thing; or one with a false sense
of patriotism may utter a falsehood to fulfil some end, and take
delight in it, thinking that he is serving the cause of his mother-
country. Such a consciousness is the first type, if the act is done
without hesitation and not prompted by someone else. But if it is
prompted by someone else, it is an example of the second type.
The third and fourth types are very common. People know that
it is bad to kill, to hurt others, to steal, commit adultery or to lie, in
fact, to do any evil act. Nevertheless, they indulge in them frequently
and derive delight therefrom.
The fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth types of consciousness are

the same as the other four, except that the act is not done with
delight but with a feeling of indifference or as a matter of course.
ROOTED IN DOSA
If an object causes us displeasure, or stands in the way of our desire,
we begin to hate it. The feeling goes on intensifying, and a time
comes when the very idea of it would rouse excitement in us
together with feelings of antipathy and resentment. This state of
mind is called domanassa. When domanassa is accompanied by an
urge to attack and annihilate the object of hate, this excitement is
called paþigha or rage.
It is asaòkhárika if, in this raging state of mind, one commits a
crime without hesitation and not prompted by anyone else, but if
committed after some hesitation or at the instigation of another, it is
sasaòkhárika. Hence there are two types of immoral consciousness
rooted in dosa, namely:
1. Excited, accompanied by antipathy and rage, without
hesitation and not prompted.
2. Excited, accompanied by antipathy and rage, with hesitation
or prompted.
It is clear that there can be no delight (somanassa) or equanimity
(upekkhá) in this agitated state of mind accompanied by antipathy. It
cannot be associated with any right or wrong view; for it is so
furious that all consideration is lacking.
ROOTED IN MOHA
Moha is an essential condition of all immoral consciousness. Lobha
and dosa cannot possibly arise if there is no moha. The consciousness
which is thoroughly confused is called momuha citta or ‘confused
consciousness’. In this condition it is difficult to understand
anything clearly. It is full of doubts; when they are very puzzling it
is called vicikicchá-sampayutta or a perplexed consciousness.
A momuha citta cannot concentrate itself upon any object, for it is
a distracted mind and if the distraction is extreme, it is known as
uddhacca-sampayutta or ‘restless consciousness’. There cannot be
either somanassa or domanassa in this consciousness. It is essentially
upekkhá-sahagata or ‘accompanied by an ignorant equanimity’.
Hence there are two types of consciousness rooted in moha.
1. Accompanied by equanimity and is perplexed.

2. Accompanied by equanimity and is restless.
The arising of ‘perplexity and restlessness’ is due to ignorance.
They are not created knowingly by us, either with hesitation or
without; for knowledge is quite opposed to them, like light to
darkness, nor can another prompt us to be perplexed or restless.
Therefore, the arising of asaòkhárika and sasaòkhárika in these types
of consciousness is out of the question.
There are eight types of consciousness rooted in lobha, two in
dosa, and two in moha which altogether makes twelve types of
immoral consciousness.
Helping the poor and needy, giving shelter to the forlorn,
saving creatures from distress and destruction, serving one’s
parents and elders, worshipping the Buddha, listening to inspiring
discourses on the Dhamma and similar meritorious deeds are
wholesome (kusala). They are essentially rooted in the two
wholesome roots, namely, alobha and adosa. To the greedy, selfish,
ill-tempered individual, these charitable acts would have no appeal.
Actions performed by one who is free from delusion have
knowledge (ñáóa) as a base, knowledge that thereby one will be
better and purer in this life and hereafter.
When a Buddhist keeps the eight precepts, goes to the
monastery, gives alms to the bhikkhus and listens to the discourses,
he is conscious that he is doing a very meritorious act which will
influence and help him in his next rebirth. His consciousness in this
case is ñáóa-sampayutta or accompanied by knowledge, i.e. right
view.
On the other hand, there are occasions when we do a good act
spontaneously, on the spur of the moment. For instance, a man sees
someone drowning and immediately jumps into the river and saves
him or sees a poor beggar in the street and gives some money to
him. Such spontaneous actions are not accompanied by the
reflection that they will yield good kammic results. They are done
automatically, on the spur of the moment. Such a type is ñáóa-
vippayutta, or unaccompanied by a right view.
Another example of ñáóa-vippayutta may be added. A person
may not really understand that it is good to do a certain act but he
still does it simply because it is customary to follow the example of
others.
TYPES OF MORAL RESULTANT CONSCIOUSNESS

Good actions done during the course of this life determine the
nature of the mental disposition of a man in his next birth. If he is of
a philanthropic nature, it is because his actions in a previous life
were conditioned by strong alobha. But if he is of a miserly nature,
his actions in a previous life were conditioned by a weak adosa.
When a man is of keen intelligence and clear understanding, his
actions in a former life were conditioned by a strong amoha, and a
man is a dullard because his actions were conditioned by a weak
amoha. If one’s actions are primarily conditioned by lobha, dosa and
moha, he will not take birth in the human realms at all, but as a beast
or a creature of some lower species with a consciousness governed by
instinct which is weak. That is why the discriminative faculty and
memory of animals are so feeble. Among the animals themselves
there are grades of mental development, which are due to the degree
of the strength of lobha, dosa and moha in previous births.
Chapter 20
DEPENDENT ORIGINATION
The doctrine of Dependent Origination or Paþicca-samuppáda is the

real foundation on which the entire philosophy of Buddhism is built.
The Buddha himself said, “O bhikkhus, one who understand this
doctrine of Dependent Origination understands the Dhamma; one
who understands the Dhamma, understands this doctrine of
Dependent Origination.” (M I 190). Øántaraksita, in his encyclopaedic
philosophical treatise Tattvasaògraha, offers his adoration to the
Buddha as “The Great Sage who has preached the doctrine of Paþicca-
samuppáda.” The three fundamental principles of Buddhism—all is 1)
impermanent, 2) unsatisfactory and 3) insubstantial—are really
derivative forms of this very doctrine.
The central point in this Buddhist doctrine is that there is
nothing that is not dependent on something else. Nothing can arise
on its own accord, independently. For example, the lamp remains
burning because of the wick and this in turn is dependent upon
oxygen, temperature etc. Likewise, the wick is the result of twining
strands of cotton together and the oxygen is a combination of
elements.
‘Dependent Origination’ is explained by the Buddha as
‘dependent on that, this becomes.’ Simple examples are: there being
clouds, rain falls; there being rain, the road becomes slippery; there
being a slippery road, a man falls; due his falling, he is injured.
Conversely, if there were no clouds, there would be no rain; if there
were no rain, there would be no slippery road; if there were no
slippery road, there would be no accident arising from someone
falling on it.
There can be no first cause, because each cause becomes an
effect and each effect a cause. Hence a first cause is quite
inconceivable. As Bertrand Russell said, “There is no need to
suppose a first cause at all which is due to the poverty of our
imagination.” The Law of Dependent Origination does not
investigate a first cause, for the very conception of a first cause
means a total check in the progress of knowledge. Primitive people
saw the wonders of nature and sought a satisfactory explanation of
them by some superstitious superhuman agent or agents—gods or
goddesses. Some primitive men believed that the wind blew

because the Wind God was going in procession to be married. A
theistic or a superstitious explanation puts an end to all further
inquiry. We cannot ask “Who created God?”, or “Depending on
what, God originates.”
Paþicca-samuppáda is not, as some people erroneously suppose,
the Law of Causation as understood by medieval logicians who
followed Aristotle, which considers the cause and effect as two
quite different events, one of which produces the other. According
to the Law of Paþicca-samuppáda two events cannot be considered as
quite distinct from each other for they are links of the same process,
which admits of no break. No single event in the world is ever
isolated. A cause, therefore, cannot stand by itself as such.
Clay is the cause of the pot, the medieval logicians would assert.
Yes, the clay is certainly the cause of the pot; but it is not, by itself,
sufficient for the production of the pot. If there were no water, no
wheel, no potter, no effort on the part of the potter; the pot would
not have been produced. All these factors are indispensable for the
production of the pot. What right have we to say, therefore, that the
clay is the cause of the pot? It is simply arbitrary to select one of
several circumstances and call it the cause. It is not right, then, to
say that clay is the cause of the pot. A better way of expressing it is:
“The pot was produced depending on clay.”
According to Buddhism, the life stream flows on ad infinitum so
long as it is fed by the muddy waters of craving, hatred and
delusion. Dependent Origination explains this cycle of lives called
saísára. It explains how man accumulates kamma and is reborn
through the round of existence as depicted in the ‘Wheel of
Becoming’—a wheel of twelve spokes denoting the twelve links of
the causal process:
1–2. Dependent on ignorance, intentional activities arise.
3. Dependent on intentional activities, consciousness arises.
4. Dependent on consciousness, mental and physical phenomena
arise.
5. Dependent on mental and physical phenomena, the six senses
arise.
6. Dependent on the six senses, contact arises.
7. Dependent on contact, feeling arises.
8. Dependent on feeling, craving arises.
9. Dependent on craving, clinging arises.
10. Dependent on clinging, the process of becoming arises.

11. Dependent on becoming, birth arises.
12. Dependent on birth; decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain,
grief and despair arise.
Thus arises this whole mass of suffering. (S II 1)
Thus the phenomena of past, present and future lives are
explained. Every kind of mixed action performed in a previous life
may be termed an ‘active life.’ Due to this, a ‘relinking’ takes place
between the past life and the present one resulting in consciousness,
mental and physical phenomena, the six senses and contact, which,
with its relevant objects results in pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
feelings. After birth, subsequent feelings lead to attachment which
in turn pave the way for future birth. This sequence may be divided
into three sections; past action and present effect, present action and
present effect, and present action and future effect.
All phenomena which we are capable of observing, together
with many we may not be able to observe, hang together and
interact as part and parcel of one larger phenomenon, of which our
observations are only partial impressions. That is why we
experience them as separate and attribute to them false notions of
time and space. Our own sense capacities put together those things
that we regard as units. When we speak of a city or a nation or a
race, there are no definite outlines of the concepts which we must
use in order to formulate our thoughts. The boundaries of a city are
purely arbitrary and can be changed by proclamation. The units
comprising a nation are separate individuals that need have no
ethnological interrelations, whilst those belonging to a race may or
may not be ‘pure’ stock.
So too with childhood, youth and adulthood. Who can say at
what day and hour one passes to the next stage? We have a general
notion whether a person is a child or an adult but the periods of
transition are indefinable. All things are in a state of flux, of motion,
of adjustment, of response. It is our mind that creates the outlines and
the limitations. We cannot say that the child is the cause of the youth
and the youth, that of the adult. They are interconnected states of the
same set of circumstances. We attribute qualities, characteristics,
notions to the various parts of the set, and then falsely treat those
parts as independent units, calling one the cause of the other!
What there is, then, is not so much cause and effect as
interrelation and interaction. The various parts interact, call forth a
reaction one from the other. They are all there simultaneously, like
the pages of a book or the frames of a film, but as they appear before
our mind’s eye, so do we see them in succession. Not only this but
we ourselves are part of the film, so to speak. We are not merely
onlookers. We take part in the process of reaction; in fact, it is our
reaction which creates our world for us. We have the faculty of
controlling our response to certain calls for reaction, both by
suppression and by stimulation.
Buddhism might be called the science of response control: Right
Effort is to suppress the undesirable, the grosser response, and
substitute the desirable, the more refined, for it. The kind of
response that is undesirable is that which is inextricably interrelated
with suffering and pain. We say for brevity’s sake, “which causes
suffering and pain”, though what we really mean is that it is part of
that set of circumstances. We have a similar verbal inaccuracy when
we speak of the rising and setting of the sun or the moon, but our
way of speaking does not deceive anyone with even the slightest
degree of education.
Likewise, when the Buddha speaks of cause and effect, no one
with the slightest amount of Right Understanding is deceived; it is
seen as a convenient way to express his teaching in familiar terms.
We know that those sets of circumstances of which pain and
suffering are part, further entangle us; they are related with
sensations of desire and indulgence in craving. Craving alone
produces evil, pain, suffering and misery. This is the whole secret of
Buddhism. Detachment is the keyword to the solution of the
problem. Detachment alone leads to disentanglement; not because it
is the cause of disentanglement, but because it is part and parcel of
the set of circumstances of which disentanglement is one.
Detachment is the avoidance of craving.
But if we cannot speak of cause and effect in this way, how is it
that we have to wait after one phenomenon for the next one
belonging to the same set to take place? Why do they not occur
simultaneously? The answer is that we are so constituted that we
cannot survey the entire field of experience at one glance. It is like
reading a book or travelling a road. The entire road is there; though,
on account of our particular mode of locomotion and our short
range of vision, we can only be aware of a small portion of it at one
time. But as we travel along, the remainder of the road enters our
consciousness, little by little until, when we come to the end, we say
we have travelled the road. But our travelling is not the cause of the
road, nor is any part of the road on which we find ourselves at any
one time the cause of the next part. Nor even is our travelling the
cause of our seeing the road, since we see but a little of it at any one
time: the one is coincident with the other, not the cause of the other.
It is all part and parcel of the same set of circumstances and we have
the option to travel the road quickly or slowly, on foot or on
horseback, on a bicycle or in a car, to look sideways or forwards.
The set of circumstances is there: how shall we respond?
With regard to Dependent Origination, therefore, with one link
present, the remaining eleven links must also be present; the ‘Chain
of Causation’ being just a convenient expression. But just as a real
wheel touches the ground at one point, so too this ‘Wheel’ with its
twelve spokes impinges on our life stream at just one stage. Each
link is necessary for ensuring the continuity of the whole structure,
just as a broken or missing spoke in a real wheel would tend to
weaken and eventually cause the collapse of the whole.
And what we should try and do is to cause the collapse of this
Wheel of Becoming. This can be done by severing any of its links,
the easiest links where this can be achieved are either the first one,
that of ignorance, or the seventh, that of feeling.
We cannot therefore say that we produce kamma so much as
that we are kamma maintaining itself, adding to itself, enlarging
itself and entangling itself. Ceasing to crave and to be attached is
equivalent to ceasing to make any further kamma and putting an
end to already existent kamma. And when existing kamma has
become exhausted and no new kamma is engendered, there is an
end to all suffering, and Nibbána will have been attained.
Thus we must understand that the illusory self is a reactive
principle which, for its very existence, requires the exercise of
constant adaptation. This self is kamma, this exercise is kamma. If
the adaptation can be made without undue strain, the kamma
involved is pleasant. If there is conflict involved, the kamma is
unpleasant or even painful. It is wise, therefore, to make ourselves
so utterly adaptable; physically, mentally and emotionally; that,
without attachment, we shall be able to respond immediately to any
circumstances so we will never react at all to those sets of
circumstances that are inherently undesirable. Buddhism provides
us with a training that makes it possible to attain such a state.
This Dependent Origination is one of the most important factors
in Buddhist philosophy. It is repeatedly discussed in the suttas, fre-
quently with special reference to other opposing views of life. In this
connection, a passage from the Aòguttara Nikáya may be of interest.

“There are, O monks, three views held by the heretics which,
when followed by the learned, are calculated to land them in
moral irresponsibility in spite of the perfection which they have
attained. What are these three views? Some samaóas and
Brahmins maintain that whatever a man has in this life of pain or
pleasure is purely due to predestination; others say that it is due
to the will of God; others that it is due to blind chance.
“Now, O monks, when I find samaóas and Brahmins
holding or preaching such views I enquire of them whether they
really believe in them. And when they answer in the affirmative
I say to them, ‘So, then, you must acknowledge that men
become murderers, thieves, adulterers, liars, etc. on account of
fate, God’s will or blind chance. Accordingly, all attempts at
improvement or distinction between right and wrong becomes
of no avail. Such being the case, the moral regeneration of the
fallen becomes impossible.’ This sort of reasoning must silence
those who hold any of the three views mentioned above.”
(A I 173)
The reasoning of the Buddha may be somewhat too pragmatic
to please the purely logical, but it serves to bring out quite clearly
the theory that things have their origin in cause and effect, and that
so far as our own destiny is concerned, we are responsible for the
effects, inasmuch as we are responsible for the causes.
The doctrine of causation then, was, in the first place, associated
with the doctrine of moral responsibility, but the doctrine was also
connected with the two Buddhist marks of impermanence and soul-
lessness. Nothing is permanent or self-existent. All things in the uni-
verse are the ephemeral products of various causes and conditions.
But while the branches of Buddhism are in agreement as to the
validity of the causal law, on probably no point is there as much
divergence as regards the interpretation of the details. In the Nikáyas
we find only such phrases as ‘Because of the existence of this, that
exists; this arising, that also arises.’ Nor is there any specific word
which covers all forms of the causal law. We find only such words
as hetu “cause” and paccaya, “conditional relationship”.
These two words were destined to have a curious history. In the
Theraváda school hetu came to have a very narrow significance,
namely, to indicate the conditioning of certain states of
consciousness by the three defilements of greed, hate and delusion.
Hence those states of consciousness which are affected by these are

called sahetuka, or possessed of cause (hetu). Paccaya, on the other
hand, came to signify any form of causal relationship, or the various
ways in which one thing could stand in relation to another. In fact,
the Paþþhána, the last book of the Abhidhamma, is concerned almost
exclusively with the twenty-four paccayas or possible conditional
relationships between different phenomena.
On the other hand, by both the Sarvástivádins and the
Yogácárins, the two terms were used in a very different way. Here
hetu means cause proper, or direct or primary cause; while paccaya
signifies general affecting conditions. In any particular causal
nexus, paccaya means not the proper cause (which is hetu) but the
additional circumstances under which a specified cause acted. Hetu
then is primary cause, paccaya is secondary cause, and the two
together bring about phala or the effect. Thus, for example, a seed is
planted in the ground (which is hetu); through the influence of the
earth, sun and rain (paccaya) it grows and the tree is the phala. Thus
in contradistinction to the twenty-four paccayas of the Theraváda,
we find in the Sarvástiváda a list of six hetus.
In all branches of Buddhism the doctrine of causation is closely
associated with the theory of kamma. Literally, kamma means
action or deed, and that is still its most important significance. Later
it came to have the added meaning of the result of action. It is in this
sense we frequently meet the expression ‘he has good kamma
awaiting him’. Finally, with reference to just moral retribution it
came to mean the whole law of causation.
In the early schools of Buddhism, general causality and kamma
were very sharply distinguished. Kamma was one of the many kinds
of causes that may bring about a certain result. Thus, Nágasena
explains to Milinda that although suffering may be caused by
kamma, yet it may also be due to other causes.1 Even the Buddha
suffered pain and illness, due to various external causes:
1. In the Sivakasutta (S IV 230) the Buddha denies that all that a person
feels is due to previous kamma. Instead he gives eight causes: bile
disorders, phlegm disorders, wind disorders, an imbalance [of the three],
change of climate, careless behaviour, caused by assault, and the result of
kamma. (BPS editor.)
“Suppose, O king, a clod of earth were to be thrown up in the air,

and to fall again on the ground. Would it be in consequence of an
act that it had previously done that it would fall?”
“No, venerable sir, there is no reason in the broad earth by
which it could experience the result of either good or evil. It
would be by reason of the present cause, independent of
kamma, that the clod would fall again.”
“Well, O king, the Buddha should be regarded as the broad
earth. As the clod would fall upon it irrespective of any act done
to it, so also was it irrespective of any act done by him that the
splinter of rock fell upon his foot.” (Mil 191)
In like manner, though kamma may cause the death of a man,
the death may be due to one of several reasons. Milinda cites
external causes and kamma, while the Abhidhammatthasaògaha
gives: (1) expiration of life; (2) expiration of kamma; (3) expiration of
both; (4) destructive kamma.1
It should be noted, however, that there was a constant tendency
over time to increase the scope of kamma. Thus in the Kathávatthu,
one of the seven Abhidhamma works of the Theravádins, it is
distinctly denied that matter can be due to kammic causality, while
in the Abhidhammatthasaògaha, the four things which are said to be
the origins of material phenomena are: 1) kamma, 2) mind, 3)
physical change, and 4) food.2
In Sarvástivádin works it is repeatedly said that the cause of the
re-creation of the universe is the aggregate effect of the kamma of the
sentient beings in the past, while in the later Maháyána schools,
where the basis of the whole universe is said to be mind, the
appearance of the whole universe is due to kamma and its corollaries.
Buddhists believe that the doctrine of cause and condition is
universal as regards 1) place, 2) time, and 3) object.
(1) Causal law applies uniformly to all portions of the universe,
both in the innumerable material worlds and in the various heavens
and hells.
(2) Causal law applies to the three periods of time; past, present
and future. To a Buddhist this means, moreover, that the circle of
causality is endless; that there never was a beginning and there will
never be an end. Hence they reject the belief in a first or ultimate
1. See C.A.F Rhys Davids, A Compendium of Philosophy, p. 149.

2. Ditto, p. 161.
cause. Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakoøa (7–6a) has a long and very

interesting passage defining the Buddhist position on this point.
(3) It applies to all objects. The only exceptions are the
unconditioned states (asaòkhata dhammas), which are eternal and
uncaused. All the conditioned states (saòkhata dhammas), however,
whether matter (rúpa), mind (citta) or mental factors (cetasika) have
only a dependent or conditioned existence, and are without any
substantial existence of their own. Buddhism distinguishes itself
from most other systems by applying the doctrine of causality and
non-substantiality to the mind as well as to the body.
We are told, moreover, that even the Buddhas are subject to
causality:
“Even the Buddhas of the three ages have not been and shall not
be able to alter this great law.”
This is a very important point, inasmuch as it is a doctrine which
distinguishes Buddhism from practically every other religion. In
most other systems of thought, although the causal relationship is
recognised in some way, the higher powers, especially the Supreme
Being, are considered superior to this law, and are able, as shown by
their miracles, to abrogate it temporarily. Buddhism, though it
accepts the possibility of miracles, seeks to correlate them with
causality. The theory of there being a higher law is introduced: just as
physical scientists are able through increased knowledge to bring
about results which to an ordinary man seem marvellous, so too,
according to Buddhism, do sages possess certain powers gained by
good kamma, which enable them to control the elements. To the
Buddhist, increase in the power of vision by means of the telescope is
neither more nor less miraculous than increase of vision
(clairvoyance) by means of the cultivation of the psychic faculties.
Even in Maháyána where the Buddhas accomplish the salvation of
sentient beings, this salvation must be effected through causal
agencies.
One final point deserves attention—all schools of Buddhism agree
that nothing can be produced by the action of a single cause; every
dhamma is the result of at least two causes. In the first instance, this
doctrine was probably directed against the doctrine of ìøvara or the
creating deity, but in later times it came to imply that to produce an
effect a cause requires adventitious aid from without. It is not,
therefore, true to say that every cause necessarily has an effect,
because some single causes, finding no favourable conditions, never
come to fruition. It is possible, moreover, for a strong cause to render

a weak cause barren.
The Buddhist schools applied their theory of causality in two
ways, firstly from the point of view of the groups of dhammas taken as
a whole, particularly the personality, human or otherwise, and
secondly from the point of view of each of the dhammas taken
separately. The first, therefore, we may call synthetic, the second
analytical. The first aspect was prominent even in the early period of
Buddhist philosophy, and was merely the development of the theory
of kamma, showing how, for certain causal reasons a man would be
reborn at death in a happy or unhappy state. The later schools did
little more than systematize or formularize the older doctrines. This
aspect of causality was largely centred around the old formula,
known as the Paþicca-samuppáda or Dependent Origination.
The second aspect only becomes prominent in the Abhidhamma.
Here an attempt was made to distinguish and define the fundamental
types of causes, and show how the various kinds of personalities and
all other combinations came into being by the action of these types of
causes upon various single dhammas.
Chapter 21
THE DOCTRINE OF REBIRTH
Just before his enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, Siddhattha

Gotama developed the jhánas or absorptions (see Chapter. 6). His
mind was so clear at that time that he could perceive everything in
its true perspective. Then, in the first watch of the night, through his
penetrative knowledge, he recalled many of his former births. This
knowledge of past lives is called pubbenivásánussati-ñáóa. In the
second watch of the night he realised the births and deaths of
millions of other beings. This knowledge is called cutúpapáta-ñáóa.
In the last watch of the night he realised the way leading to the
comprehension of the elimination of all mental corruptions which is
called ásavakkhaya-ñáóa. Through this last knowledge he became the
Buddha, the Fully Enlightened One (see M I 36).
Although their interpretations may be different, almost all
religious and philosophical systems acknowledge the doctrine of
rebirth. Some religions explain it in terms of transmigration and
others in terms of reincarnation. This is one of the most important
paradoxical and conflicting philosophical speculations which has
been argued and explained in different doctrines.
The Buddha’s explanation of the condition of this particular
doctrine is in terms of rebirth based on the Law of Kamma, that is
cause and effect. This was explained by him in a simple way, as the
main reason for ascent and descent of beings. This is, in fact, the real
foundation of the ethical life.
The Buddha realised that rebirth is governed by the Law of
Kamma as explained in detail in the Law of Dependent Origination
(paþicca-samuppáda). One of the sayings of the Buddha in relation to
rebirth is as follows:
“All beings die. Death is the end of the present life. They all fare
according to their deeds finding the fruit of merit, or demerit.”
(S I 97)
Consciousness is, in fact, the one continuing factor. Each
moment of consciousness flows on and rolls up in itself all the
impressions that come in its way. It is continually changing the
mind and the body. So we are all being, as it were, reborn every
THE DOCTRINE OF REBIRTH 139
moment. Now, each moment of consciousness begets the next

moment—there is no gap between them. And each moment passes
on to the next moment all it inherited from the preceding moments.
When did this process start? Buddhism says that it did not start
in each individual’s childhood. Beings are continually being reborn
and continually dying, and all the time we are gathering what we
call kamma—that is, we are collecting around us good and bad
actions and thoughts that inevitably shape our lives and our future.
Does this process cease at death? Not if we are still in bondage to
our desires—our loves and hates, our greed and anxieties, and our
fears and pride. If we could annihilate all these and had no
accumulation of kamma, we could be released. But if not, we will
continue to be born again and again.
To understand this doctrine of rebirth we must first explain
what a being is, and how this individual acts during his existence.
The Buddha divided an individual being into two ‘groups’—
mentality (náma) and physicality (rúpa). The mental group includes
the aggregates of sensations (vedaná), perception (saññá), mental
activities (saòkhára) and consciousness (viññáóa). The physical
group is the aggregate of the four elements of earth, water, fire and
air (or solidity, cohesion, temperature and motion). Thus what is
known as a being or individual is made up of five aggregates, four
mental and one physical. If we analyze these five groups, one by
one, we cannot find a personality, individuality or abiding entity
apart from these five groups or their united function. The
combination of these five groups is called birth; their existence is
called life; their re-combination is called rebirth; and their
dissolution, death. That is why the Buddha said that there is no soul
(attá) or entity, but only five aggregates which appear, disappear
and reappear according to the law of kamma.
Everything in the world, animate, or inanimate, is compounded.
Even an atom is compounded. All atoms move about in space to be
separated into relative groups through the power of atomic
attraction. With animate organisms there is also a conscious power
called instinct, tendencies etc. This innate propensity forces every
conscious being to move mentally or physically. This mental or
physical motion is called action. Repetition of action is habit and
habit becomes moulded into character, which becomes the master.
These actions are subject to the law of kamma.
How does kamma operate in a human being? In the human
body the sense organs; the eyes, ears, nose, palate, skin and mind;
are more sensitive than in the animal body. When these six senses
come into contact with internal or external objects they stimulate
feelings and on this feeling, consciousness comes to act. If the
feeling is pleasant then the mind craves for it; if it is unpleasant,
then the mind shrinks from it. This craving is called lobha or taóhá in
Pali. Craving tries to grasp the object and hatred (dosa) tries to avoid
it. This amount of craving and hatred becomes complete in deeds,
words and thoughts. Craving and hatred take their origin from
ignorance or delusion (moha). Ignorance is the underlying principle
of all unwholesomeness (akusala). Actions originating from wisdom,
non-attachment and loving-kindness are wholesome (kusala). The
results of actions are in accordance with these roots. This is the
General Law. Hence consequences of an act react throughout the
whole universe on the doer. Man is the inheritor of kamma which
he has accumulated in his previous lives as well as in the present
life. He cannot reap the result of all his accumulated kamma within
the span of one life limited to eighty or a hundred years. Until all
kammas become barren he is subject to rebirth again and again, in
high or low states according to his good or bad kamma. That is why
the Buddha said:
“They shall fare according to their deeds, finding fruit of merit
or demerit.” (S I 97)
All actions of body, speech and mind, whether good or bad,
leave their respective impressions upon us and it is these
impressions that are responsible for determining the upward, or
downward direction of our life hereafter. The totality of such
impressions accumulated during the span of our life is transmitted
as our kamma to our next birth. The Buddha said that a man’s
personality is the outcome of all that he did, felt or thought from his
very beginning, not only in his present life, but from the
innumerable previous lives he had lived before it. A man has
painted his own picture—every touch, every thought is indelibly
expressed in its own way.
Where is this great accumulation of kamma stored up in us? The
same question was asked by King Milinda to a Buddhist saint,
Nágasena, who gave the following answer:
“O king, kamma is not stored up somewhere in this fleeting
consciousness, or in any other part of the body, but depends on
mind and body. It rests, manifesting at the opportune moment.
Just as fruits are not stored up somewhere in the fruit tree, but
depend on the fruit tree, so too, life springs up in due time.”
(Mil 72)
It would be a misunderstanding to think that consciousness is
retained like articles kept in a box. It is, like other natural phenomena,
a continuum which is dependent upon the conditions that are
present. Each moment transmits its impressions to the following
moment which in turn passes them on to the next, together with its
own contribution to the process. These impressions also are not static,
but are undergoing a process of their own continuous activity and
reaction upon one another.
The present moment of consciousness has thus arisen with
kamma accumulated from the beginningless past. For example, the
student reads volume after volume for his examination and goes on
receiving the knowledge gained through them. When the time
comes to write his examination, all that he has studied flows from
his pen, because at that moment his consciousness is rich with all
the knowledge it has inherited from its predecessors.
The differences in temperament, intelligence and character in
different individuals are to a great extent due to those differences in
kamma that they have amassed in their life-times. Heredity and
environment are also responsible for determining the difference
among men. Buddhism recognizes fully the extent which these
exercise upon us. It is totally wrong to believe, as some do, that
kamma is the only factor determining our destiny. The Buddha
denounced the view that everything is due to our previous kamma,
and that, owing to their previous kamma, men will become
murderers, thieves, liars, abusive and of wrong views. For those
who fall back on the previous kamma as the sole reason, there is
neither the desire to do, nor the effort to do, nor necessity to do this
deed, nor abstain from that deed. The impressions of good and bad
action go on accumulating as our kamma and their continuous
action and reaction upon one another are in a process of continuous
flux. From such numerous and diverse conditions it is very difficult
to say how they act and react among themselves to produce a
certain result.
We can understand only the most general manner in which
kamma works. The thought that one has directed towards someone
else reacts upon oneself in its own way. Thoughts of evil and hatred
towards another have a way of returning to us. Thoughts of
generosity (dána) and loving-kindness (mettá) are reflected upon

ourselves and make us better and happier. This is obvious and we
can see it in our day-to-day life. Consciousness is constantly affecting
ourselves and others, bringing about changes in the body and mind
in its own way. The moment of consciousness flows on in a
continuous rolling-up of the impressions that come in its way. We say
‘moment of consciousness’ because only in this expression can we
elucidate the nature of the continuum. There is no gap between one
moment and the next. One moment begets the next and passes on all
it has inherited from the previous moment. Each moment, it may be
said, we are born anew. Whence does this process start? Does it start
in childhood? The Buddha points out that the process of
consciousness is continuing as long as there is ignorance and craving.
Due to ignorance and craving, we have been taking birth after
birth gathering all sorts of kamma from good and bad actions. It
would be very wrong to believe that an individual derives his
character solely from his childhood. If so, why do men differ so
widely in the merit of intelligence? Does this process of
consciousness cease altogether when we die? It has been pointed out
already that this process would certainly come to an end if one
gained true detachment and knowledge and thus avoided the
accumulation of kamma. If one is still in the bondage of ignorance
and craving and has accumulated kamma, one will continue to be
reborn. As there is no gap between the last conscious moment in this
birth and the first one in the next, these two moments occur in the
same continuum. The ‘dying moment consciousness’ passes on the
inheritance of kamma to the first moment of the next birth. Thus the
last link of this birth is connected with the first link of the next birth.
The dynamic view of personality in Buddhism is different from
the static conception of self as a ‘soul’ (átman) which migrates from
body to body. In the teachings of Buddhism there is no
transmigration of a soul from body to body. Here is a personality in
constant flux kept moving on by the impulse of desire from birth to
birth. The belief that a soul transmigrates from body to body leaves
no room for the possibility of it being defiled, or perfected by its
own action. How can anything affect that which is unchanged? The
Buddha said that if there were an unchanging soul distinct from our
mind and body no righteous life would be possible.
If there is no identical soul then is he who does a deed the same
as, or different from, he who gets the result of it? The same question
was put to Venerable Nágasena by King Milinda. The reply was:
“Neither the same nor another. Suppose, O king, a man were to

light a lamp in the evening and it were to burn the whole night.
Then is the flame that burns in the first watch the same as the
flame that burns in the second watch? No. And so the flame that
burns in the third watch is different to that in the second and so
on. But yet neither is the flame altogether another from that
which burnt in the first watch. The light comes from the same
lamp all the night through. Just so, is the continuity of a person
maintained. One comes into being, another passes away but
they are linked by a continuum.” (Mil 40)
Man is compared to a lamp, with consciousness, or mind, as the
flame which is undergoing a process of continuous flux. It does not
suppose that his body is permanent or unchanging. It is also
undergoing its own process of change. The man who does the deed
and the man who gets the result is neither the same one nor another.
A fire may start at one end of a field and proceed to burn its way to
the opposite end. Is the fire at one end the same as the fire burning
at the other extreme? It is never the same fire, nor yet different
either. Man’s process of consciousness is just the same. Whatever of
good or bad is acted upon at one end is sure to have its effect at the
other. There is no permanent factor in man and the mind is in flux.
If there is no identical, abiding soul what is it that is born and
reborn? Buddhism holds that a man dying in London may be
reborn as a horse in Toronto according to his kamma. What is it that
leaves the body of the dying man in London, travels to Toronto and
enters the womb of the mare? If there is no soul how is the death of
one to be linked with the birth of the other? Buddhism does not
believe in transmigration. Nothing comes out of the body of the
dying man and enters the womb of the mare. Individual lives are to
be understood as a process of grasping—one life giving rise to
another according to the law of kamma.
The One Hundred Years War between England and France was
not a continuous battle without a break. Many battles were fought
on various battlefields. The enmity between the two nations
continued over a hundred year period, breaking out at different
times in the form of battles. In the same way the body of the man
and that of the horse are two fields where the same process of desire
continues. It is the continuum of the flow of desire. After the death
of the man the body is burned, but the desires do not disappear
with the body.
Kamma is the cause of rebirth. The process of consciousness in a

dying person proceeds feebly. Just before the moment of death, one
of his previous actions connected with one of the five senses
actually presents itself in the avenues of consciousness and the
dying person grasps that object with craving. His dying mind runs
on that grasping. At the end of his mental process, or cessation of
life, the death thought and desires of his next being arise. At the end
of this cessation of life, simultaneously with the next mental action
called re-linking (paþisandhi) the past existence is set up in the next
existence according to the capacity of kamma. The mental action is
engaged upon the action of kamma. This kammic object is brought
forth by a mental action which is rooted in latent ignorance and
dormant craving and is surmounted by its mental associations. It is
the outcome of all craving that co-exists with it. The Buddha says
that ignorance and craving are the fundamental causes of re-linking.
Rebirth does not involve transmigration as it is generally
understood. The Buddha rejected the idea of transmigration which
is postulated by some religious teachings. He holds as untenable the
belief that something enduring like a soul is passed from one body
to another. The individual is simply five aggregates understood in
terms of the law of kamma.
What is born, then, into the next existence? The continuum of
mind and matter is continued again in another form, motivated by
craving and nourished by material food of the mother. As, when
lighting one candle from another, the fuel and flame are different
but the process of heat continues.
If one understands the significance of this doctrine he will see
that the idea of a soul is without foundation. He will earnestly avoid
evil deeds and strive to do good. He will appreciate the great
importance of the law of kamma. Almost all rational religions
commend the avoidance of evil and the doing of good because of
the fact of rebirth. The aim of Buddhism, however, is not to lead
man into more rebirth but to escape from it. We are suffering
because of ignorance and selfish craving. Liberation is not to be
found in birth or death, but in birthlessness and deathlessness. The
aim of all living beings should be, first and foremost, the attainment
of wisdom that can destroy ignorance and selfish craving which
lead to birth, suffering and death without end.
Chapter 22
THE MECHANISM OF REBIRTH
The starting point of understanding the mechanism of rebirth in

Buddhism is the ‘here and now’, the present moment which traces
the course of conditioned existence (saísára). All beings are
composed of mind and matter (náma-rúpa) and although all beings
comprise basically the same ingredients, they are nevertheless as
varied as chalk and cheese when it comes to ‘personality’. No two
persons can ever be found exactly alike in all respects and each one
possesses his own psychological characteristics.
The Buddha stated that the process of gestation and conception
of an individual is not possible without the presence of a factor, the
‘being to be born’ (gandhabba).1
“Where, monks, three are found in combination, there a seed of
life is planted. Thus, if a father and mother come together, but it
is not the mother’s season and the ‘being to be born’ is not
present, then no seed of life is planted. Or, if the father and
mother come together and it is the mother’s season but the
‘being to be born’ is not present, then again no seed of life is
planted. But when, monks, the father and mother come together
and it is the mother’s season and the ‘being to be born’ is also
present, then, by the combined agency of these three, a seed of
life is planted.” (M I 256)
Granted, therefore, that there really is this third factor, it
automatically follows that the birth of a being in this life implies the
decease of a being in a former life. The succession of births and
deaths constitutes saísára, a constant flux of aggregates and each
1. In the context of the Abhidhamma this is the 'rebirth-linking

consciousness' (paþisandhi–viññáóa) which connects one life to another. The
commentaries are also in agreement with this meaning. Dr. O.H. de Alvis
Wijesekera, however, suggests gandhabba as a “samsaric being in the
intermediate stage between death and birth” (See “Vedic Gandharva and
Pali Gandhabba”, Ceylon University Review, Vol. III, No. 1, April 1945). The
‘intermediate stage’ (antarábhava) was mainly a view held by the
Sarvástivádins, not the Theravádins.
natural break (i.e. death) is reconnected with the aid of the ‘rebirth-
linking consciousness’ (paþisandhi–viññáóa) as is made explicit in the
teaching of the Abhidhamma. It is, naturally, difficult to determine
the exact course which this consciousness will take and only the
Buddha managed to comprehend its root, which is dependent on
the workings of kamma.
The question is often asked, however, “But how are we to
believe in a past life?” Buddhists tend to cite as the greatest counsel
for the defence of this claim the Buddha himself who is recorded as
having both remembered past lives in addition to foreseeing the
course of those of others:
“With clairvoyant vision, purified, I see beings passing away in
one state and reappearing in another state...”
(D I 13; M I 22; S II 122, etc.)
Following his instructions in psychic insight, Moggallána and
other great disciples trained their minds so as to trace their past
lives by using the faculty of the ‘divine eye’ (dibbacakkhu), one of the
five supernormal powers.1 This faculty was not restricted to the
Buddha or his nearest disciples but may be achieved by anyone
who attains the fourth jhána and practises the requisite mental
exercises.
The Theragátha (Verses of the Elders) records the story of a
Brahmin, Vaògìsa, who is said to have learnt how to tell others’
rebirths by tapping their skulls!2 Some Indian Rishis, famous for
their possession of the supernormal powers (e.g. Asita or
Káladevala), foretold the greatness of the Buddha-to-be and were
also able to read his past lives.3
One might legitimately doubt the possibility of ever attaining to
that state of mind where one would be enabled to see into one’s past
at ease, but in view of the miracles of modern science and reliable
reports of E.S.P. which are products of the human mind, is this
achievement really as fantastic as it sounds? It is true that there are
very few who can be shown to utilize their minds in this way, but it
1. See L' Abhidharmakoøa de Vasubandhu: traduit et annoté par Louis de la

ValleéPoussin, Paris, 1923, Ch. III p. 32.
2. Th 1209–1279 (pp. 109–115); see also Th-a II 192 ff.; A I 24; A-a I 149 ff.;
Dhp-a IV 226f; Sn-a I 345f; Ap II 495; Sn I 196.
3. Sn pp. 131–136; Sn-a II 483 ff.; J I 54 f; Bv-a 276 f.
THE MECHANISM OF REBIRTH 147
should always be remembered that the Buddha clearly warned his

disciples against using such powers for cheap, exhibitionist purposes.
It might well be asked whether men like Buddha, Christ, Plato
or Shakespeare can arise today? Buddhism would answer to the
effect that, dependent on conditions, there is no reason for believing
in single, isolated historical personages whose equal can never be
repeated. In defence of the argument for rebirth, one hears
numerous instances of the remembrance of past lives from all parts
of the world. These experiences occasionally take unusual forms; for
example, a dying father, arranging for the hiding of some object in
the hope that successors may find it and so claim kinship with him.
In England, at the present time, a psychiatrist has deposited certain
papers proving his identity in a safe of which he alone knows the
combination in the hope of claiming them ‘next time’ and so
proving the reality of rebirth! Other types of experience manifest
themselves when people, for no known reason, suddenly take either
great liking or display strong aversion towards others or feel at
home among foreign surroundings.
One is often tempted to ask whether such highly developed
beings such as Buddhas, infant prodigies or geniuses could arise in
the world without having undertaken previous training, especially
as in so many cases the persons concerned are offspring of ordinary
parents. In such cases, therefore, heredity cannot possibly be a
deciding factor. Again, one should seriously question the validity of
the popular western assumption, so often leading to complacency,
that ‘three score years and ten’ (Psalms 90:10) is adequate
preparation for eternal heaven or hell.
Although it may be pointed out that the virtuous are all too
often found in unfortunate circumstances whereas the vicious
always seem to thrive amidst pleasant surroundings, the inexorable
law of kamma will nevertheless eventually balance out our lives
and, although we may not know whither our destination, go we
will since:
“Not in the sky, nor in mid-ocean, nor in a mountain cave, is
there a spot where a man might be free from evil deeds ... where
deeds could not overcome the mortal.”1
1. Dhp 127, 128. See also Mil 150f; cf. Divyávadána p. 532.
Before considering the actual processes involved in the

operation of rebirth, it is first necessary to understand the
undesirable aspect: death.
Those about to die experience through the power of kamma one
of the following three objects1 which come into focus at one or other
of the six sense doors according to circumstances:
1. Kamma: a reminder, i.e. a mental image, of some good or
bad action, habitual kamma or one performed immediately before
decease.
2. Kamma-nimitta: a sign of destiny; the mental appearance of
some object reminding one of some good or bad action, habitual
kamma or one performed immediately before decease.
3. Gati-nimitta: the sign of the destiny that awaits. This is a
vision indicating one’s future rebirth.2
The ‘death thought’ is one’s final moment of consciousness
(cuti-citta) in this life. Rebirth or relinking-consciousness (paþisandhi-
citta) follows immediately. This, it should be noted, contradicts the
popular but erroneous view that there exists an interval
(antarábhava) of time (49 days, being a multiple of the supposed
sacred number 7, was conceived as the normal period) during
which a person endowed with psychic powers (iddhi) was supposed
to be able to wander the universe at will.3 Commenting on this
view, Leary, Metzner and Alpert say in their book The Psychedelic
Experience: A manual based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead: 4 “The
Tibetan Book of the Dead is ostensibly a book describing the
intermediate phase lasting forty-nine (seven times seven) days, and
during rebirth into another bodily frame. This, however, is merely
the exoteric framework which the Tibetan Buddhists used to cloak
their mystical teachings.”
1. For details see Visuddhimagga Ch. 17. Cf. Bhavasasaíkránti Sútra by

Nágárjuna, transl. by N. Aiyaswami Øastri, Madras, 1938.
2. Buddhaghosa explains them in his Atthasálinì as follows: “Proceeding by
way of rebirth they have as mental object, limited kamma, kamma-symbol or
tendency-symbol: during life they proceed by way of the subconscious
continuum and at its end by way of decease they have just this as mental
object.” (Expositor 521; cf. Compendium of Philosophy pp 149–152)
3. See The Tibetan Book of the Dead by W.Y. Evans-Wentz, 3rd edition,
Oxford, 1957, pp. 6–7.
4. University Books, New York, 1966, p. 12.
THE MECHANISM OF REBIRTH 149
Suffice it to say that such a conception cannot but be illogical as

consciousness, in the Buddhist sense, is viewed as a continuing
subconscious life-stream (bhavaòga-sota) incapable of experiencing
temporary gaps.
At the expiry of one’s life-continuum (bhavaòga), the last state of
consciousness in this existence arises and ceases simultaneously
with one’s decease. After it, rebirth-linking consciousness, which
links the past existence with the new existence, arises and sets up in
the next existence.1
One of the three above-mentioned phenomena, having
presented itself, is grasped at by the dying person, as a drowning
man clings to a straw. By what, however, is rebirth-consciousness
produced? By mental activity, rooted in such craving as is dormant
and such ignorance as is latent in the mind. In this connection,
kamma or volition, constitutes ‘reproductive’ kamma (janaka-
kamma). Perception (saññá), contact (phassa) and other mental factors
that produce rebirth also make their appearance.
Ignorance and craving, in any case, usually lie dormant and
latent in the mind when no occasion occurs for their manifestation,
but ignorance causes wrong view (micchádiþþhi) and craving causes
grasping (upádána). Furthermore, volitional activities (saòkhára) act
as a driving force in all three realms of sense experience. After the
dissolution of the aggregates—the natural break of death—an
unbroken flux of mind continues upon rebirth.
THE THOUGHT-PROCESS PRECEDING DEATH

1) Past life-continuum (atìta-bhavaòga),
2) Vibrating life-continuum (bhavaòga-calana),
3) Arrested life-continuum (bhavaòga-upaccheda),
4) Mind-door apprehending (manodváravájjana),
5–9) Five apperceptions (javana),
10 & 11) Two retention consciousnesses (tadálambana),
12) Decease-consciousness (cuti),
13) Rebirth-linking consciousness (paþisandhi),
14) Life-continuum (bhavaòga).
As soon as birth takes place, cognition of light occurs and
thereafter follows the process of sense perception (saññá) etc., and, all
1. Sensory (kámaloka), form (rúpaloka) or formless (arúpaloka) realms.

too often in life, the weakening of the mind through enfeeblement

brought about by old age and so the wheel of saísára turns another
cycle.
The arahants were able to sever all connections with the world
of the senses by following the three-fold training programme (viz.
morality, concentration and wisdom) and consequently attain the
state where rebirth occurs no longer.
Chapter 23
THE BUDDHIST VIEW OF METAPHYSICS
What is the beginning of being or life? This question has been put
many times and in almost every place. It is a question that perplexes
the mind of every thinking person but although it has received the
attention of many profound thinkers the expected answer has not
yet been obtained and probably never will be.
The Upaniåads endeavoured to solve the problem by tracing the
origin to the Brahman, the all-pervading God from whom emanates
every soul (átman) which transmigrates until it is finally reabsorbed
into the Brahman. According to the Upaniåads, the Brahman and the
átman are the same and the Brahman manifests itself in every soul.
The Upaniåads, therefore, point out: “You are That.” Øaíkara later
developed this into his doctrine of non-duality which teaches that
beings are defiled particles but, through the medium of purification,
eventually reach Brahman or Paramátman.
Christianity attributes everything to an Almighty God. All life
was created from nothing and the first cause is therefore as
mysterious as is the first cause in Hinduism. Modern science tackles
the problem with its usual accurate investigation and ingenuity—
we are the direct product of spermatozoa and ova provided by our
parents. It interprets quite intelligibly as far as the body is
concerned but the mind is still an incomprehensible factor. Science
does not give a satisfactory explanation about the mind.
Materialists, while asserting “All life from life”, maintain that life
and mind are gradually evolving from, and a manifestation of,
matter. That is, material which is lifeless evolves into life and mind.
Buddhism is not concerned about a first cause or a last effect,
regarding them as fruitless speculations. One day, the bhikkhu
Máluòkyaputta, not content to lead the holy life, impatiently
demanded of the Buddha answers to speculative problems with the
threat of reverting to lay-life if they were not answered. He got up
from his afternoon meditation went to the Buddha, greeted him, sat
on one side and said:
“Venerable sir, when I was meditating, this thought occurred to
me: ‘There are these problems unexplained and rejected by the
Blessed One, namely: 1) is the universe eternal or 2) is it not eternal,
3) is the universe finite or 4) is it infinite, 5) is soul the same as the

body or 6) is soul one thing and body another, 7) does the Tathágata
exist after death or 8) does he not exist after death or 9) does he both
[at the same time] exist and not exist, or 10) does he both [at the
same time] not exist and not not-exist? These problems the Blessed
One does not explain to me. This attitude does not please me, I do
not appreciate it. I will go to the Blessed One and ask him about this
matter. If the Blessed One explains them to me, then I will continue
to follow the holy life under him. If he does not explain them, I will
leave the Order and go away.’ If the Blessed One knows that the
universe is eternal, let him explain it to me so. If the Blessed One
does not know whether the universe is eternal or not ... then for a
person who does not know, it is straightforward to say ‘I do not
know, I do not see’.”
The Buddha’s reply to Máluòkyaputta should be heeded by the
many millions in the world today who are wasting valuable time on
such metaphysical questions and unnecessarily disturbing their
peace of mind:
“Did I ever say to you, Máluòkyaputta, ‘Come Máluòkyaputta,
lead the holy life under me, I will explain these questions to you’?”
“No, Venerable sir.”
“Then, Máluòkyaputta, did you say to me, ‘Sir, I will lead the
holy life under the Blessed One if the Blessed One will explain these
questions to me’?”
“Even now, Máluòkyaputta, I do not say to you: ‘Come and
lead the holy life under me, I will explain these questions to you’
and neither do you say to me ‘Sir, I will lead the holy life under the
Blessed One if he will explain these questions to me.’ Under these
circumstances, foolish one, who refuses whom?
“Máluòkyaputta, if anyone says: ‘I will not lead the holy life
under the Blessed One until he explains these questions’, he may die
with these questions unanswered by the Tathágata. Suppose
Máluòkyaputta, a man is wounded by a poisoned arrow and his
friends and relatives bring him to a surgeon. Suppose the man
should then say: ‘I will not let this arrow be taken out until I know
who shot me; whether he is a Kåatriya (of the warrior caste), or a
Brahmin (of the priestly caste), or a Vaiøya (of the trading and
agricultural caste), or a Súdra (of the low caste); what his name and
family may be; whether he is tall, short or of medium stature;
whether his complexion is black, brown, or golden; from which
THE BUDDHIST VIEW OF METAPHYSICS 153
village, town or city he comes. I will not let this arrow be taken out
until I know the kind of bow with which I was shot; the kind of
bow-string used; the type of arrow; what sort of feather was used on
the arrow and with what kind of material the point of the arrow was
made’. Máluòkyaputta, that man would die without knowing any
of these things. Even so, Máluòkyaputta, if anyone says ‘I will not
follow the holy life under the Blessed One until he answers these
questions such as whether the universe is eternal or not, etc., he
would die with these questions unanswered by the Tathágata.”
Then the Buddha explained to Máluòkyaputta that the holy life
does not depend on these views. Whatever opinion one may have
about these problems, there is birth, old age, decay, death, sorrow,
lamentation, pain, grief, distress, “... the cessation of which I declare
in this very life. Therefore, Máluòkyaputta, bear in mind what I have
explained as explained and what I have not explained as
unexplained. What are the things that I have not explained? Whether
the universe is eternal or not etc., I have not explained. Why
Máluòkyaputta, have I not explained them? Because it is not useful,
is not fundamentally connected with the spiritual holy life, is not
conducive to dispassion, detachment, cessation, tranquillity, deep
penetration, full realisation, Nibbána; that is why I have not told you
about them. What Máluòkyaputta, have I explained? I have
explained dukkha, the arising of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha and
the way leading to the cessation of dukkha. Why Máluòkyaputta,
have I explained them? Because it is useful, is fundamentally
connected with the spiritual holy life, is conducive to aversion,
detachment, cessation, tranquillity, deep penetration, full realisation,
Nibbána. Therefore I have explained them.” (M I 426–432)
One should not worry in vain seeking for a beginning in a
beginningless past. Life is a process of becoming, a force, a flux and
as such necessitates a beginningless past whether one is ape or man.
One should seek the cause of this faring-on and live in the present
and not in the past. The Buddha said: “Without cognizable end is
this recurrent wandering (saísára), a first beginning of beings who,
obstructed by ignorance and fettered by craving, wander to and fro,
is not to be perceived.” (S II 178–193.)
One should utilize one’s valuable energy to transform the life-
stream into the sorrowless, dukkha-free state which is Nibbána. As
one’s life-span is short, one should try to learn only the important
things. There is no time to waste: one may live a hundred years or
more but this is not sufficient time to study more than a few
subjects. A library contains books on many interesting subjects but

we must select the most useful subjects and specialize in them.
There is no time to devote to metaphysical speculation.
Those who pose questions for the mere sake of argument defeat
their own ends. One might argue that life had a beginning and a
finite past and that the first cause was a Creator God. In that case
there is no reason why one should not question who had created the
Creator. In other words, no first cause is to be found. Science does
not care to investigate into the first cause simply because such an
attempt is directly inimical to the advancement of knowledge. The
Law of Dependent Origination does not investigate it either because
the very conception of a first cause is a complete block to the
progress of knowledge.
Chapter 24
BUDDHIST METAPHYSICS
With regard to cosmological questions, Buddhism adopted the

prevalent and accepted theories rather than attempting to formulate
new ones. Time was expressed in terms which may be usefully
compared with the theories of the Jaina and Sáíkhya schools and
the facts of evolution and devolution were equally-well described in
all Indian schools of philosophy. However, it was the Buddhist
school which gave minute details of conditions and peoples living
in the four world periods.1 Although such cycles are apt to repeat
themselves, there is no evidence that Buddhism ever referred to a
Creator. Hence it has been said:
“For here there is no Brahmá god,
Creator of the round of births,
Phenomena alone flow on—
Cause and component their condition.”
(Vism XIX.20/p. 603.; transl. by Ñáóamoli)
Buddhism contains neither a divinity nor a theology. Brahmá
was conceived as a personal god, residing in the Brahmá-loka, who
occasionally visited the Buddha to ask for advice. In this connection,
therefore, we should recall the epithet of the Buddha; ‘Teacher of
gods and men’ (satthá devamanussánaí).
Since a deification of the Buddha is not possible, the universe,
on that account, ceases to be theocentric; the whole of ‘creation’ is
seen as self-created and self-creating, and beings found on earth are
not necessarily unique creatures in a limitless universe. In addition
to this, it should be borne in mind that there can be no one or First
Cause, but rather several, mutually inter-dependent causes and
conditions.
1. As formulated in Hindu literature; the four ages (yugas) were so called

after the four throws of an Indian dice game: Krita yuga—the ‘Golden Age’,
3,456,000 years; Treta Yuga—1,728,000 years; Dvipara Yuga—864,000 years;
and Kali Yuga—the present ‘Black Age’ which began on Friday 18th
February, 3102 B.C. and will last 432,000 years.
On the question of ontological reasoning, Buddhism rarely

concerns itself with ‘Thusness’ (tathatá). All conditioned things are
selfless. The Realist School (Sarvástiváda) propounded the atomic
theory whereby particles making up the so-called substance of life
were seen to exist only for infinitesimally short moments, being
always in a state of flux. ‘Momentary destruction’ (køaóa-bhaòga)
was always held by the inclusion in the world, in addition to the
individual, as being also in a state of constant arising and passing
away or, in one word, becoming (bhava).
The concept of voidness (Pali, suññatá, Sanskrit, øúnyatá) was
meant to imply not just emptiness or nothingness but in a higher
sense, a state devoid of all conditions characterizing life, hence the
paradoxical equation: suñña-asuñña—a state where anything can
exist devoid of its attributes.
Again, ‘true reality is no reality’ or ‘true character is no
character’—such terms should be interpreted in their ordinary sense
whilst the adjective in each case determines the real meaning.
Hence, one arrives at a twofold meaning: the relative versus the
absolute.
With regard to psychological questions, Buddhism has always
firmly adhered to the principle of no-soul (anattá or anátman). There
is no ‘real self’, immutable and immortal and, in general terms also,
there can be no essence that can be unchanging or eternal. In all
things, therefore, no substance, no permanence, no duration.
No special eschatological theories were elaborated by the
Buddhists as all beings were viewed in the light of an eternal flux of
becoming. Death implied birth and vice versa. By attaining to
complete release of mind, of all earthly desires, one would have
attained to the end of self-creation as all desires are born of self, and
‘freedom from passion’ (rágakkhaya) connotes at one and the same
time the freedom or liberation from a centred personality.
Buddhism does, however, have much more to say on
epistemology than most other philosophies. For sources of cognition,
Buddhism has recourse to the world of the senses, inference and
intuition. Thus, sense data, reason and inner experience all provide
our contents of knowledge. We can, in addition, have recourse to the
experience of Enlightenment (Bodhi). It should, of course, be
emphasised that the states of calmness and equilibrium are
unattainable without purity of conduct; this must come prior to the
completion of insight (i.e. the perfection of intellect and wisdom,
perfect enlightenment).
BUDDHIST METAPHYSICS 157
The Buddha, as a man, taught men to become perfect. This, in

terms of an equation, meant:
Principle of self-creation = goal of life ideal;
Realisation of life-ideal = Buddhahood or arahantship.
But, naturally, enlightenment is unthinkable unless an Enlight-
ened One arose originally to define what exactly constituted that
term.
There are three interpretations as to what is meant by the
Middle Path: between two extremes of 1) self-indulgence and self-
mortification, 2) between eternalism and nihilism, and 3) between
optimism and pessimism.
Such a middle position equals a third extreme tending to neither
one or other side representing, as it does, a step higher on the ladder
of dialectics. Eventually the stage is reached when an idealistic
synthesis takes place transcending the remaining two paths and this
equals the highest truth.
Nágárjuna’s methods of dialectical argument are particularly
notable. He followed the Buddha’s method of first evaluating
worldly or mundane truth by comparing it with higher (not
necessarily the highest) truth. He then set beside it still higher truth
whilst relegating the previous conception of truth to the level of
common-sense truth. Eventually, following logical conclusions, the
higher truth becomes absolute or ultimate truth which can be
comprehended by all.
Nágárjuna employed the ‘eightfold negation’ in an absolute
sense in his philosophy: production and extinction, permanence
and annihilation, unity and diversity, coming and going (arising
and passing). One must not forget his method of demonstrating the
nature of truth using all examples to hand and employment of the
classic ‘discriminating method from the fourfold thesis’: positive,
negative, both, neither. ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ being regarded as
unsatisfactory and inadequate terms, the Buddha himself employed
the foregoing method when answering opponents, for example:
“Is the world caused by the self?”
“... by another?”
“... by both?”
“... by neither?”
Buddhist logic is not a formal logic of thought but one of dispute
or debate, an investigation of cause, the art of argumentation and
refutation.1 The aim of Buddhist thought was the establishment of the

‘Kingdom of Truth’, its foundation being for the benefit of a
Cakkavatti a ‘Wheel-turning’ or universal monarch.
At the time of the Buddha it would have been impossible to ‘Set
in Motion the Wheel of the Law’ without reference to some of the
fundamental principles of Brahmanism. The attributes of the Brahman
were ‘thinking’ (cit), ‘joy’ (ánanda) and ‘Being’ (sat); in terms of the
Brahman (a ‘universal principle’ according to the Upaniåads) these
became: ‘all-knowing’ (cit), ‘blissful’ and ‘Self-extant’. The
comparable Buddhist principles are:
1. Soullessness of all elements,
2. Impermanence of component beings and elements,
3. Unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) of all conditioned things, and
occasionally a fourth—
4. Nibbána is bliss.
These, as detailed below, distinguished Buddhism from all
other schools of Indian philosophy:
1. It opposed the Brahmanical theory of a permanent being, an
individual immortal soul and existence of a universal or cosmic
soul, spirit or creator.
2. All existence is transitory, in a state of flux and change. The
continuity of flowing waves might give the appearance of
permanence but such is illusory.
3. Because of 1) and 2), no permanent enjoyment could be
expected in the mundane world. Dukkha must be accepted as such
because this is the beginning and end of conditioned things—the
alpha and omega of saísára. Since there is no escape, one cannot shun
its existence, hence Buddhism opposed the unreal Brahmanical
concept of joy.
The perfection of insight equals the perfection of enlightenment,
therefore the Buddha taught a Weltanschauung in the Four Noble
Truths and Paþicca-samuppáda, Dependent Origination; and self-
culture (bhávaná), i.e. meditation in order to awaken insight in the
individual.
1. Hetuvidyá—‘The science of cause’; vibhajjavádin—the Buddha as an

‘analyst’ or ‘logician’. (At the time of Emperor Asoka, the Theraváda was
distinguished by the name of Vibhajjaváda). See also the Upásakajanálaòkára,
London, 1965, p. 26.
Chapter 25
AN INTERVIEW ABOUT BUDDHISM AND
MEDITATION
Professor Ramiro A. Calle says: “I interviewed the Venerable Dr.

Hammalawa Saddhátissa at the headquarters of the British
Mahabodhi Society in London, of which he is the President. Always
cordial and affable, he replied to all my questions with extraordinary
clarity and penetration.”1
Q What do you think has been the most important contribution
made by Buddhism to humanity?
A I will reply to this question in some detail. The life of the
Buddha has two aspects; great wisdom and great compassion.
Through that wisdom he has shown the path to freedom and the
entry into eternal peace, or Nibbána. Because of his great compassion
he worked for social reform. In the time of the Buddha there was
widespread corruption in the name of God or religion. As a social
reformer he criticized and endeavoured to eradicate such social evils.
The Buddha therefore contributed to a greater humanity in the world.
There was then great inequality against which he spoke out. For
example, he pointed out that there is no difference between a man
and a woman as regard innate intelligence. Of what use is it to be a
man if he is a fool or an idiot? What is wrong with being a woman if
she is wise and intelligent? The Buddha has always opted for equality
in all senses. He tried to show the world that the highest state is
intelligence and not race, nationality or things of that nature.
Let us consider that he was born a prince and could have been a
king, living an easy and comfortable life, but despite that he
sacrificed himself to save the world by renunciation, taught
everyone that the purpose of life should be to attain salvation and
not to legislate, conquer or amuse oneself. He imparted the teaching
not merely through words or sermons but by his own example.
1. Translated by John Wilson from Mistica Oriental par Occidentales by

Professor Ramiro A. Calle, published by Editorial Bruguera SA, Barcelona,
1976.
Therefore, his other truly important contribution to the world was

to show the world that the purpose of life must be to obtain
deliverance. This was what he gave to humanity through his life.
Q Is Buddhism more a philosophy than a religion? Can we
consider it as a religion without God?
A Buddhism has been accepted as one of the great religions but
it is not a religion in the original sense of the word. Religion derives
from the Latin term religare which, as you will know better than I,
means to unite. But as religion is generally known it is often
tantamount to buying something with something else, that is buying
one’s being for something, to rely on (or worship) an external agent.
In its original meaning, religion is the communication of man with
God. In Buddhism we do not find the same characteristic. You
discover your own purity, your salvation depends upon yourself. No
one can purify you.1 Therefore, the Buddha in his teaching gave man
total freedom.
Inasmuch as theistic religions depend upon outside agents, that
is the Divinity, Buddhism does not depend on anything external.
For that reason, I repeat, Buddhism is not a religion in the original
sense of the word. But if we take religion to be a way of life then
Buddhism can be considered as a religion, because it is an ethical
philosophy and a way of life. If Buddhism were only a mere
philosophy or metaphysical speculation without practical
application, it would have no objective. But it is really an ethical and
practical philosophy. It contains not only theory, but the method of
putting such theory into practice. In this sense Buddhism is a
religion, distinct from the original meaning of the word. Due to the
fact that people have forgotten the original meaning of the term,
Buddhism has been accepted as a religion but we do not find in it
any of the characteristics belonging to religions if we stick to the
original meaning of these religions.
The whole Buddhist Canon has been divided into three sections.
We call the Canon the Tipiþaka or three baskets, since in ancient days
people used to keep books in baskets. The first section deals with
monastic rules and we find in it the norms for monks and nuns to live
by. The second section is concerned with daily life, ethical sermons,
morality and other good and humane policies. The third section deals
with philosophy, psychology and metaphysics. Therefore, in
1. Cf. Dhp 165.

AN INTERVIEW ABOUT BUDDHISM AND MEDITATION 161
Buddhism one finds all these elements which make it a philosophy

and all those which make it, like other religions, a way of life.
Q There is known to be a controversy between Maháyána and
Theraváda. Do you believe a reconciliation is possible?
A It is perfectly possible. The principles which one finds in the
Maháyána—like that of the Bodhisattva, for example—are also
found in the orthodox Theraváda teaching. Each branch is in
agreement in observing the fundamental teachings of the Buddha.
Each school accepts the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold
Path, the principles of Dependent Origination. These are basic
points of the Buddhist doctrine. Theraváda equally with Maháyána
observes faithfully such points. Do you know, it is surprising to
discover that among Buddhists there are no different churches.
Other religious systems have different churches, but with us this
does not happen. We have Buddhist temples—viháras. Since you
have been in India, you must know many of these temples, such as
at the sacred places connected with the life of the Buddha. Pilgrims
come there from very different parts of the world. Some come from
Japan, China, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet, others from Sri Lanka,
Burma, Thailand, Cambodia or Laos. They can all go to pray and
meditate in the same temple, without any sort of discrimination. If a
pilgrim from Sri Lanka, Burma or Thailand—countries where
Theraváda Buddhism is practised, goes to Japan—where Maháyána
Buddhism is practised, he will pray and meditate in Maháyána
temples. And if a Japanese, for example, visits Sri Lanka, he will
pray and meditate in a Theraváda temple. That is to say, we always
regard each other as brothers and we do not quarrel with each
other. If a Theraváda Buddhist goes to Japan he is welcomed as a
brother. You can see for yourself in this temple, where we have two
Japanese monks.
As regards practice there is never any difficulty and in fact all
Buddhists practise Buddhism as one religion. There exist some
philosophical differences and some practices vary between the two
schools, but we all agree on the same principles of unity, harmony
and friendship. We are one; there are no important differences.
Q Did the Buddha keep an esoteric message for the initiated?
A The message was the same for all. He explained the
Dhamma in all its profundity. He did not keep anything hidden in
his hand and he did not keep any secret teaching for some
favourites. His teachings were open to all. He did not have a secret
or esoteric teaching. We consider that there was nothing in his
teaching which could be called occult.
Q How should one define a good Buddhist?
A A good Buddhist should lean towards high precepts and he
should meditate. He should observe the five precepts. If one
abstains from misconduct, from those practices which are harmful
to oneself and to society; then one is a good person and a good
Buddhist. In addition, one should practise meditation to further
purify the mind. If one guides one’s life towards inoffensive, good
and useful actions, if one is useful to others, then one is the best
Buddhist.
Q In your opinion, which country follows the most authentic
Buddhism, most in agreement with the original teachings?
A That is a complex question to answer because Buddhism,
like any other religion, has developed in each country according to
the needs of the people. When religions reach different countries
they encounter various cultural and social customs etc. The people
of that country do not want to relinquish their customs. That is why
we find in various countries, forms of Buddhism that carry with
them various practices which were not included in the Buddha’s
teachings. Even so, in any country there are those who practise the
most authentic teachings.
In Sri Lanka, Buddhism is preserved in its original purity but it
is clear that there is also an adaptation to the needs of its people.
There are people who like to associate Buddhism with its social and
cultural needs. Yes, in Sri Lanka there is a pure form of Buddhism
as well as in Burma, Thailand and other countries.
Q In all discussions on Buddhism, one question inevitably arises.
If there is no I or permanent entity, what is it that reincarnates?
A It is very simple to comprehend if we understand the
mental process as a flow. We believe in cause and effect. Everything
depends on that Law. If there is a cause, surely there must be an
effect of similar nature. On our mental screen each momentary
thought is conditioned by other thoughts and conditions, and in its
turn, others follow it. In this way the thought process flows like a
current, or a river. If you look at a river, for example, you will
observe that it is flowing as such, but the same river is not always
the same water, only the momentary passing of water pushed along
by the other water that is coming down.
Similarly, a momentary thought conditions another momentary
thought and these thoughts run onwards. For this reason we think
of the process of consciousness as a current, like a river, a
continuous flow. Although for us there is no soul, there exists a
continuous flow.
The momentary thought ceases, but the process of thought
continues. There is no death in any real sense. At the moment of
death, consciousness gives birth to a new process which flows on.
Our mind and body change constantly. Every moment we are
changing. At this moment you and I are changing. Our thoughts are
flowing although we are not conscious of it. Such are the facts that
Buddhism comprehends.
Q Yoga is millennia old and many yogis have existed before the
Buddha. It has been said nevertheless that the Buddha was the
first yogi who was not anonymous. Do you think this is so?
A Yes, he was in effect a yogi, although of course one cannot
say he was the first. We could say that he was the yogi of yogis, the
king of yogis.
He studied yoga before his enlightenment and had two great
yoga teachers. They showed him how to concentrate his mind and
the level he might aspire to by that method. He attained that level,
that high level, in accordance with the instructions of his teachers.
But he simply did not feel satisfied with these teachings because he
sensed that there was a higher goal. He therefore meditated alone
and attained supreme enlightenment. Those teachers were not
enlightened, so for that reason he left them. He practised by himself
and advanced far beyond the former method until he attained to
Buddhahood.
Q The Western mentality cannot easily assimilate the concept of
øúnyatá. Should we understand it as an absolute vacuum?
A Øúnyatá means that there is no permanent entity in a human
being nor in anything else, animate or inanimate. We must of
necessity distinguish between two languages; the conventional and
the philosophical. Conventionally an entity is distinguished by a
name according to the nationality and opinion of he who applies it.
But despite the name we are nothing in the real sense. If we analyze
a person into the aggregates of which he is made up we realise that
we cannot find anything permanent, any eternal entity. That

absence of any permanent entity is øúnyatá.
Q What can you tell us about meditation?
A I believe that meditation is indispensable to life. It is a very
important practice.
We may say that a human being is composed of mind and body.
If a person wishes to live a physically healthy life he should practise
physical exercises and look after his body, since it will otherwise
become infirm. The same can be said about the mind. Just as one
should practise physical exercises to have a healthy body, one
should also practise meditation to obtain a healthy mind.
Meditation or yoga in Buddhism means the cultivation of the mind.
The mind is like a monkey which jumps constantly from here to
there and never stays still. The mind runs after sensory perceptions.
But if we wish to harness and make use of the mind it must be
trained. It is the essential thing if we wish the mind to be of service
to us. In order to utilize the mind, to control it and to concentrate on
a stated object, the main thing is to practise meditation. In
Buddhism we have several types of meditation—for example,
meditation on breathing and upon universal love.
One who wishes to control his mind should cultivate positive
qualities. If a person, for example, has an egoistic and intransigent
character, he should cultivate universal love and tolerance by
meditating upon them. In order to practise this elevated form of
meditation, which aims towards cultivation of positive qualities, we
should sit in a peaceful and secluded place and cultivate good
thoughts, well directed. Before doing so, one can read an
appropriate text which stimulates positive thoughts. We must
always bear in mind that if we do not offer our love to others we
cannot expect them to offer love to us.
We begin by directing loving thoughts towards the person we
like best, but not one of the opposite sex since it might provoke
sensual desire. This is the first phase of this type of meditation.
Afterwards we direct our thoughts towards a person we like second
best. Then direct our thoughts towards neighbours and so extend it
towards everyone we may know and ultimately to all beings in the
world. We then likewise direct our loving thoughts towards our
enemies. In this way we raise world spirituality. We also direct our
loving thoughts towards the insane, the ignorant and the infirm.
That is, make our loving thoughts extend over the whole world.
Any disagreeable thought that arises during this type of meditation

can be overcome completely. That is how one meditates on
universal love and this can be carried out during one’s daily life.
During our work with other people, during our daily activities,
we should never lose control over ourselves. We should likewise
show kindness. Since we have tried, through meditation, to direct
loving thoughts towards all beings, so should this meditation be
brought into our daily life. One should avoid all anger, violence and
apathy. Thus one attains the real object of meditation; putting into
practice the essence of our meditation.
Meditation in any of its forms allows us to obtain a higher level
of concentration and one-pointedness of mind, which is
advantageous in attaining the highest states and the highest goals.
Meditation should always be carried across into daily life. We
should not remain with the mere meditation exercises. In this way
the object of meditation becomes crystallized. If a person
concentrates on not getting angry, thinking and cultivating his
mind thus, and obtaining control over himself, and if afterwards
when he re-enters society, he is capable of remaining absolutely
calm, he has truly practised meditation.
In the beginning it is advisable to have silence in order to
practise meditation, because in the early phases, if the mind does
not encounter a suitable environment, it will jump around
frequently. One should avoid interruptions. But when the
practitioner has attained total concentration of mind, then whatever
may happen and however much noise goes on around him, his
mind is not disturbed.
Q What do you think of self-awareness, that is, careful observation
of everything composing our being? Also being aware of
everything we do and of that which surrounds us? It is very
essential. It is essential for life and also it is a form of meditation.
A When we do something we should do it consciously. We
should be aware of what is happening within ourselves. Observing
yourself, the conscious being, develops your mind. A man should
develop his consciousness and be aware even of the most trivial
things.
For example, in eating we should be aware of what we are
eating and be aware of having eaten sufficient. If we are seated we
should be aware of how and where we are sitting. If we are
standing, we should be aware that we are standing. Also that we are
going to sleep and on awakening we should simply be aware that

we are awake. We should try to alert our consciousness in our daily
life. If you are reading, be aware that you are reading and if writing,
that you are writing. One must concentrate on that which one is
doing, avoiding doing several things at once, because one cannot
remain attentive of any of them in that way. A person who reads
whilst eating, for example, is not truly attentive to the reading nor
to the food. When we become simply conscious of something the
memory becomes considerably more active.
Meditation is not only a way of life, but is the very fact of
controlling life. One meditates in order to discover a useful purpose
of life.
Q There is a very useful means of concentration, which is that of
using breathing as a support for the mind. Can we talk about
that?
A We are living beings. To maintain life we must breathe. If it
were not for the respiration process we would die. But we are not
usually conscious that we are breathing. We are simply not aware
that we are alive. We do not know that we are breathing, only that
we are talking to each other.
Concentration upon inhalation is an excellent means to obtain
one-pointedness of mind. It is an excellent support for
concentration. On trying to find out that we are breathing, all our
mental awareness is channelled towards respiration and, little by
little, through several sessions of practice, the mind becomes calm,
attaining a high level of concentration.
Q What message can you give to present-day man?
A I wish to stress that all terminology is noxious. The
profusion of labels has given rise to great prejudice. Sadly, man
remembers the words but forgets what they really mean. For
example, we sometimes pay excessive attention to such labels as
Christianity, Buddhism or Hinduism but none or very little to the
teachings which they impart. Therein lies the root of the trouble. We
should not pay excessive attention to labels. We should accept that
those teachings are for all humanity. The great teachers came into
the world to improve it. Christ, for example, came into the world to
preach to all. That is to say, a teaching is not designed for some and
not for others, but is intended for all. The great teachers wish for a
better world and for that reason they offer their teaching to all. That
was the wish of the Buddha, Christ and all great teachers. It was
their followers who classified themselves as Buddhists, Christians
etc., but the great initiates preached to everyone.
I stress that the basic desire of the great teachers was to make a
better world and that they had no interest at all in labels. Anyone
can avail themselves of their teachings and so, for example,
meditation on universal love, on higher thoughts and on breathing,
all can be used by all human beings and not solely by Buddhists.
These meditation practices make possible control over the mind and
the overcoming of aggression, confusion, selfishness and evil
desires. All these enemies can be overcome and one can cultivate
compassion and universal love, friendliness, generosity and
positive qualities in general.
My humble prayer is that it be understood that any Christian,
without labelling himself, can practise these methods of meditation
for their benefit, and these need not cause any conflict with their
own rituals. There is no value in labels. Whatever you label
yourself—Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, etc.—because the
essential thing is to carry out the meditation practices taught by the
Buddha or by other great yogis without any sort of religious
discrimination.
One can follow his own religion fruitfully and also carry out
meditation practice perfectly. I would say that the only use for
labels is for filling in bureaucratic forms. When we learn a great
teaching we should forget about all labels. All religions should co-
exist in complete harmony since the purpose of the teachers of these
religions was to make the world better. This is a common purpose
which tends to reaffirm positive qualities. For that reason, without
discrimination, human beings should avail themselves of whatever
method or religious practice they may find useful whatever its
religious origin, without any need for a change of labels.
Q Would you like to give some words of advice to the aspiring
Buddhist?
A There is no baptism in Buddhism, nor any conversion ritual.
In Buddhism conversion occurs within the individual. If I tried to
convert you to my way of thinking it would be as if I called you an
idiot and insulted your intelligence. There is no conversion, only
that one converts oneself. Beginners should practise meditation
assiduously to increase their understanding. From the elementary
stages of meditation one ascends to the highest states. During
meditation we can radiate our loving thoughts to all, arising from

the kindness of our hearts. We can radiate to others our best
thoughts, since thoughts possess great power. I want to invoke the
blessings of the Buddha, his teachings and his disciples in order to
send my own blessings in his name. In the name of the Buddha, his
teachings and his disciples which is the Triple Jewel, I send my
blessings to my Spanish friends in this way: May all blessings be
yours by the power of the Buddha, may happiness always be with
you, may all blessings be yours by the power of the Dhamma, his
teachings, in its name may happiness ever be yours, may all
blessings be with you by the power of the Saògha, the community
of his disciples.
Q Humanity passes through difficult times. Everywhere there is
hatred and violence. What can we do in such circumstances.
A One of the universal principles taught by the Buddha is that
hatred cannot be overcome by hatred, only by love. We ought to try
to inculcate this teaching amongst the world leaders. They should
understand that anger, hatred and evil cannot cease through anger,
hatred and evil. Vengeance does not resolve anything; only love can
fight these negative qualities. This is the teaching of the Buddha.
Q What do you think about Tibetan Buddhism?
A Some Tibetan schools are nearer than others to the Buddha’s
doctrine and their practice is more in agreement with the original
Buddhist doctrine.
Now, if we analyze history we will realise that when Buddhism
entered Tibet it met up with the Bon religion, which was an
ancestral cult. With the passage of time those beliefs and practices
became associated in some way with the Buddhist teaching. There
is no doubt that in Tibet the Buddhist teaching has been influenced
by those practices. However, it is not difficult to admit that there are
many interpolations, mixtures and additions. Therefore, in
Buddhism such as exists in Tibet we find a part which is in
agreement with the original Buddhism and another part completely
separate from it.
Q Could you explain meditation in more depth?
A Perhaps the term meditation might not be the most appro-
priate to give an idea of all that is hidden behind it in Buddhism.
Terms such as mental culture or mental development illustrate the
objective better. Buddhist meditation is not affected at ordinary lev-

els of thought process nor is it aimed directly at the stopping of
thought. Its basic objective is to improve receptivity, to perfect per-
ception and to develop consciousness. Through the application of
Right Attention, confusion of mind is avoided. The loose reins of
our mind can be tightened and the wild horses of our senses and
desires can be controlled. Our mental energy can be channelled and
therefore its nature improved and perfected. By means of this type
of meditation the mind can be trained to arrive at a state of one-
pointed attention.
It is important to understand that this concentration of attention
does not consist of an adding process, but a process of elimination
of disturbance and interference. Meditation teaches us the subtle
distinction between thinking and having thoughts. One seeks
intuitive knowledge and not mere analytical constructions.
Knowledge can arise with an intuitive spontaneity, and such
knowledge can only be expressed with difficulty in everyday
thought. In the Buddha’s discourse called the Satipaþþhána-sutta1
four types of contemplation are given: upon the body, sensations,
the mind and states of mind. In this discourse the Buddha declares
that this bare attention is the only way to free the mind from the
impurities (anger, ill-will, illusion, desire, envy, hatred etc.).
Regular physiological practices combined with mental exercises
are very beneficial; there exists a close relationship between body
and mind. I myself practised yoga exercises in my youth and it
always attracted me greatly, although I do not now practise because
of my age. Buddhist meditation is concerned in a very special way
with the mind. The mind is the most important factor, because
when it is kept strong and healthy, its power over other factors is
notable. Many illnesses—of the skin, the heart, arteries; headaches,
nervous tension, etc.—are the result of an unhealthy mental state.
Quite a high percentage (about 80%) of the complaints mentioned
are caused by mental illnesses.
The mind, however, has to be trained and cultivated by means
of hard work and constant effort. There are no shortcuts. It is
surprising to discover how many people are ignorant of the fact that
they possess a mind which can be trained in much the same way
that the muscles of the body can be trained; and which through
suitable skills can develop as much in strength as in flexibility.
1. Dìgha Nikáya Sutta no. 22, Majjhima Nikáya Sutta No. 10.
One of the mental awareness exercises that I highly recommend

is that of consciousness of in-breathing and out-breathing during
respiration. This exercise not only purifies and improve the whole
organism, but also leads above all to concentration of the mind, to
one-pointedness. We focus our attention on one activity that is
generally unconscious and mechanical. We must practise assiduously
observing the processes and the contents of the mind; observing the
emotions, desires and feelings, and observing the body, all as they are
in reality. We should also become skilled in observing all our actions
since these have their origin in the mind. Through these techniques of
observation the negative and positive factors are revealed to us. The
negative ones are: luxury and sensuality, hatred and anger, apathy
and sloth, tension and nervousness, and worry and doubt. If these
factors arise during meditation and disturb us we should overcome
them by concentrating on the positive factors, which are: friendliness,
love, understanding, effort, calm, confidence, well-being, happiness
and vigour.
A large majority of human beings today are afflicted by worry
of one sort or another. In fact, to worry is a useless weakness, and a
highly negative activity, since it is hardly ever concerned with the
present moment of time in which we are living. Worry is
insubstantial because it is based upon mental projection into the
past or the future and implies not living and concentrating in the
present. If we have a problem that we can do something about now,
we immediately exert ourselves in order to solve it. During this
exertion we shall not worry at all if we are concentrating all our
attention on the process,
On the other hand, if we are confronted by a problem we can do
nothing about right now, then, since it is unavoidable and
unsolvable, we should concentrate all our attention on the present,
the real situation, and not project our minds sideways, nor along
avenues of thought which are fruitless, unreal and weakening.
Q What therapeutic possibilities can we attribute to the Buddhist
type of meditation?
A Meditation can be practised successfully when the mind
and body are healthy. If a person is suffering from infection or
disease he should be cured first. That is essential. It is wrong to
think that serious illnesses can easily be cured by means of
meditation. In the case of physical ailments one should consult a
specialist, and in the case of mental disturbance one should consult
a psychiatrist. One must be cured first and then practise meditation,

with the assurance that the illness will not recur. I myself, after
having suffered a myocardial infarction, a stroke, following
influenza contracted some time ago, was in control of my
convalescence, improving and hastening it through a combination
of a medical course and meditation I regained perfect health. I am
convinced that many illnesses, such as previously mentioned, can
be avoided through diligent practice of meditation.
Meditation leads to delight and joy, to friendliness and truth, to
beauty and health. Meditation promotes a close control over the
mind and improvement of character. The practice even helps us to
sleep soundly and to banish unpleasant dreams, replacing them
with pleasant ones. Evil dreams, negative in nature are eliminated
little by little as we improve the quality of our meditation. When
negative dreams containing conflict supervene, who are we
confronting? With whom are we arguing? Whom do we fear? From
whom do we flee? Such questions we can ask ourselves during
meditation and we can come to see clearly that we have been
arguing and confronting aspects of ourselves, frightened by and
running away from those aspects, personified in various dream
images. This truth is so simple that it has been overlooked by
modern psychoanalysis, which looks frequently for external
explanations to problems without realising that all solutions to
problems are controlled from within.
Little by little, through meditation, we obtain a greater
understanding of ourselves. Meditation, without doubt, leads to a
broadening of understanding.
Q Why are human beings so deficient within themselves? Are they
are born like that?
A They are very often born pure in mind, but later become
contaminated by an impure and imperfect surrounding
environment. The human-surrounding medium is manifested as a
result of ignorance and this produces contamination.
We should bear in mind that wisdom does not consist in an
accumulation of knowledge but in getting rid of ignorance, in the
same way that health is not an accumulation of strength but is the
elimination of all illnesses and weaknesses. Clear thought eliminates
mental fog.
I contend it is very difficult for a human being to escape from
contamination, although we are well able to eliminate it from within
us by means of clear and correct reasoning acquired through Right

Attention and meditation. To be successful in this undertaking, the
most important thing is to know how to distinguish between
ordinary reasoning and clear reasoning. Wisdom arises through
direct experience, practice and Right Understanding. It requires
discipline, hard work, patience and sacrifice in order to produce
true results. I say emphatically that there are no shortcuts. Just as a
man cannot become a doctor or a musician in one day, neither can
one become pure and wise in a very short time. It is amazing to
discover that there are outstandingly erudite people who have
accumulated great knowledge, but do not understand anything and
lack wisdom. They do not even understand the meaning of the
word ‘understand’, since understanding does not only consist of
knowing but of being.
Q From what you have said, it is easy to deduce that you do not
accept the idea of sudden enlightenment. Is that so?
A Patience, hard work and meditation bring gradual
realisation and true understanding.
We understand progressively nature and the forces which
control our lives, the nature of mind and matter and also the nature
of all the elements which make up the body and the world.
Enlightenment represents clear understanding in perspective
with relativity. The greater the enlightenment, the greater the
understanding of the relativity of all things and the greater the
detachment. The more detachment is increased, the more is the
freedom from all desires. The Buddhist believes in the realisation of
the impermanence in all things. The Buddhist does not believe that
beneath ever-changing shapes and appearances there is an
unchanging essence, although he believes in a kammic force which
leads to rebirth. Reincarnation is an incorrect term because it
connotes that the same person takes repeated births.
Q What is it within us which makes us distinguish between good
and evil, beauty and ugliness etc?
A In real life the distinction takes place through the process of
association.
Morality and ethics are based upon the accumulation of
personal experiences, upon tradition and custom. We associate pain
with evil, pleasure with good; ugliness which leads to ill-luck, we
equate with evil; beauty which leads to happiness and pleasure, we
equate with good etc. Things are either good or bad, beautiful or
ugly in relation to one another. Beyond the plane of relativity,
where there is not duality, only unity, such concepts do not have
any meaning.
Q What can you tell us about inner joy?
A The deeper the understanding, the greater the joy. Joy is
freedom from ignorance, which is in turn freedom from desires and
from all other negative factors.
We have to return to being rather like small children delighting in
their toys. All true teachings are similar in spirit. The Bible tells us to
become like children in order to enter the kingdom of heaven. The
differences lie only in the forms and appearances which produce the
different cultures, languages and civilizations. Unfortunately, man
forgets the reality contained in the true teachings and remembers
only the words, the rites, the symbols and the rituals, not being
conscious that through those things arises confusion, ignorance,
darkness and wretchedness. Right understanding of the true teaching
leads to truth, wisdom, light and joy.
Chapter 26
THE MIDDLE WAY FOR THE WEST
Buddhism has come to the West in various guises. From the

scientific Buddhism of the late 19th century to the Beat Zen of the
mid 20th century, there have been as many different presentations
of the teaching as there have been ‘gurus’ presenting it. Freud said
of religion that it is a collective neurosis, A few years ago Buddhism
in England was tending to become a collective psychosis, a socially
acceptable schizophrenia. It might be of value here to study briefly
this strange phenomenon, for if we are to be successful in our search
for a vital interpretation of Buddhism, it is as well to know some of
the peculiarly Western pitfalls into which one may be drawn.
In the tense, racking climate of European or North American
civilisation, it is easy for the ‘Way’ to become a systematic, unrelieved
clinical observation of the body and mind as intricate mechanisms
devoid of ‘soul’. With diabolical persistence, the devotee can shatter
his own being into a myriad objective ‘its’—impersonal functions and
complex patterns of behaviour. Eagerly he will submit himself to
long periods of rigorous discipline, maintaining a minimum of
twenty hours meditation a day for weeks or even months. While
engaged in this practice, once the initial wrench with the world has
been made, one is cool and clear, one is omnipotent and impregnable;
one lives and moves and has one’s being in the isolated safety of the
ascetic’s padded cell. This isolation and schizoid depersonalization
contrasts violently with the warmth and humanity that pervades
much of the scriptures. The early monks were exhorted to strive
earnestly, to meditate ceaselessly, to work out their own salvation
with diligence; but their life was not as an isolated robot in an ivory
tower; they trudged through mud and filth begging their food from
door to door; they came together to talk and argue with each other—
and with monks of different faiths; they are portrayed as individual
beings with individual virtues and vices, talents and foibles; they
laughed and cried; they squabbled and schemed; and when the day
of enlightenment dawned they emerged from the experience, not
with awful solemnity, but with whoops of joy and warm-hearted
gratitude.
THE MIDDLE WAY FOR THE WEST 175
At the other extreme from the over-earnest striver is the drug-

happy hippie. Revolted by the hypocrisy and bureaucracy of a
society ‘they never made’, thousands of young people are rejecting
any kind of conformity or discipline and throwing themselves into
the arms of the nearest ‘Zen master’. Instead of the rigours of Zen,
they there find the solace and the exuberant ‘reality’ of the
psychedelic world. That youth is appalled at the prospect of being
swamped by a technocratic society is not in itself an unhealthy sign
but to escape therefrom into the realms of drug-induced visions is
neither healthy nor Buddhist—Zen or otherwise.
The Buddha spoke frequently of the various states of
existence—the world of spirits, blissful or tormented, the world of
unhappy ghosts, the world of animals, the world of men. The
Buddha himself is often referred to as one who has vision into the
various worlds of existence. Yet repeatedly he taught that it is on
the human plane that the long path of liberation is to be undertaken.
Other planes may be more blissful, they may indeed be a temporary
‘heavenly reward’ for meritorious behaviour, but they do not afford
the right soil in which the seeds of enlightenment can grow. The
conflicts and confusion, the constant, never-satisfied striving for
peace and security, the existential anguish that characterizes human
life are the very stuff of which liberation is made. To escape from
this conflict into the LSD experience is but a temporary suspension
of our human status. When the trip is over—whether it was to the
world of gods of unsurpassed joy or to the dreary wastes of the
realm of petas (hungry ghosts), whether it was a fleeting visit or a
life-long habit—when the trip is over, back we must come to the
human world to work out our salvation in the midst of the nuclear
arms race and surrounded by our bingo-crazy relations.
The Buddha said:
“I teach but two things—suffering and the release from
suffering.” (M I 130)
For the child, to be hungry is suffering, to be fed is the release. For
the saint, all compounded things are suffering, the uncompounded
alone is free from suffering. The Buddhist way of life consists in the
gradual maturing and refining of our experience and knowledge of
what pleasure and pain, happiness and distress, security and
insecurity are.
Buddhism is a gradual path of maturity, leading away from the
infantile dependence on the ‘father’ to adult integration and
interdependence. The emphasis is on the process of adolescence, on

the gradual passing through each stage on the way to adulthood. It
is with these intermediary stages that we are concerned in our
practice of the path, and great care must be taken not to imagine
that we are further ahead than we really are.
A German bhikkhu once remarked: “One must strengthen the
ego before one can get rid of it.” Too often we are tempted to adopt
the theories and ideals of Buddhism, or of any religion, as a defence
against the slow, painful process of adolescence. Christ has said that
unless one becomes as a little child one cannot enter the kingdom of
heaven. But this rebirth as a child comes out of the maturity of
adulthood and not out of a failure to attain that maturity. So too
with the fundamental Buddhist virtue of non-attachment. If we
begin with a state of hatred, rejection and despair, we cannot pass
immediately from this extreme and begin to cultivate the highest
virtue of non- attachment. We should merely pass from an active
neurotic state to a passive one. There is a necessary intermediary
stage where love replaces hatred, acceptance replaces rejection, and
confidence replaces fear.
Chapter 27
A SURVEY OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION
The original word for Buddhist meditation is bhávaná which means

mental culture or development of the mind. On the simplest level,
meditation may be defined as a process of mental development
leading to the attainment of spiritual development. Whilst the aims
of Buddhist meditation are manifold, all are related by one ideal, the
final realisation of Nibbána.
Through the practice of meditation, the Buddhist strives to
purify his mind, to rid it of turmoil and various impurities such as
greed, hatred and delusion. At the same time he wishes to acquire
and develop positive attributes, like concentration. Although this is
in itself a notable aim on a personal level, on a higher level, he
works towards reaching that state of wisdom which sees the nature
of things as they really are, and in realising the ultimate goal,
Nibbána. Though this final goal is the greatest aim, meditation has
another significant unction as a preparation for combatting the
problems of life, especially those of daily life. It produces a state of
perfect mental health, steadiness of mind, equilibrium, peace and
tranquillity. This has important side effects in the development of
an individual, giving him an awareness and capacity for
understanding, which is most beneficial in this confused world
filled with multifarious problems.
Meditation is the centre of Buddhist practice. It may be
compared to prayer in other religions. Almost all Buddhist practices
are nothing else but some form of meditation.
There are two forms of meditation: 1) development of
concentration or tranquillity (samatha); and 2) development of
insight or wisdom (vipassaná). The first type, development of
concentration, is not unique to Buddhism; it was in use by yogis
before the Buddha’s time. It is concerned with one-pointedness of
mind (ekaggatá) and involves concentrating the mind on a single
object (kammaþþhána) in preparation for reaching the highest mystic
states, which are ‘mind created’ and ‘mind produced’ conditions.
The Buddha called these states ‘a happy abiding here and now’
(diþþhadhamma-sukhavihára).
The untrained mind is in a state of agitation due to the presence

of greed, hatred and delusion. Therefore the aim of meditation is to
eliminate these defilements.
A prerequisite to success in meditation is the selection of a
suitable subject. Preferably this is done by the teacher on the basis of
the pupil’s temperament. The teacher usually analyses the student’s
traits, personality, behaviour and nature, before advising him as to
which exercise would be most suitable for him. There are six main
types of temperaments: 1. lustful (rága-carita); 2. hateful (dosa-carita);
3. ignorant (moha-carita); 4. devout (saddhá-carita); 5. intellectual
(buddhi-carita); and 6. discursive (vitakka-carita). (See Vism III.74/p.
102.)
Temperament is formed by our daily, habitual actions, and it is
considered to be the intrinsic nature in people that is revealed when
one is in a normal state, without being preoccupied by anything.
SUBJECTS FOR MEDITATION

In the Visuddhimagga (III.104/p. 110), forty subjects for meditation
are enumerated:
A. The first ten involve focusing attention on an external device:
1. earth; 2. water; 3. fire; 4. air; 5. blue; 6. yellow; 7. red; 8. white; 9.
light; and 10. space seen through a hole.
B. The next ten are concerned with corpses which may be at
any one of the following stages of decomposition: 1. swollen; 2.
discoloured; 3. festering; 4. fissured; 5. gnawed; 6. dismembered;
7. cut and dismembered; 8. blood-stained; 9. worm-infested; and 10.
a skeleton.
C. The third category are ten recollections: 1. the Buddha; 2. the
Dhamma; 3. the Saògha; 4. morality; 5. liberality; 6. divine beings; 7.
mindfulness of death; 8. mindfulness regarding the body; 9.
mindfulness of breathing; and 10. the peace of Nibbána.
D. The four divine abidings (brahmavihára): 1. loving-kindness;
2. compassion; 3. sympathetic joy; and 4. equanimity.
E. The four immaterial states: 1. boundless space; 2. boundless
consciousness; 3. nothingness; and 4. neither perception nor non-
perception.
F. The perception of the loathsomeness of food.
G. The analysis of the four elements.
As well as choosing a suitable subject, a suitable place is also nec-
essary. The type of place also depends on one’s temperament. It
A SURVEY OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION 179
should be a place where one can get the necessary requisites of food
etc. with ease, but quiet enough to avoid frequent disturbances and
interruptions. Particularly suitable places are forests and caves. A cer-
tain preliminary conditioning of the mind is necessary for successful
concentration. It helps to maintain a regular routine of meditation.
Early morning and late evening are the most commonly favoured.
When a Buddhist meditates he is usually seated in a lotus, or
cross-legged posture—the left foot on the right thigh and the right
foot on the left thigh. However, it is not essential to adopt this
posture if one finds it too uncomfortable. Any posture may be
adopted as long as one can remain alert and attentive. Even lying
down may be used but it is not generally recommended since it
often leads to wandering of the mind and drowsiness.
The first step in beginning any of the above-mentioned exercises
is for the meditator to focus his attention solely on the chosen object.
The meditator must patiently but persistently restrain his mind
from wandering to any other subject and at the same time, he must
also maintain his alertness; i.e., he should not slip into ‘hypnotic
reverie’. If he is successful he will sooner or later see the object in the
form of the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta; see Vism IV.29–30/p.
125). This occurs when the meditator is able to view the object
equally well with the eyes open or closed. When he has acquired
this image he can sit wherever he finds most convenient and
continue his exercise until the acquired image becomes crystal clear.
THE FIVE HINDRANCES

The second step involves the overcoming of the five hindrances
which impede concentration. These five are: 1) sensual desire, 2) ill-
will, 3) sloth and torpor, 4) restlessness and remorse, and 5)
sceptical doubt.
1. Sensual desire (kámacchanda)—is intense thirst for the
possession or satisfaction of base desires. Where does this craving
arise and take root? According to the Satipaþþhána-sutta; “... where
there is the delightful and pleasurable, there this craving arises and
takes root. Forms, sounds, odours, tastes, bodily contacts and ideas
are delightful and pleasurable; there this craving arises and takes
root.” When obstructed by some cause it is transformed to
frustration and wrath.
2. Ill-will (vyápáda)—Man naturally revolts against the
unpleasant and disagreeable and is depressed by them. To be
separated from the loved is painful, and equally painful is union

with the loathed. It is wrong thinking or unsystematic reflection
that brings about hatred. Hatred breeds hatred and clouds the
vision; it distorts the entire mind and thus hinders awakening to the
truth, blocking the way to enlightenment. This hatred or aversion,
as well as lust, is rooted in ignorance which is the greatest evil
according to Buddhism.1
3. Sloth and torpor (thìna-middha)—Thìna is mental lassitude or
the morbid state of mind and middha is the sluggish state of the
mental properties. Thìnamiddha, as some are inclined to think, is
certainly not sluggishness of the body. Thìnamiddha retards mental
development; under its influence the mind is inert (without the
power to move or act) like cold butter too stiff to spread or like
molasses which sticks to the spoon. Laxity, negligence and
inattention are dangerous enemies of mental development. Laxity
leads to greater laziness until finally one reaches a stage of total
apathy. This weakness of character is a stubborn block to
righteousness and peace of mind. It is through determined mental
effort that one can overcome this pair of mental ills.
4. Restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-kukkucca)—As a rule,
anyone who commits evil is mentally excited and restless; the guilty
and the impatient suffer from this hindrance. The minds of men
who are restless and unstable are like flustered bees in a shaken
hive. This mental agitation impedes concentration and blocks
spiritual progress.
Equally baneful is remorse. People often repent over the evil
actions they have committed. This is not praised by the Buddha for
it is useless to cry over spilt milk. Instead of brooding over such
shortcomings one should endeavour not to repeat such
unwholesome deeds. There are others who worry over good deeds
omitted and duties left undone. This too, serves no purpose. Instead
of useless worrying one should endeavour to perform wholesome
deeds.
5. Sceptical doubt (vicikicchá)—The Pali term, vicikicchá, literally
means without medicine or difficult to cure. One who suffers from
perplexity is like someone suffering from a dire disease. Until and
unless he abandons doubt he will continue to hesitate. So long as he is
subject to this mental irritation, he will continue to take a cynical view
1. A IV 195, Dhp 243: Avijjá paramaí malaí. See Nyanaponika Thera, The
Roots of Good and Evil, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1986.
of things which is most detrimental to spiritual development. The

commentaries explain this hindrance as the inability to decide
anything definitely; it also comprises doubt with regard to the
possibility of attaining the absorptions. In this connection, one may
note that even yogis who have no knowledge of the Buddha can
inhibit doubt and gain the absorptions.
The meditator who attains the absorptions (jhána) inhibits the
five hindrances by the five factors of absorption (jhánaòga).
1. Kámacchanda is inhibited by ekaggatá (one-pointedness or
unification of mind).
2. Vyápáda is inhibited by pìti (joy).
3. Thìna-middha is inhibited by vitakka (applied thought).
4. Uddhacca-kukkucca is inhibited by sukha (happiness or bliss).
5. Vicikicchá is inhibited by vicára (sustained thought).
With the abandonment of the five hindrances the meditator is
able to achieve access concentration (upacárasamádhi). It is by
focusing his attention on the ‘counterpart-sign’ (paþibhága-nimitta)
that the meditator finally enters into the first absorption (jhána).
JHÁNA
Jhána or absorption is a state of concentration completely free from
the five-fold sense activities and the mental hindrances. The four
jhánas are the products of the concentrated mind. Just as scientists,
by increased knowledge, are able to arrive at results which seem
marvellous to the ordinary man, so can those who cultivate the
mind by means of jhána gain certain powers which enable them to
control the elements. Of course, this kind of meditation is pre-
Buddhist and well known to yogis. I, personally, do not like to
designate any meditation as ‘Buddhist’ meditation; it is much better
to leave it without a label.
These techniques for mental development can be used by
anybody. Just as increase in the power of human vision can be
effected by means of telescopes and microscopes, so it is that psychic
powers can be gained with the cultivation of these absorptions. To do
so one must subdue mental defilements such as covetousness, hatred,
anger, contempt, pride, envy, deceit, hypocrisy, intolerance, vanity,
etc. Furthermore, the gaining of the jhánas is impossible without the
purification of morals, abandoning wrong views and freeing the
mind of carnal appetites. Proper and controlled thinking is the means
by which dispassion and super-normal powers are attained.
There are nine progressive stages of mental purity rooted in

morality or non-remorse:
1. In one so thinking, gladness arises.
2. From gladness, rapture arises.
3. With mind enraptured, the body is tranquil.
4. One whose body is tranquil is blissful.
5. Being blissful, his mind is concentrated.
6. Being concentrated, he sees things as they really are.
7. Thus seeing, he becomes disenchanted and repulsed.
8. Being repulsed, he becomes dispassionate.
9. Being dispassionate, he is freed.
What is jhána? When detached from pleasures of the senses and
free from mental impurities, the meditator enters on and abides in
the first jhána. This state, born of inward aloofness, is a high and
pure state of mind endowed with five mental factors (jhánaòga): viz,
applied thought (vitakka), sustained thought (vicára), joy (pìti), bliss
(sukha) and one-pointedness (ekaggatá). The second, third and fourth
jhánas differ from the first in the factors which are presented in the
table below.
Mental factor JHÁNA
Applied Thought 1st

Sustained Thought 1st
Joy 1st 2nd
Bliss 1st 2nd 3rd
One-pointedness 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Equanimity 4th
THE FIVE MORAL POWERS

One who wishes to attain these jhánas must be endowed with five
moral powers: viz., confidence, mindfulness, energy, concentration
and wisdom.
1. Confidence (saddhá)—is the foundation of psychical
development. Without firm confidence the student does not become
expert in the views and methods presented by his teacher. Thus he
fails to acquire the jhánas.
2. Mindfulness (sati)—He should be mindful of every action

and thought. It is mindfulness that guards the senses to prevent the
thieves (external objects) entering through the unguarded doors of
the senses and stealing his good thoughts.
3. Energy (vìriya)—He must make a strenuous effort to acquire
virtues which are beyond the reach of ordinary men.
4. Concentration (samádhi)—A well-directed and concentrated
mind is compared to a well-tamed animal which is governable
according to its master’s wishes, whereas the scattered mind tends
to hunt after carnal satisfaction like a wild beast.
5. Wisdom (paññá)—One who possesses innate wisdom is able
to reason correctly. This faculty may be compared to the midday
sun since it dispels the darkness of ignorance and sees things as
they really are. The wise student cuts of egoism, scepticism, false
views and other harmful states with the sharp sword of wisdom
whetted on the stone of concentration. All foolish questions such
as—“From whence do I come?” “Where will I go to?” etc.—are due
to lack of wisdom.
If the student possesses all of these five powers he is sure to gain
the jhánas. In his effort to gain them he must keep all these qualities
in a state of equilibrium. Excessive confidence must be balanced
with discretion or wisdom. Excessive wisdom leads to being
hypercritical. It should be balance with devotion or confidence.
Excessive effort leads to restlessness and impatience. It should be
offset by concentration and tranquillity. Excessive calm tends to
sloth or complacency, it should be balanced by renewed vigour and
diligence. Mindfulness is required in every case. It is the factor
which maintains the other qualities in balance.
The mind of a person who has attained these states is not
inclined to be pleased or displeased with external objects as the
ordinary person is. The normal tendency is for man to seek out and
amuse himself with sensual contacts which are agreeable and
pleasurable and to shun those which are unpleasant. The case of
those who practise meditation for the attainment of jhána is quite
different. They must train themselves to guard the doors of the
senses. How? When a visible form comes into contact with the eye
they must resolve not to pay attention to its details or pleasing
characteristics that might lead to desires and other unprofitable
states of mind. So too with the other sense faculties.
Their minds are content and serene, being concentrated on one

of the objects of meditation. They must train themselves to be
mindful in every posture. They must be scrupulously pure in deed,
word and thought and subdue their appetites for worldly pleasures.
Gradually they gain the will-power to renounce these things.
Harming no one they live with kindness and compassion towards
all that lives. They are always vigilant and mindful, all torpor gone.
Being free from remorse they are happy and all restlessness and
doubt are dispersed.
The attainment of these jhánas, though extremely valuable, is
not the highest aim of Buddhist meditation. Through the attainment
of jhána the mental defilements are inhibited but they are not cut off
altogether; if the meditator is not in jhána the defilements can
reappear and if he breaks his morality he may lose the ability to
gain jhána altogether. Jhánas should be used to develop insight
(vipassaná) which alone can uproot the latent mental defilements
(anusaya-kilesa). So long as these latent impurities remain, the
meditator has not yet attained security from suffering in lower
worlds (as an animal, hungry ghost or in hell). There are two ways
distinguished in the texts to attain insight.
1. Samatha-yánika—The way of one who practises jhána first
and then applies the method of satipaþþhána to attain insight and
Nibbána.
2. Suddhavipassaná-yánika—The way of one who practises pure
insight without first trying to attain the jhánas. One practises the
method of satipaþþhána from the beginning and develops
concentration simultaneously with insight. One may or may not
attain jhánas on the way to the realisation of Nibbána.
Important note: The practice of jhána is found outside of the
Buddha’s teaching whereas the more subtle practice of satipaþþhána
leading to insight is not. Therefore, in the view of most meditation
teachers, it is most essential to practise to attain the seeds of insight
while we have the opportunity of meeting the Buddha’s teaching.
The understanding of the three characteristics of impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and soullessness is an invaluable seed for
attainment of Nibbána in future lives even if one fails to attain it in
this life. The practice of jhána, however, does not, by itself, lead to this
understanding.
Chapter 28
THE MEDITATION ON LOVING-KINDNESS
One of the mightiest forces in the universe is that of mettá. Unlike

violence (hiísa), it does not trouble the innocent world nor does it
afford sorrow and unhappiness either to oneself or to others. In
short, it does not lead to any kind of evil. It is not tangible. This
wonderful mighty force takes place in the hidden silence of the
heart, nowhere else.
Mettá (in Pali), maitri (in Sanskrit), is the Buddhist term for
loving-kindness, universal love or all-embracing kindness. This,
according to the Buddha’s teaching, is a method of meditation. It is
designed to cultivate and develop that mighty force in the heart
which can be radiated out to the whole world. By so doing, one can
attain to unspeakable peace, tranquillity and happiness within
oneself.
There are four ‘sublime abidings’ or ‘divine abidings’ (cattáro
brahma-vihára), also called the four ‘boundless states’ (cattáro
appamaññá): they are loving-kindness (mettá), compassion (karuóá),
sympathetic-joy (muditá) and equanimity (upekkhá) (see D I 196;
Vism IX/pp. 295–325; Dhs-a 192). Here we will talk about the first
state, loving-kindness.
One who wishes to create this force within himself, that is to
say, one who wishes to meditate on mettá, should first sever the
impediments inimical to his peace. Then, he should choose a
suitable time and a secluded place when and where he can, without
interruption, devote himself to his meditation practice. He should
sit comfortably on a well-prepared seat. He should then perceive
the danger of anger arising, and, at the same time, should realise the
advantage of possessing patience, because anger has to be
abandoned and patience has to be fostered for the development of
meditation.
The dangers of anger should be understood in every possible
way, as far as he is able. The most effective method is to understand
it in accordance with the teaching of the Buddha. For the benefit of
the aspirant, a few sayings of the Buddha from the scriptures are
cited here which may be read before the actual commencement of
his meditation.
“Monks, seven things gratifying and helpful to an enemy befall

one who is angry, whether a woman or a man. An enemy
wishes thus for his enemy:
1. ‘Let him be ugly.’ Why is that? Because no enemy relishes an
enemy’s beauty. Now when this person is angry, though he
be bathed and well-anointed, with hair and beard trimmed,
well-dressed and clean, yet he is ugly because of his anger.
2. ‘Let him lie in pain.’ Why is that? Because no enemy relishes
an enemy’s lying in comfort. Now when this person is
angry, although he may lie on a comfortable couch, well-
prepared, yet he lies only in pain because of his anger.
3. ‘Let him have no prosperity.’ Why is that? Because no
enemy relishes an enemy’s prosperity. Now when this
person is angry, he mistakes bad for good and good for bad,
and each being thus taken wrongly in the other sense, these
things conduce to his harm and suffering for long because
of his anger.
4. ‘Let him not be rich.’ Why is that? Because no enemy
relishes an enemy having riches. Now when this person is
angry, although he has riches gained by endeavour, yet the
ruler’s treasury gathers in fines because of his anger.
5. ‘Let him not be famous.’ Why is that? Because no enemy
relishes an enemy’s having fame. Now when this person is
angry he loses any fame he may have acquired by his
diligence because of his anger.
6. ‘Let him have no friends.’ Why is that? Because no enemy
relishes an enemy having friends. Now when a person is
angry, the friends he may have, his companions, relatives
and kin, will keep away from him because of his anger.
7. ‘Let him, after death, reappear in an unhappy state of
deprivation, in a bad destination, in perdition.’ Why is that?
Because no enemy relishes an enemy’s going to a good
destination. Now when this person is angry, he commits
misconduct in body, speech and mind, and thereby, after
death, reappears in an unhappy state.
“When anger does possess a man;
He looks ugly; he lies in pain;
What benefit he may come by
He misconstrues as a mischance
THE MEDITATION ON LOVING-KINDNESS 187
He loses property through fines

Because he has been working harm
Through acts of body and speech
By angry passion overwhelmed;
Wrath and rage that madden him
Gain him a name of ill-repute;
His fellows, relatives and kin
Will seek to shun him from afar;
The anger fathers misery:
This fury does so cloud the mind
Of man that he cannot discern
This fearful inner danger.
“An angry man no meaning knows,
No angry man can see the truth,
So wrapped in darkness, blinded
Is he whom anger dogs.
“Someone a man in anger hurts;
But, when his rage is later gone
With difficulty or with ease,
He suffers as if seared by fire.
His look betrays the sulkiness of
Some dim, smoky, smouldering glow
Whence may flare an angry blaze
That sets the world of men aflame.
He has no shame or conscience; curt
No kindly words come forth from him
There is no island refuge for
The man whom anger dogs.
“Such acts as will ensure remorse,
Such acts are far from true ideals;
It is of these that I would tell,
So hearken to my words.
“Anger makes man a patricide,
Anger makes man a matricide,
Anger can make him slay a saint,
As he would kill the common man.
Nursed and reared by mother’s care,

He comes to look upon the world,
Yet the common man in anger kills
The being who gave him life.
“Everyone seeks his own self’s good
None dearer to him than himself,
Yet men in anger kill themselves,
Distraught for reasons manifold:
For crazed, they stab themselves,
In desperation swallow poison,
Perish hanged by ropes, or fling
Themselves over precipices.
Yet, how their life-destroying acts
Bring death unto themselves as well,
That they cannot discern, and that
Is the ruin anger breeds.
“This secret place, with anger’s aid,
Is where Mortality sets the snare.
To blot it out with discipline,
With vision, strength and tolerance.
To blot each fault out one by one,
The wise man should apply himself,
Training likewise in true ideals:
‘Let smouldering be far from me.’
Then rid of wrath and free from hate,
And void of lust and envy too,
Tamed, and with anger left behind,
Taintless, he reaches Nibbána. (A IV 94–98)1
The advantage in practising patience is seen in these words of
the Buddha:
“There is no higher practice than patience,
Nibbána the Buddhas say, is supreme.
One gone forth does not harm others;
One who hurts others is no recluse.”
1. Adapted from Ñáóamoli's translation in The Practice of Loving-Kindness

(Mettá). Cf. Vism IX.15.
“Who, without anger, endures abuse,

Beating and being bound;
In whom patience is arrayed in force:
‘Tis then I call him priest.” (Dhp 399)
“No greater thing exists than patience.” (S I 222)
“No royal force, however vast its might,
Can win so great advantage in a fight
As the good man by patience may secure.
Patience is the cure of fiercest feud.” (Sn 145)
After contemplating as above, the aspirant should then embark
upon the development of mettá for the purpose of ridding the mind
of hate which is a danger for the acquisition of patience which is
known as an advantage. What should he bear in mind before the
beginning of meditation? He should know that mettá should, at first,
only be directed towards certain types of persons and not to others.
It is absolutely unwise, as well as dangerous, at the commencement
of the practice of mettá, to direct one’s thoughts towards the
following six types of persons: an antipathetic, a very dearly-loved,
a neutral, a hostile, a deceased person or one of the opposite sex.
What is the reason why mettá should not, in the preliminary
stages, be developed towards these six kinds of persons?
1. To direct thoughts of mettá towards an antipathetic person
causes mental fatigue.
2. To put a very dearly-loved one in a neutral person’s place is
also fatiguing, and, emotional feelings may arise in him.
3. To put a neutral person in a respected or a dear one’s place
is, again, fatiguing.
4. Anger springs up if a hostile person is recollected.
5. If mettá is directed towards a deceased person, neither
absorption (appaóá) nor access (upacára) concentration is
reached.
6. Should mettá be developed towards the opposite sex, lust,
inspired by the thought of that person, may arise.
There is a story of a young monk who had started the practice of
developing mettá but, on making no headway, went to a senior monk
and said; “Venerable sir, I am quite familiar with the attainment of
absorption (jhána) through mettá, yet now I cannot attain it. What is
the matter?” The senior monk replied; “Seek the sign, friend, the
object of your meditation.” When the young monk did so, he

discovered that his teacher, to whom he had been directing his
thoughts of mettá, had died. He then proceeded to develop it
towards another and attained absorption. This, therefore, is the
reason why mettá should not be developed towards one who is dead.
For successful meditation, one should be in a peaceful situation
as free from distraction as possible. To begin meditation, the
practitioner should be in a posture convenient to him. The proper
postures include lying, walking and sitting. If it is convenient to
him, the ideal position is sitting cross-legged, with spine erect, head
straight, eyes half-closed and his hands in his lap.
THE FIRST STEP

For the beginner in this practice of mettá, it should be developed
first towards oneself, mentally repeating the following formula or
any other of similar intent, either in Pali or in one’s own language:
“Ahaí avero homi; abyápajjho homi; anìgho homi; sukhì attánaí
pariharámi.”
“May I be free from enmity; may I be free from ill-will; may I be
free from distress; may I keep myself happy.”
But does this not conflict with what is said in the texts? For there
is no mention of any development of mettá towards oneself to be
found in the Vibhaòga (p. 272) which says: “How does a monk dwell
pervading one quarter with his heart filled with loving-kindness?”
In the Paþisambhidámagga (II 130) it is said: “In what five ways is
mind-deliverance of loving-kindness practised with unspecified
pervasion? ‘May all beings be free from enmity, affliction and
anxiety and live happily. May all breathing things; all who are born,
all individuals whatever be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety,
may they live happily’.”
In the Mettá-sutta we find the following:
“May all beings be happy and secure;
May their hearts be wholesome.
Whatever living beings there be—
Feeble or strong, tall, stout or medium,
Short, small or large, without exception;
Seen or unseen,
Those dwelling far or near,
Those who are born and who are unborn,

May all beings be happy!” (Sn 145–147)
The reason this does not conflict with the texts is because the
latter refers to absorption (appaóá)1 alone and not to the initial
development of mettá in oneself which is only by way of example;
for even if one developed mettá for a hundred years in this way
mentally repeating “May I be free from enmity” and so on,
absorption would never arise. But in comparing oneself with all that
lives, one repeatedly thinks in this way:
“May I be free from enmity—May I keep myself happy; just as I
wish to be happy and dread the thought of pain, as I wish to live
and not to die, so too do others.”
Taking oneself as the example, one then extends the wish to
other beings’ welfare, and happiness arises. This method is shown
in the words of the Buddha:
“I visited all the quarters with my mind,
Nor found I any dearer than myself;
Likewise to self is every other dear;
Who loves himself will never harm another.” (S I 75; Ud 47)
So first, one should, by way of example, pervade oneself with
mettá.
THE SECOND STEP

In order to proceed easily, one should recollect the gifts received,
kind words that inspire loving-kindness and endearment, and
qualities that inspire respect and reverence towards a religious
teacher, preceptor etc., such as virtue, learning and so on. Then
develop mettá towards that person by thinking, “May this good
1. Fixing of thought on an object, especially for the attainment of a

absorption (jhána). In the course of development of meditation (samádhi),
the first inducement is ‘access’ or ‘approaching near’ (upacára). It is one
step behind appaóá and is ranked as a sensory nature (kámávacara). In the
preliminary stage, upacára samádhi is induced by every type of meditation.
Appaná is applied to that samádhi which is associated with jhánic factors and
systematically develops into the fourth jhána. It is also associated with the
formless attainments (arúpa-samápatti) as well as the transcendental
(lokuttara) states. Literally it means fixing together to a jhánic state.
person be free from ill-will ...” With thoughts directed towards such
a good person, one may attain absorption.
THE THIRD STEP

If, however, one who meditates wishes to proceed further, in order
to break down more subtle, spiritual barriers, one should follow up
with the development of mettá towards a dearly-loved friend.
THE FOURTH STEP

One should then develop it towards a neutral person just as one
would towards a dearly-loved friend.
THE FIFTH STEP

Finally, one should develop it towards a hostile person, considering
him as neutral. As one does this, so one’s mind becomes malleable
in each case before passing on to the next. On the other hand, if one
is the type of individual who perceives none as his enemy, even
though one may suffer harm at their hands, one should refrain from
making an attempt like the following: “Now that my consciousness
of mettá has become wieldy and under control towards a neutral
person, I shall apply it to a hostile one.” Only one who considers
that he actually has an enemy should develop mettá towards a
hostile person as a neutral.
OVERCOMING RESENTMENT
THE FIRST METHOD
Should resentment arise when one’s mind is directed towards a
hostile person because of the memory of past wrong done by him,
one should endeavour to overcome this feeling by repeatedly
entering into a state of absorption brought about by developing
mettá directed towards any of the previously mentioned persons.
Then after emerging each time, one should direct one’s feelings of
goodwill towards the hostile person in question.
THE SECOND METHOD

If in spite of one’s efforts, the feeling of resentment continues to
exist, one should strive to abandon it. One should admonish oneself
by reviewing the Dhamma in this way: “Why should I get angry?
Has not the Buddha said, ‘Monks, even if bandits brutally severed
limb from limb with a two-handed saw, he who entertained hatred

in his heart on that account would not be one who carried out my
teaching’.” (M I 129). Further, one should admonish oneself by
reviewing the teachings of the Buddha contained in the following
verses of the Dhammapada:
“In those who harbour such thoughts, ‘He abused me, he hit me,
he defeated me, he robbed me’—hatred never ceases.” (Dhp 3)
“Hatred never ceases by hatred in this world; only through love
will peace come. This is an ancient law.” (Dhp 5)
“Some do not think that all of us here will one day die; the wise
realise it therefore their quarrels cease.” (Dhp 6)
“Give up anger, renounce pride, overcome all fetters.
Misfortune does not befall one who doesn’t cling to the mind
and body and who is free from defilements.” (Dhp 221)
“Let a man overcome anger by serenity; let him overcome evil
by good; let him overcome the miser with liberality and the liar
with truth.” (Dhp 223)
“One should speak the truth; one should not give way to anger;
one should give when asked, even if it is only a little. By these
three things, one will go to the presence of the gods.” (Dhp 224)
“It is not only now, Atula; it has always been so. They blame
one who is silent, they blame one who speaks much and one
who speaks little. There is none in the world who is not
blamed.” (Dhp 227)
“Guard against misconduct in speech, control your speech. Give
up evil speech and cultivate good speech.” (Dhp 232)
“The wise control their body, speech and mind. They are indeed
perfectly self-controlled.” (Dhp 234)
“Monks, there are these five ways of removing annoyance, by
which annoyance can be entirely removed by a monk when it
has arisen in him. What five?
1. Loving-kindness can be maintained towards a person with
whom you are annoyed: this is how annoyance with him
can be removed.
2. Compassion can be maintained ...
3. Equanimity can be maintained ...

4. The forgetting and ignoring of a person with whom you are
annoyed can be practised ...
5. Ownership of deeds in a person with whom you are
annoyed can be reflected upon thus: ‘This person is owner
of his deeds, heir of his deeds, his deeds are the seed from
which he is born, his deeds are his kin for whom he is
responsible, his deeds are his refuge, whether they be good
or bad.’ This too, is how annoyance with him can be
removed.” (A III 185)1
THE THIRD METHOD

If, after striving according to the above method, one’s resentment
subsides, it is good; if not, one should remove irritation by
recollecting some controlled, pure and pleasing qualities in that
person which, when recalled, help one’s anger to subside. Some,
though their words and thoughts are not well-controlled, are
pleasing in their deportment. Others, though their deportment and
speech are not well-controlled, may be of pleasing speech; congenial
and polite in speech and able to expound the Dhamma in detail.
Others may be controlled in their mental behaviour, such as when
worshipping at shrines etc. Others may not have any redeeming
qualities. In this case compassion should be aroused towards them,
since the feeling of irritation will subside when compassion arises.
THE FOURTH METHOD—ADMONITION TO ONESELF

If, however, in spite of one’s efforts, irritation continues to arise, one
should think thus:
“Suppose an enemy has hurt you
In what is now his domain,
Why do you try yourself to hurt
Your mind? That is not his domain.
“This anger that you entertain
Is gnawing at the very roots
Of all the virtues that you guard—
Who is there such a fool as you?
1. Adapted from Ven Ñáóamoli's translation in The Practice of Loving-

Kindness (Mettá).
“Another does ignoble deeds,

So you are angry—why is this?
Do you then want to copy, too,
The sort of acts that he commits?
“Suppose another, to annoy,
Provokes you with some odious act,
Why suffer anger to spring up,
And do as he would have you do?
“If you get angry, then maybe
You make him suffer, maybe not;
Though with the hurt that anger brings
You certainly are punished now.
“If anger-blinded enemies
Set out to tread the path of woe,
Do you, by getting angry too,
Intend to follow him heel to toe?
“If hurt is done you by a foe
Because of anger on your part,
Then put your anger down, for why
Should you be harassed needlessly?
“Since states last but a moment’s time,
Those aggregates, by which was done
The odious act, have ceased, so now
What is it you are angry with?
“Whom shall he hurt, who seeks to hurt
Another, in the other’s absence?
Your presence is the cause of hurt;
Why are you angry, then, with him?”
(Vism IX.27/p. 300f., transl. by Ñáóamoli.)
THE FIFTH METHOD—REVIEWING OWNERSHIP OF DEEDS

If, however, resentment fails to subside when one admonishes
oneself thus, one should then call to mind the fact that oneself and
others are owners of their deeds (kamma).
Thereupon one should reflect as follows: “What is the point of
becoming angry with another? Will not this kamma that has anger as
its source lead to my own harm? Since I am the owner of my deeds,
heir of my deeds, having deeds as my origin, deeds as my kin, deeds
as my refuge; I will become the heir to whatever deeds I commit.” (A

III 186). It leads not to enlightenment or even to favourable rebirth in
the world, but is rather the kind of action that may lead to my
downfall and to manifold sufferings in states of woe.
“By allowing anger to arise I am like one who wants to hit
another and picks up a burning ember or excrement and by doing so
either burn or soil myself.” Having reviewed one’s own deeds in this
way, one should proceed to review other’s also. “What is the point of
his becoming angry with me? Will it not lead to his own harm? For he
is the owner of his deeds, heir of his deeds; he will have to suffer their
result. They are not the kind of deeds that can bring him to
enlightenment or even to a high social position; rather they will lead
to his downfall or to manifold sufferings in a miserable state.”
By becoming angry one is like a man who throws dust against
the wind—he himself becomes covered in dust. For this was said by
the Blessed One:
“When a fool hates one who is free from hate,
Who is purified and free from every blemish,
Such evil he will find comes back on him;
As does fine dust thrown against the wind.” (Dhp 115)
THE SIXTH METHOD—RECOLLECTION OF THE BUDDHA

If, after reviewing ownership of deeds, anger still persists, then one
should recollect the special qualities of the Master’s former conduct;
for when the Master was but a bodhisattva, prior to the attainment of
full enlightenment and whilst engaged in the fulfilment of the Perfec-
tions, he allowed no hate to corrupt his mind even when his enemies
on various occasions attempted to kill him. Many are the examples of
self-control to be found in the ‘Birth Stories’. It is, therefore, unworthy
of one to allow thoughts of resentment to arise if one is attempting to
emulate the Blessed One who reached omniscience and whose spe-
cial quality of patience has no equal in this world.
THE SEVENTH METHOD—REVIEWING THE SUTTAS

But if, as one reviews the special former qualities of the Master,
resentment still remains, as one has long been a slave of the
defilements, then one should read the suttas which deal with the
endless round of birth and death. For example, we find, in the
Saíyutta Nikáya:
“Bhikkhus, it is not easy to find a being who has not formerly

been your mother, father, brother or sister, or your own son or
daughter in some former existence.” (S II 189)
THE EIGHTH METHOD—REVIEWING THE ADVANTAGES

Should one still be unable to quench the feeling of anger in this way,
one should then review the advantages of loving-kindness as follows:
“Has it not been said by the Blessed One: ‘Bhikkhus, when the mind-
deliverance of loving-kindness is cultivated, developed, much
practised, made the vehicle, made the foundation, established,
consolidated and properly undertaken, eleven blessings may be
expected. What are the eleven?
1. One sleeps in comfort.
2. One awakes in comfort.
3. One doesn’t have bad dreams.
4. One is dear to human beings.
5. One is dear to non-human beings.
6. Devas guard him.
7. Fire, poison and weapons do not affect him.
8. One’s mind is easily concentrated.
9. One’s mien is serene.
10. One dies unconfused.
11. If one penetrates no higher, one will be reborn in the world
of Brahmá.” (A IV 150)
If one fails to arrest the thought of anger, one will be deprived of
these advantages.
THE NINTH METHOD—RESOLUTION INTO ELEMENTS

But if one is still unable to prevent the arising of anger, one should
try ‘resolution into elements’. How is this accomplished? One
should ask oneself when angry with someone: “What is it that I am
angry with? Is it the hairs of the head, the earth element therein, etc.,
or the water element, or the fire element, or the air element that I am
angry with? Or among the five aggregates or the twelve bases or the
eighteen elements with respect to which this one is called so-and-so;
which material aggregate, then, am I angry with? Or is it the feeling
aggregate, the perception aggregate, the formations aggregate or
the consciousness aggregate that I am angry with?” For when one
tries this resolution into elements, one’s anger finds no foothold,
like a mustard-seed on the point of an awl or a painting in the air.
THE TENTH METHOD—THE GIVING OF A GIFT

If, however, one cannot effect the resolution into elements, one
should try giving a gift. This can either be given by oneself to the
other person or accepted by one from the other. For example, taking
the case of a bhikkhu, if his requisites are incomplete, then the gift
may be made by oneself and any annoyance with that person will
entirely subside. In the other person, too, even anger that has been
dogging him from a past birth subsides at such a moment. An
example is recorded in the Visuddhimagga (Ch. IX.39): A senior elder
monk received a bowl from another monk who had been made to
move three times from his lodging by him. The latter presented it
with these words, “Venerable sir, this bowl worth eight ducats was
given to me by my mother who is a lay-devotee and was honestly
obtained. Please accept this for the good of my mother.” Because of
this act the latter monk’s resentment subsided, for so efficacious is
the act of giving that this is said:
“A gift for taming the untamed,
A gift for every kind of good;
Through giving gifts they do unbend
And condescend to kindly speech.”
THE BREAKING DOWN OF THE BARRIERS

THE SIGN
When one’s resentment towards the hostile person has been
allayed, then one can turn one’s mind with loving-kindness towards
that person too, just as one can towards the one who is dear, the
very dear friend and the neutral person. One should then
endeavour to break down the barriers that separate one from the
other by practising loving-kindness continuously, accomplishing
mental impartiality towards the four persons, that is to say: oneself,
a dear person, a neutral person and a hostile person.
The special characteristic of this practice is as follows: suppose
one is sitting with a dear, a neutral and a hostile person; oneself
being the fourth. Then suppose a gang of bandits come and say,
“Let us have any one of you so that we may slit his throat!” If on
imagining this, the meditator thinks, “Let them take this one or that
one” he has not broken down the barriers. Should he think “Let
them take me but not any of these” he has not yet broken down the
barriers. Why? Because he seeks the welfare of the others only.
However, when he does not see a single one among the four of them
who should be given to the bandits whilst he directs his mind

impartially towards himself and the other three, only then can it be
said that he has broken down the barriers. Hence the Ancients said:
“When he discriminates between
The four, that is, himself, the dear,
The neutral and the hostile one,
Then ‘Skilled’ is not the name he gets,
Nor ‘Having amity at will’,
But only ‘Kindly towards beings’.
“Now when a bhikkhu’s barriers
Have all the four been broken down
He treats with equal amity
The whole world with its deities;
Far more distinguished than the first
Is ‘He who knows no barriers’.”
(Vism Ch. IX.42/p. 307; transl. by Ñáóamoli.)
Thus the sign and access are obtained by this person
simultaneously with the breaking down of the barriers. When this
has been effected, he reaches absorption without difficulty by
cultivating, developing and repeatedly practising the same sign.
At this point, one has attained to the first jhána which, amongst
other things, is accompanied by loving-kindness. When that has
been obtained, one should continue to cultivate, develop and
repeatedly practise the same sign and successively reach the second
and the third jhánas.
Now it is by means of one of these jhánas, beginning with the first,
that one: “dwells intent upon one direction with one’s heart imbued
with loving-kindness, likewise, the second direction, the third and
fourth directions; also above, below and around; everywhere and
equally one dwells pervading the entire world-system with one’s
heart imbued with loving-kindness; abundant, exalted, measureless,
free from enmity and free from affliction.” (D I 250 ; Vibh 272)
Here is the commentary to the above:
“Imbued with loving-kindness” means possessing loving-
kindness.
“With one’s heart” means with one’s mind.
“One direction” means one in which a being is first
discerned and pervasion of all beings in that one direction.
“Pervading” means touching, making one’s object of

concentration.
“One dwells” means one causes the occurrence of an abiding
(vihára—dwelling or continuation) in postures that are devoted
to the ‘divine abidings’.
“Likewise the second” means that, just as one dwells
pervading any one direction among those beginning with the
eastern quarter, so does one with the next, the third and the
fourth.
“Above” means in the same way pervading the upper
direction.
“Below”, around means also the lower direction and all
around. In such a manner does one send one’s heart full of
loving-kindness back and forth in all directions like a horse in a
circus ground. Up to this point, specified pervasion with loving-
kindness is shown in the discernment of each direction
separately.
“Everywhere”, etc., is said for the purpose of showing
unspecified pervasion. Here everywhere means in all places.
“Equally” means, to all, whether classed as inferior,
medium, superior, friendly, hostile, neutral, etc., just as to
oneself; equality with oneself without making the distinction
“this is another being”.
“Entire” means possessing all beings, associated with all
beings.
“World”: the world of beings.
“Abundant”: should be regarded here as abundance in
pervading.
“Measureless”: through familiarity and through having
innumerable beings as its object.
“Free from enmity”: through abandonment of ill-will and
hostility.
“Free from affliction: through abandonment of grief; without
suffering. This is the meaning of the versatility described in the
passage beginning, “With his heart imbued with loving- kindness.”
VERSATILITY
Just as this versatility is successful only in one whose mind has
reached absorption, so too that which is described in the
Paþisambhidámagga should be understood to be successful only in

one whose mind has reached absorption, that is to say:
A. The mind-deliverance of loving-kindness is practised with
unspecified pervasion in five ways.
B. The mind-deliverance of loving-kindness is practised with
specified pervasion in seven ways.
C. The mind-deliverance of loving-kindness is practised with
directional pervasion in ten ways. (Paþis II 130–131)
A. Unspecified Pervasion in Five Ways
1. May all beings be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety
and live happily.
2. May all breathing things ... live happily.
3. May all creatures ... live happily.
4. May all persons ... live happily.
5. May all those who have personality ... live happily.
B. Specified Pervasion in Seven Ways
1. May all women be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety
and live happily.
2. May all men ... live happily.
3. May all Noble Ones ... live happily.
4. May all non-Noble Ones ... live happily.
5. May all deities ... live happily.
6. May all human beings ... live happily.
7. May all those in states of deprivation ... live happily.
C. Directional Pervasion in Ten Ways
1. May all beings in the eastern direction be free from enmity,
affliction and anxiety and live happily.
2. May all beings in the western direction ... live happily.
3. May all beings in the northern direction ... live happily.
4. May all beings in the southern direction ... live happily.
5. May all beings in the south-eastern direction ... live happily.
6. May all beings in the south-western direction ... live happily.
7. May all beings in the north-eastern direction ... live happily.
8. May all beings in the north-western direction ... live happily.
9. May all beings in the downward direction ... live happily.
10. May all beings in the upward direction ... live happily.
The same thoughts are then directed to all creatures all persons,
all who have personality, all women all men, all Noble Ones, all
non-Noble Ones, all deities, all human beings, all those in states of
deprivation in the eastern direction and then to those in other
directions in the same manner.
Herein, “all” signifies inclusion without exception.
“Beings” (satta): they are held (satta), gripped (visatta) by desire
and greed for the aggregates beginning with materiality, thus they
are beings (satta). For this was said by the Blessed One: “Any desire
for matter, Rádha, any greed for it, delight in it, any craving for it,
has held (satta) it, has gripped (visatta) it, that is why ‘a being’)
(satta) is said.”
However, in ordinary speech this term of common usage is
applied also to those who are without greed. However, in the world
of etymologists (akkhara-cintaka), who do not consider the meaning,
it is a mere name, while those who do consider the meaning
maintain that a ‘being’ is so called with reference to the ‘bright
principle’ (i.e. the aura or radiance that emanates from a being).
“Breathing things” (páóa) are so called because of their state of
breathing; the meaning being, because their existence depends on
in-breaths and out-breaths.
“Creatures” (bhúta) are so called because of the being (bhútatta—
becomeness); the meaning is because of their being fully become
(sambhútatta), because of their being generated (abhinibbattatta).
“Persons” (puggala) i.e. those who have fallen into an unhappy
state (niraya).
“Personality” (attabháva) is what the physical body is called, or it
is just the pentad of aggregates since it is actually only a concept
derived therefrom. What is referred to is included (pariyápanna) in
that personality, thus it ‘has personality’ (attabháva-pariyápanna).
‘Included in’ is delimited by ‘gone into’.
All the remaining terms should be understood as synonyms for
“all beings” used in accordance with ordinary speech as in the case of
the term ‘beings’. There are, of course, other synonyms too for ‘all
beings’, such as ‘folks’, ‘souls’ etc., but it is for the sake of clarity that
“the minddeliverance of loving-kindness with unspecified pervasion
in five ways” is said and that only these five are mentioned.
Those who insist that there is not only a mere verbal difference
between ‘beings’, ‘breathing things’, etc., but also an actual
difference in meaning are contradicted by the mention of
unspecified pervasion.
Here, “May all beings be free from enmity” is one absorption;
“Free from affliction” another, meaning freedom from ill-will
(vyápáda-rahita); “Free from anxiety” is also an absorption, that is,

freedom from suffering; and “May they live happily” yet another.
Consequently, one who attempts the practice of pervading with
loving- kindness should do so in accordance with whichever phrase
is clear to him. Hence, there are altogether twenty kinds of
absorption in unspecified pervasion.
Chapter 29
SATIPAÞÞHÁNA—DHAMMA FOR ALL
In modern usage, and indeed traditionally in Pali scriptures, the

word sati is translated as ‘awareness’ and has the meaning of being
skilfully attentive. Only occasionally is the original Sanskrit
meaning used, which carries the meaning of memory, in the sense
of ‘recollection of past events’. Between these two meanings, there
lies the key to the practice of satipaþþhána, for in the awareness of the
present there must essentially be clear recollection of the conditions
of the past in which all present states have a base.
In satipaþþhána practice, recollection of the past and skilful
attention to the present are inseparable and are jointly described by
the word ‘mindfulness’. This mindfulness, so simple in its formula,
and yet often so difficult to attain by us who are so complex, can
come to be an extra sense which acts as a faithful guardian at the
gate of the mind allowing nothing ‘undesirable’ to enter.
In almost all systems of meditation, both in East and West,
invariably the instruction to ‘withdraw within’ is found. In terms of
analogy it is as though we must withdraw our attention from the
vast cinema screen which is the external world, and turn our
attention to the projector. No one will need reminding that if the
lenses are not correctly focused, the picture will be distorted: nor
also that if the inner light is not bright, our view of the picture and
thus of the world will be clouded.
This self-awareness is directed to the five aggregates—the
khandhas—and the first three aspects of mindfulness are concerned
with: 1) awareness of the body, 2) awareness of feelings, and 3)
awareness of thoughts. The fourth aspect is directed towards
awareness of the states of mind or mental-objects.
I. AWARENESS OF THE BODY

The meditator is taught to start by focusing his attention on his own
breathing. He must not attempt to lengthen or shorten the breaths
or in any way regulate them. His only aim is to observe. When
followed peacefully (that is to say with interest and without
restlessness) this practice soon produces a sense of serenity in the
mind, and of lightness in the body. In Pali this method is known as
SATIPAÞÞHÁNA—DHAMMA FOR ALL 205
ánápánasati (mindfulness of breathing) and is regarded as one of the

most widely applicable objects of meditation. Those who do not
wish to undertake this practice in a religious sense will find
excellent reasons for adopting it as a therapy, and it is highly
recommended for those who have a weak memory or suffer from
inability to concentrate. Here again we find the link with
recollection contained in the origin of the word sati.
A further object of meditation concerns movements of the body.
The meditator must observe the movement of his limbs, and also
the functions of everyday life “...whether walking, standing, sitting,
or lying down ...” and when eating, drinking, lifting up, or putting
down. In the purely mundane sense, attention to these movements
will adjust the very common state of ‘absent-mindedness’.
It develops into a constant vigilance and awareness of not only
what we are doing, but why we are doing it. From these small
beginnings we will gain alertness and fitness and progress to the
higher stages of mental culture.
2. AWARENESS OF FEELINGS
In the same way that vigilance of bodily movement was practised,
attention must be directed to emotional changes. Feelings of
pleasure or of pain, or feelings which may be quite neutral should
be observed as arising states. To think “Here is a feeling of pain” is
obviously better than “I am in pain”, for if we are in pain then we are
surrounded and are at the mercy of this feeling. Not only does this
state of observation assist in lessening painful events, but it means
that we will not be stampeded by pain into rash actions, into
irritation and anger against innocent objects, or into a state of fear
which paralyses intelligent action. Neither will we be liable to
gullibility or rash reaction to pleasant associations, which as we all
know do not necessarily herald pleasant events.
Although the word ‘emotion’ was used to describe these states,
some further clarification is needed. Feelings give rise to emotions:
they are the first reaction to sense stimuli which according to our
temperament and experience will give rise to a further emotional
reaction in one of the states of mind. Thus if a point of calm is in
operation at the time of sense impression, then this will act in a way
as a ‘shock absorber’ and so minimise the emotional impact in the
states of mind.
3. AWARENESS OF THOUGHTS
This assists a meditator to maintain mental discipline in spite of
powerful distractions. Love, hate, joy, depression, fear, and hope
too, are all likely to cause a person to lose control. In such
circumstances this body will act much as would a horse when
suddenly startled; thus we should be like good horsemen, positive
in our control of the reins and ever alert to states which could
threaten the harmony of the relationship. As mindfulness increases,
we become less at the mercy of emotions.
Such mental control is as valuable in our regular meditations
when seated as it is during our everyday vigilance, for restlessness
and a ‘wandering mind’ are often found to be considerable
nuisances to the beginner. It should therefore be remembered that
the only duty of the meditator is to observe. He must sit quietly and
watch his mind as it leaps about; he must watch it as he would
watch a puppy at play, and gradually but firmly bring this
untrained mind to heel.
4. AWARENESS OF STATES OF MIND (MENTAL-OBJECTS)

The development of this awareness produces both a sense of
morality and an intuitive grasp of the essentials in any situation for
it entails a constant observation of the Laws taught by the Buddha
as they are perceived in action in the world.
The Four Noble Truths, the five aggregates of mind and body,
the six spheres of the senses—these are not just jargon, they are
accurate descriptions: they are living realities to be observed and
realised in the clear, brilliant light of sati.
They are the exposition of life, of man, and of the universe
continually unfolding before us if only we will ‘open our eyes and
see’. Yet this is not a seeing in the sense of an intellectual knowing; it
is the calm observation of mindfulness at rest which sees life as it
moves in accordance with laws, and which merely notes the rising
and falling away of the many states of body, mind, and objects as
they occur without becoming personally involved.
Only in this way will the wordless truth of non-self or
soullessness (anattá) be realised, for the impersonality of observation
is the only way which clearly reveals that in all rising states there is
no ‘I’ to be found.
At the highest level of such realisation, the state of samádhi
comes to be. Whilst satipaþþhána remains the method, this state of
SATIPAÞÞHÁNA—DHAMMA FOR ALL 207
supreme awareness which is samádhi has the nature of illumination

in which there can be no delusion, because there is no duality.
Realisation of the three characteristics of impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and soullessness at the samádhi level is the only
liberation from the ‘Wheel of Continual Rebirth’. The ignorance of
‘things as they really are’ causes us to have desire (taóhá) for a state
of personal existence, and thus only through mindfulness will we
become aware of this ignorance and cease to desire.
Intellectual understanding may be gained from books or by
dependent thought, and in this way one may arrive at the
conclusion that everything is transitory, without substance, and full
of unsatisfactoriness; but this understanding alone cannot liberate
one from the bondage of desire for the very states which one
intellectually refutes. The ‘final analysis’ is beyond intellect. It
transcends all conventional thought or expression. It is realisation.
The final analysis is samádhi, which is only gained through
mindfulness. This is the Buddha’s teaching. This is Dhamma.
What is the barrier between intellectual understanding and
realisation? It is our delusion about the nature of life, and the states
of mind which arise causing us to continually desire this
personalised idea of living. Again, these states are observable to one
who is mindful as distractions and fetters which impede clear
thought. They are sensual desire (kámárága), ill-will (vyápáda), sloth
and torpor (thìnamiddha), restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-
kukkucca) and perplexity or doubt (vicikicchá). Under their influence
it is impossible to concentrate on even the mundane actions in life,
so to even consider the more profound aspects of insight must be
quite foolish.
The system of mental culture recommended in satipaþþhána
progressively trains the meditator to gain firm control and clear
comprehension of all states arising in mind and body. As experience
grows so also does confidence, and with confidence comes calm.
This calm is the base from which the meditator views the nature of
life benevolently and without personal desire. The aim is samádhi,
the method is mindfulness. The way to begin is to sit down, in
goodwill, and to observe the breath. This is the first seed; the fruits
will be liberation.
The title of this chapter, ‘Satipaþþhána—Dhamma for All’ was
taken from a passage in the introduction to Satipaþþhána, the Heart of
Buddhist Meditation, by Venerable Nyanaponika Thera. This
publication is a classic of clarity and instruction, and it is with
gratitude that its value is acknowledged. It is fitting therefore to end

this short essay with a further quotation from the introduction:
“This ancient way of mindfulness is as practicable today as it
was 2500 years ago. It is as applicable in the lands of the West as
in the East: in the midst of life’s turmoil as well as in the peace of
the monk’s cell.”
Chapter 30
THE SEVEN STAGES OF PURITY
According to the teaching of the Buddha, all beings are subject to

decay and death. All things and beings in the world are
impermanent. Meditators come to perceive the transitory nature of
the world and the rising and vanishing of everything in it. They
realise that everything is subject to dukkha (unsatisfactoriness). The
rising and vanishing are themselves dukkha. Since everything is
impermanent and unsatisfactory, there can be no possibility of
finding a permanent ego. These three facts—transitory nature of
existence, dukkha or unsatisfactoriness, and insubstantiality or
soullessness, are the three characteristics taught by the Buddha.
Right understanding of these three characteristics leads to the
development of wisdom and true knowledge.
There are two kinds of meditation (bhávaná) in Buddhism—
meditation for the development of calm (samatha) and meditation
for the development of insight (vipassaná). Samatha bhávaná consists
of concentrating the mind on a suitable subject, like the respiration.
Forty suitable subjects are described in the Buddhist scriptures with
sections devoted to these meditation practices. Vipassaná bhávaná
consists in developing awareness of one’s own mental and physical
processes until the three characteristics become apparent. By this
means one will pass through seven stages of purity.
These states, achieved in serial order, produce the development
of knowledge and the cleansing of the heart by diminishing evil
thoughts. The Buddha said that by wisdom one is purified. He went
on to say that men defiled by evil do not become pure by sprinkling
holy water or even by bathing in holy water said to be contained in
certain rivers, wells and springs. A man should, through knowledge,
purify his mind from those mental blemishes which hinder clarity
and obstruct insight. The mind of a person given to lust, passion and
excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures is unable to see the true
nature of life which is oppressed by the three characteristics.
Likewise if a person harbours ill-will towards others, he is far
from purity. Revenge, malice, pride, intolerance and self-glorification
are defilements of the mind. Practising self-mortification or other
austerities does not cleanse a man if those evils are not put away by
him. For six years the Buddha underwent austerities in order to

purify himself following the advice of his ancestral teacher. But he
could not reach purity through these methods, so he condemned
them. Each man is able to attain the highest state of development by
earnest effort. Each man makes himself happy or miserable, here or
hereafter, by his own deeds, words and thoughts. Purifying the mind
is achieved only by passing through all of these seven successive
stages:
1. Purification of morals (sìla-visuddhi).
2. Purification of thought (citta-visuddhi).
3. Purification of views (diþþhi-visuddhi).
4. Purification from doubt (kaòkhávitaraóa-visuddhi).
5. Purification of knowledge regarding right and wrong paths
(maggámaggañáóadassana-visuddhi).
6. Purification of the knowledge and insight into progress
(paþipadáñáóadassana-visuddhi).
7. Purification of knowledge and insight which leads to
Nibbána (ñáóadassana-visuddhi).
I. PURIFICATION OF MORALS
The first step is very important from every point of view. It consists
in the observance of moral rules in several ways. These moral
precepts were designed for the liberation of mankind from evils of
various sorts. There are precepts for monks, nuns, novices and for
lay disciples. All of them are intended for their discipline and
appropriately match their positions. The observance of moral
precepts in general restrains man from misbehaviour as regards
physical and verbal activities. The man who governs himself
according to the Dhamma strives against giving way to lust, hatred
and ignorance, which are the sources of all ills and wrong-doing in
daily life. The meditator strives to live up to that aim and so refrains
from taking life, from taking things not given to him and from illicit
sex. He abstains from falsehood, slander, abusive speech and
frivolous or vain talk. He speaks such words as are charming and
pleasing to the ear and worthy to be stored up in the mind. He has
confidence in the result of practising charity, morality and of paying
respect to elders and teachers. He has confidence in those who have
renounced the world and have attained perfection. He believes in
past and future existences.
THE SEVEN STAGES OF PURITY 211
There are various degrees in the observance of moral precepts,

but in connection with vipassaná meditation it is the highest mode of
observance that is required. The person who is possessed of good
behaviour in word and deed sees danger even in the slightest faults
and trains himself in the strict observance of the moral rules. He is
free from all misbehaviour and all wickedness. He does not commit
any transgression even for the sake of protecting his own life. The
non-violation of the precepts is deemed more precious than life
itself. He is also careful to protect his senses from any external
objects that might arouse defilements. When he sees an object with
the eye, he is not entranced by its general appearance or by its
details. He determines to restrain that which might cause immoral
states to flow in, and thus he attains mastery of the senses.
He contemplates the true nature of the physical body which the
foolish regard as attractive but which is nothing but a mass of filth
covered with skin. It consists of such composite parts as hair, nails,
teeth, skin, bones, blood, pus, urine, etc. It has to be cleaned daily in
order to remove unpleasant odours. It has to be kept in good
condition with great effort and continually maintained with food
and drink. Its very nature is impermanence. It is subject to various
disorders and to decay. Its beauty is but skin deep and there is
nothing in it to be proud of, nor is there any reason to indulge an
appetite for it. Thinking thus, the meditator keeps watch over his
faculty of sight and in like manner when he hears a sound with the
ear, smells a scent, tastes a flavour, feels a touch with his body or
conceives an idea he is not entranced.
Being a person who refrains from wrong-doing, he must be
strict in his observance of the moral precepts with regard to earning
his living. He does not earn his living by trading in human beings
for slavery or prostitution. Nor does he sell lethal weapons, animals
for slaughter, poisons or intoxicating liquors or harmful drugs.
For those who lead the higher life of a monk or nun or novice,
there are further refinements regarding their livelihood. They must
not gain a living in inappropriate ways such as bribery, deceit,
flattery or harassing people to give alms. They cannot beg but must
wait for gifts to be offered. Those who practise meditation should
also abstain from such things. We should try to get our common
needs as human beings by rightful means. This is the first
purification. (See Vism Ch. I & II.)
2. PURIFICATION OF THOUGHT
Having established himself in habitual good conduct, which is the
foundation of all the other stages, the meditator must subdue those
stains which pollute the mind.
Many people speak about pollution, but they fail to realise the
pollution of their own mind. This purification of thought is achieved
by developing one-pointedness, or by concentrating the mind. It is
concentration in the sense of peaceful composure of the mind. It is a
steady, quiet confining of the mind and the mental faculties to one
single object so that they are not scattered here and there among other
external objects. This serene and peaceful state of the balanced mind,
attained by earnest effort in meditation upon the mental and physical
processes within oneself is called the purification of thought, the
second purification. (See Vism Ch. III to XIII.)
3. PURIFICATION OF VIEW
The third stage of purification embraces a vast field. There are many
wrong views in the world, and if we are entangled with such views,
we have no peace. With respect to vipassaná meditation, purification
is gained through the knowledge of mind and matter or, in other
words, through the realisation of the true nature of the five
aggregates. The study of the aggregates and a penetrating
knowledge of them help us to attain the right view with regard to
our body, the world of living beings, and the world of things we
find around us. Then not only our views but also our thoughts are
pure, and they become clear by the rejection of illusion and of the
delusions that surround us.
Those who are devoted to the higher life, having established
themselves in the two previous stages of purification, gain
purification of views by continuing with their meditation. In this
third stage they realise the First Noble Truth, that of
unsatisfactoriness, through their knowledge of the aggregates. True
thinkers are those who see things, not in accordance with their
outward appearances, but in terms of the aggregates. All things,
great or small, are known by contact with the senses. Knowledge
thus gained has given rise to many misconceptions as to the true
nature of things. Hence has come theories about the soul and about
gods of various kinds. The Enlightened One, after his struggle to
attain perfection, was able to recognize for the first time the true
nature of all beings and things. The knowledge of the world lies in
the understanding of the aggregates. The realisation of Nibbána and
of liberation is attained through true knowledge of the aggregates.

Consider the essential parts into which a material substance
breaks down when carefully analyzed. The unbroken existence of
the aggregates and all their changes and permutations is called
saísára—the ceaseless ocean of births and deaths. Thus the person
who understands this succession of life and death is able to destroy
his unhappiness and attain perfect bliss. The person who is ignorant
of this will be a helpless sufferer, ignorant as to whence and why his
suffering comes.
The existence of the aggregates is regulated through four things:
1. Kamma (kammaja).
2. Mental activities (cittaja).
3. External conditions (utuja).
4. Nourishment (áháraja).
The combination of the five aggregates—matter (rúpa), feeling
(vedaná), perception (saññá), mental formations (saòkhára) and
consciousness (viññáóa)—is called a man, women, animal or living
being. The first aggregate is material and the other four are mental.
Attachment to the aggregate of matter is attachment to the four
main elements—earth (paþhavì), water (ápo), fire (tejo) and air (váyo).
Solid parts of the body—hair, nails, teeth etc.—show the
predominance of the earth element. The water element is most
obvious in bile, blood, sweat and tears. The heat which digests our
food and keeps us warm is the fire element. The air element
produces all kinds of movements and speech as well as internal
wind and it supports the body. The body which is composed of
these four elements is called form (rúpa).
Feeling; whether pleasant, unpleasant or neutral; is the second
of the five aggregates. Perception, which recognises objects as blue,
yellow, red and so on, is the third. All mental properties besides
feeling and perception such as greed, anger, love, joy etc., are the
fourth aggregate known as mental formations. Consciousness
constitutes the fifth aggregate.
The realisation of these five groups in detail is all that is needed
to convince a man that the body is nothing but a group of worthless
things, full of dangers and miseries. Thus the person who is devoted
to the practice of meditation realises the First Noble Truth of
unsatisfactoriness and consequently purifies his views through the
penetrating knowledge of mind and matter. This is the third stage
of purity, purification of views. (See Vism Ch. XVIII.)
4. PURIFICATION FROM DOUBT

Already we have seen the importance of the first three stages of the
development of insight—purification of morality, thoughts and
views. As long as one has any doubt in distinguishing right from
wrong, it is a mental torment. You must try to get rid of doubt and
then you are pure and at ease. As true knowledge develops, you can
get rid of this canker of doubt.
The fourth stage in the development of insight is gained by
dispelling doubt through knowledge of cause and effect. The
person devoted to the higher life, having established himself in the
three previous stages of purification and further pursuing his
meditation practice attains a pure state of mind. In this state he
realises the Second Noble Truth—the cause of suffering. There is
dukkha and there must be some reason for this. He understands that
the process of mental and material states is not the creation of a
causeless cause. They are not without causes and conditions within
the states themselves. This fact may be understood in several ways.
One may understand the conditional nature of the material states
with reference to kamma, consciousness (citta), temperature (utu)
and sustenance (áhára). As regards the mental states, one observes
that they come into existence as a result of the interrelation between
the sense organs and objects.
This is true of all the mental and material states of the three
periods of time. One of the important points in Buddhist philosophy
and one which helps us understand the real nature of mental and
material space is the insistence upon the universal law of causality,
or Dependent Origination. In many discourses the Buddha has
repeatedly expounded this doctrine of causality. Buddhist
philosophy is distinguished from almost all other philosophies and
teachings by the doctrine of causality with regard to the mind as well
as the body. According to the Buddha, the causal law holds good
throughout the three periods of time—past, present and future.
There have been causes in previous lives, hence there are effects in
the present lifetime. In order to understand this we must know more
about the theory of kamma. There have been causes set going in
other lives, hence these causes in this present life will produce their
effects in future lives; thus the wheel of causality circles round and
round from past to present and from present to future.
The wheel of causality never comes to an end except in
Nibbána. The Buddha, through his penetrating knowledge, saw
that there were human beings millions and millions of year ago. He
saw the continuous succession of birth and death due to Dependent
Origination. He stated that the beginning of beings was
inconceivable, for the further back he cast his vision, the longer the
chain of successions appeared. Instead of disclosing the origin of
beings he pointed out the twelve-linked chain of causality—the
cause of becoming and the way to cessation. This is a very
important feature of his teaching as it sets Buddhist philosophy
apart from every other form of philosophy.
Ignorance causes mental formations; in other words, by non-
realisation of the four noble truths the mind accumulates mental
activities, good or evil. These mental activities, or kammas, give rise
to consciousness in the next birth. Consciousness produces mind
and body which generate the six senses. These, in turn, are the cause
of contact which results in feelings. Feeling, or sensation, originates
desire, which causes grasping. By reason of grasping there comes to
be volitional activities again which results in birth, followed, as we
all know, by old age, lamentation, sorrow and death. This is called
the twelve-linked chain of causation.
When a person understands this doctrine of causality, he has
assuaged doubt as to the origin of beings. In this fourth stage of
purity the person devoted to the higher life has now realised the
First and Second Noble Truths; suffering and its cause; thus he
understands the conditional nature of mental and material states in
the past, present and future. In the light of this he sees that there is
neither a doer of the deeds nor an experiencer of the results. In the
past, the phenomena came into existence due to certain conditions.
They attained their cessation, giving rise to a new set of phenomena
(dhamma) in the present. They too will come to an end giving rise to
another set in the future birth. When there is a clear understanding
of the conditional nature of phenomena in the three periods of time
according to the Dependent Origination of the twelve links, there is
an end to the five kinds of doubt regarding one’s past existence:
1. Was I in the past?
2. Was I not in the past?
3. What was I in the past?
4. How was I in the past?
5. Having been what, what was I in the past?
There are also five kinds of doubt regarding future life, or future
existence:
1. Shall I be in the future?

2. Shall I not in the future?
3. What shall I be in the future?
4. How shall I be in the future?
5. Having been what, what shall I be in the future?
There are also six kinds of doubt regarding one’s present life:
1. Am I?
2. Am I not?
3. What am I?
4. How am I?
5. Whence have I come?
6. Whither shall I go?
As a result of understanding the conditional nature of things, the
meditator will be free from these sixteen kinds of doubts because he
can understand the law of causality. (See Vism Ch. XIX.)
5. PURIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING THE RIGHT

AND WRONG PATHS
In the fifth stage he attains the purification of knowledge or insight
into the right or wrong paths. Through continuous effort the wise
and strenuous meditator reaches this stage. He has based his
meditation on the three characteristics. As he pursues his practice
his knowledge is developed and consequently most of the
defilements are destroyed. He begins to feel an inward glow.
There are ten imperfections obscuring the true insight which
results from following the correct path. These are obstacles to
reaching enlightenment. We should be aware of them and give
them up quickly.
1. Illumination—is light due to insight. When it arises the
meditator may think, “I have reached the Path.” When he takes what
is not the Path to be the Path the course of insight is interrupted. He
drops his basic meditation object and sits enjoying the illumination.
2. Knowledge—When he is estimating and judging materiality
and mentality, knowledge may arise which is very keen, incisive and
clear like a flash of lightning.
3. Rapturous happiness—There are five grades of rapture: 1.
minor, 2. momentary, 3. showering, 4. uplifting and 5. pervading
happiness.
4. Tranquillity—There is no sign of fatigue; his body and mind

are tranquil, light, malleable and upright.
5. Bliss—Exceedingly refined joy or bliss flood the whole body.
6. Resolution—Unshakeable confidence arises in association
with insight.
7. Exertion—Well-balanced energy, neither lax nor strained,
arises in association with insight.
8. Assurance—His mindfulness is firmly established, well-
assured and immovable like the king of mountains.
9. Equanimity—to adversity in the mind door.
10. Attachment—When illumination, knowledge, etc. arise due to
insight, he becomes attached to them and is unable to discern this
attachment as a defilement.
As in the case of illumination, so too with the other
imperfections of insight. When he takes what is not the Path to be
the Path, the course of insight is interrupted. He drops his basic
meditation object and sits enjoying the imperfection of knowledge,
rapture, etc.
At times, after the appearance of these phenomena, one may
begin to labour under the delusion that one has reached the goal.
The well-informed and well-instructed meditator is not deluded by
them. He understands that these phenomena are only incidental
side products at this stage. Just as an individual whose main
purpose is to get fruit from a tree is not content to pick buds, so the
meditator may achieve these side products of meditation as he
pursues the main goal of insight. By reaching this stage of ‘budding
insight’ the meditator has made a real start into the development of
insight. He is like a moving aeroplane on the runway. He has made
a start, but is not yet airborne and smoothly flying. At this stage he
realises three of the Noble Truths:
1. Dukkha exists in the world
2. This dukkha is caused by craving and desire.
3. The way that leads to the destruction of this craving is the
Eightfold or Middle Path.
Thus the knowledge gained by the decision as to taking the
right Path is called the fifth stage of purity. (See Vism Ch. XX.)
6. PURIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND INSIGHT INTO

PROGRESS
After attaining the fifth stage the meditator continues his
mindfulness of mental and physical phenomena to attain the sixth
knowledge. This consists of eight kinds of knowledge which, when
fully matured, will lead to Knowledge in Conformity with Truth,
the ninth. These nine are as follows:
1. Knowledge of rise and fall—Being aware of the ten
imperfections of insight, the meditator further develops his
awareness of phenomena. As a result, their impermanent nature
becomes abundantly clear to him.
2. Knowledge of dissolution—As he develops his awareness of
rise and fall, the time comes when his mind becomes concentrated
on the fall only. He then observes how the composite states break
up and are subject to dissolution. What is impermanent is painful
and what is painful is insubstantial. He consequently loses all
delight in the things to which he was formerly attached. This
knowledge gained by reflection on the perishable nature of things
leads to the following advantages:
i. Elimination of wrong views regarding becoming.
ii. Abandoning of craving.
iii. Constant application to what is suitable.
iv. Purity of livelihood.
v. Elimination of anxiety.
vi. Expulsion of fear.
vii. Possession of patience and self-control.
viii. Overcoming of dissatisfaction.
3. Knowledge of fearfulness—As the meditator contemplates
the perishable nature of things, he sees that all states in the past
have ceased and, by inference, that all future states will cease too. In
the light of this knowledge, all these states appear to him as fearful.
4. Knowledge of defects—The meditator seeing states as
fearful sees no peace, security or refuge in the phenomenal world.
5. Knowledge of disgust—Seeing that there is no safe haven to
which he can turn anywhere among composite states, he becomes
quite disgusted with them and sees nothing there fit to take hold of.
6. Knowledge of desire for liberation—As the meditator finds
no delight in formations and becomes disgusted with them, he
becomes earnestly desirous of escape from them, just as a fish
wishes to escape from a net, or a frog from a snake’s jaws. So the

knowledge of desire for liberation arises in him.
7. Knowledge of re-observation—Desirous of deliverance, the
meditator continues his practice with renewed vigour and as a
result the characteristics of impermanence, fearfulness etc., become
fully clear to him and the knowledge of re-observation is matured.
8. Knowledge of equanimity—As a result of his matured
knowledge of re-observation the meditator loses fear and delight in
composite states. He does not find anything to be called ‘I’ or
‘mine’. He becomes quite indifferent towards them. With this
knowledge the meditator is said to have reached the three-fold
doorway leading to Nibbána. The knowledges of desire for
liberation, the knowledge of re-observation and the knowledge of
equanimity are three phases of the same knowledge.
9. Knowledge in conformity with the truth—At the ninth stage
the meditator reaches the threshold of Nibbána. His equanimity
becomes stronger and more stable and in due course he attains
conformity knowledge, so called because it conforms to the eight
kinds of preceding knowledge and on the other hand to the Noble
Path and the fulfilment of the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment.
It is also the culmination of insight leading to the Noble Path. But
technically speaking it is the very last moment in the process. (See
Vism Ch. XXI.)
7. PURIFICATION BY KNOWLEDGE AND INSIGHT

At this stage the meditator is no more a worldling, but has attained
to the state of the Noble Ones. At this stage he realises Nibbána, the
cessation of composite states. He has now entered upon the Path
that leads to total liberation from suffering and is assured of final
salvation. However, this is still only the first of four stages of
sainthood:
1. Sotápanna—In the first stage of sainthood he is known as a
stream-winner. Immediately after the seventh purification there
follows the first path of sainthood (sotápatti-magga) which performs
three functions at one and the same time:
i. Comprehension of the first noble truth.
ii. Abandonment of the cause of dukkha.
iii. Realisation of the cessation of dukkha.
And with the attainment of the first path three fetters are destroyed:
i. Personality belief.
ii. Doubt about the path.
iii. Adherence to rites and rituals.
This path knowledge is immediately followed by fruition
knowledge which in turn is followed by knowledge of reflection on
the path of stream-winning. The stream-winner still has to eliminate
seven other fetters but is destined at most to be reborn seven more
times in the world.
2. Sakadágámi—At the second stage of sainthood the meditator
overcomes the stronger forms of sensual desire and ill-will. He is
known as a once-returner since he will be born at most only once
more in this world.
3. Anágámi—The third stage is that of the non-returner. By
following the same course of practice he destroys completely the two
fetters of sensual desire and ill-will. If he doesn’t attain final
emancipation in this life, he will be born in the Brahmá planes where
he will attain his ultimate goal.
4. Arahant—At the fourth stage of sainthood the remaining
five fetters are destroyed: attachment to existence in the realms of
form, attachment to existence in formless realms, conceit, mental
distraction and ignorance. He becomes a fully enlightened or
worthy one. In this life-time he attains the final emancipation. It is
an inexpressible and seemingly inconceivable supramundane state
of bliss born of mental purity that is called Nibbána. (See Vism Ch.
XXII.)
Chapter 31
IMPERMANENCE
The three characteristics—impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and

soullessness—are the tripod on which the whole body of Buddhist
doctrine rests.
The doctrine of impermanence (anicca, anitya) is a most
pragmatic and fundamental teaching of the Buddha. From time
immemorial, sages and philosophers had thought that there should
be a permanent, un-caused force or entity. The world’s oldest
literature, the ªgveda, gives us a number of instances of this kind of
thinking. That is why the belief in an all-pervading Creator was
prevalent at the time of the Buddha. But the Buddha did not find
anything to substantiate this belief. He saw everything arising from
a cause and that things determined by causality were impermanent
and ephemeral.
When we consider the human condition we realise that it is a
process of becoming rather than of being. The mental process is so
rapid that we are seldom aware of change. Instead, due to the
habitual and repetitive nature of thought, we perceive only the
illusion of continuity and stability. It is like a swiftly flowing river
that, to the distant observer, seems to be still and unchanging.
The Canon often alludes to the axiom that “All is suffering”
(Dhp 278), and this in turn, only serves to underline the first
principle, “all is impermanent” (Dhp 277). We would not err if we
maintained that it is these tenets that distinguish Buddhism from all
other religions.
The statement, “All is impermanent”, can be regarded as the seal
of Buddhism and is akin to the famous remark of the 6th century
B.C.E. Greek philosopher, Herakleitos, “All is in a state of flux” or
“Everything flows” (panta rhei); i.e. all is subject to change, to
becoming. The truth of this statement as far as the phenomenal world
is concerned receives ample corroboration from our sense experience.
“There is no Being, there is only a Becoming. The state of every
individual is unstable, temporary, sure to pass away. Even in
things we find, in each individual, form and other material
qualities. In living organisms there is a continually ascending
series of mental qualities also. It is the union of these that makes
the individual. Every person, or thing, or god is therefore a

putting together, a compound. And in each individual, without
any exception, the relation of its component parts is ever
changing, never the same for two consecutive moments. It
follows that no sooner has separateness, individuality begun,
than dissolution, disintegration, also begins. There can be no
putting together without a becoming; there can be no becoming
without a becoming different; and there can be no becoming
different without a dissolution, a passing away, which sooner or
later will inevitably be complete.”1
But why, we may well ask, is it that all things are impermanent,
subject to an invariable law of change and condemned thereby to
eternal becoming? It is because the universal law of change is
inseparably connected with the law of cause and effect. Origination
presupposes destruction and destruction presupposes origination.
As the Buddha says, “Whatever exists arises from cause and
conditions, and perishes.” (Vin I 11, 16, passim.)
There are three aspects to impermanence: 1) impermanence of
the life period, 2) momentary impermanence, and 3) impermanence
of the self-nature of conditional things.
1) The first aspect means that there is no escape from death:
“Not in the sky, nor in mid-ocean,
Nor on entering a mountain cave,
Is found the place on earth where abiding
One will not be overcome by death.” (Dhp 128)
Birth, old age and death are the great miseries of life. We are
constantly reminded in the Canon that life surely ends in death. Life
denotes the period between birth and death, between arising and
passing away.
Asaòga, the great Maháyánist philosopher of the 4th century
who founded the Yogácára school, says in his Madhyántántánugama
Sútra, “All things are produced by a combination of causes and
conditions and have no nominal existence of their own. When this
combination is dissolved then their destruction is ensured. The
body of living beings consists of four great elements (earth, air, fire
and water) and when these are resolved into the original elements
then death ensues.”
1. Rhys Davids, Early Buddhism, 1908, pp. 56–57.

IMPERMANENCE 223
2) The second aspect of impermanence is the impermanence of

moments (Skt. kåaóa) or momentary impermanence. It refers to the
changes taking place in a being at certain times, which are, in
themselves, aggregates of minute changes, which are invariably
imperceptible. Thus everything is constantly changing and cannot
be the same for two consecutive moments. Changes in the
phenomenal world are thus explained by this proposition.
As the famous 5th century commentator, Buddhaghosa says in his
monumental work, the Visuddhimagga (VIII.38, Path of Purification,
translated by Ñáóamoli): “As to the shortness of the moment, in the
ultimate sense the life moment of living beings is extremely short,
being only as much as the occurrence of a single conscious moment.
Just as the chariot wheel, when it is rolling, rolls only on one point of
its tyre and, when it is at rest, rests only on one point, so too, the life of
living beings lasts only for a single conscious moment. When that
consciousness has ceased, the being is said to have ceased, according
as it is said, in a past conscious moment ‘he did live’, not ‘he does
live’, not ‘he will live’. In a future conscious moment, ‘he will live’,
not ‘he did live’, not ‘he does live’. In the present conscious moment,
‘he does live’, not ‘he did live’, not ‘he will live’.”
Is there, then, a motive power whereby things are changed?
Every vehicle we see has the capacity to move but can only do so
through using an outside force. The same observation applies to,
say a windmill and even to the earth itself. Even a finger doesn’t
move by itself. The motive power is inherent in the formula,
“Origination, staying, growth and decay, and destruction.” These
four characteristics of existence are forever repeating themselves.
The Sarvástiváda, an early school, maintained the following
propositions with regard to these characteristics:
1. There exists origination by which everything is brought to a
state of existence from past to present.
2. There exists staying which endeavours to make everything
stay in its identical state as soon as it emerges from the
present to the future state by the force of origination.
3. There exists growth and decay where everything is dragged
into the pale of old age.
4. There exists destruction which thereby carries everything
back into the past.
All things change, therefore, through the operation of these four
powers.1
3) As to the third aspect of impermanence, the impermanence of

the self-nature of conditioned things, momentary impermanence
presupposes this. It is a simple, logical proposition, equivalent to
that of øúnyatá (‘emptiness’, ‘voidness’).
It is easy enough to realise that everything will die, but not so
easy if one considers that the process leading up to the final
consummation is only achieved through every single day and night.
Although øúnyatá may be considered the final, legitimate and
rational conclusion of the first principle, that “All is impermanent”,
it has proved a veritable pitfall to scholars. Those from the West
interpreted it as ‘nothingness’ or, worse still, ‘annihilation’, and in
so doing branded the Mahásuññatavádins as nihilists. However,
Buddhists understand it as meaning ‘perpetual changes occurring
at every step in the phenomenal world’. Another great Maháyánist
philosopher, Nágárjuna, in his Mádhyamikaøástra (ch 40) says, “It is
on account of øúnyatá that everything becomes possible but that
without it, nothing in the world would be possible.”
If things were not subject to continuous change, evolution and
every kind of development would cease. And if life had continued
from its beginnings without the factor of death to take into
consideration, what would be the result?
In his Outlines of Maháyána Buddhism (1907, p. 173) Prof. D.T.
Suzuki says, “Øúnyatá does not mean nothingness, as is sometimes
interpreted by critics, but it simply means conditionality or
transitoriness of all phenomenal existences, it is a synonym for
aniyata or pratìtya. Therefore, emptiness, according to the Buddhists
signifies, negatively, the absence of particularity, the non-existence
of individuals as such; and positively, the ever-changing state of the
phenomenal world, a constant flux of becoming, an eternal series of
causes and effects. It must never be understood in the sense of
annihilation or absolute nothingness, for nihilism is as much
condemned by Buddhism as naive realism.”
In actual fact, the principle of øúnyatá concerns only the
phenomenal world and we find that the explanations given by
Nágárjuna tend towards the destructive and negative aspect
mentioned above. However, the question is whether the Buddha so
1. There were different views as to whether these four existed

simultaneously or in succession. The Sarvástiváda, followed by the
Theraváda, supported the former view, whilst the Sautrántika adhered to
the latter.
IMPERMANENCE 225
committed himself. The answer is that he did not found a school of

philosophy, nor would he have approved of those disciples who
might have been tempted to do so, but rather, he pointed out a way
to salvation. However, since the unsatisfactory nature of the
phenomenal world must have weighed on the minds of his
disciples like a terrible nightmare, the Buddha was thus justified in
giving them a negative answer. Of course, his ultimate purpose was
to lead his followers from this shore to the ‘further shore’ (i.e.
Nibbána) and the possession of knowledge of what is not so, leads
inevitably to an understanding of what is so, and vice versa. The
negative leads on to the positive and the state of impermanence to
that of permanence (i.e. Nibbána), as the following propositions
show:
1. The principle of the universal belongs to the phenomenal
world.
2. The principle of non-ego belongs to both the phenomenal
and the noumenal worlds.
3. But the principle of Nibbána, being pure, calm, belongs
solely to the noumenal world.
Chapter 32
THE TRUTH OF UNSATISFACTORINESS
Buddhism is not a revealed religion in the sense in which that term

is ordinarily understood but is a system of thought and practice
based squarely on the rock of human experience. The three
characteristics (i.e. impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, soullessness
or anicca, dukkha and anattá) are, therefore, not articles of faith but
facts of life realised by every searcher after truth who must perforce
reason out each step of the path by himself, having recourse to his
own experience as the one sure guide.
Even the most placid and seemingly happy among us would be
forced to admit that physical dukkha at least is omnipresent. As the
Dhammapada says:
“Not in the sky, nor in mid-ocean, nor on entering a mountain
cave is found the place on earth, where abiding, one will not be
overcome by death.” (Dhp 128)
The less contented would naturally go further and point out the
suffering attendant upon fear, loneliness, frustration, illness, old age
etc.
The Buddha intuitively perceived the impermanence and
transience of all compounded things—animal, vegetable and
mineral. This includes the ‘self’ (attá) which is a delusive concept
binding man firmly to the wheel of rebirth. Everything is in a state
of flux and since this is so, then dukkha logically follows as a
corollary, for how could that which is in a constant state of change
be regarded as satisfactory and desirable?
Dukkha means not merely suffering, pain or misery, but includes
all others factors of an unsatisfactory nature, namely: decay, death,
desire, hunger, thirst, impermanence, insubstantiality and the like.
This truth is easily realised by any who can think soberly and
dispassionately. It can be easily understood, too, due to its
grossness and to the fact that it can be seen everywhere around us.
For this latter reason, the Buddha made it the first Noble Truth.
It cannot be denied that where there is sensibility, there also is
dukkha. Infatuation with transient pleasures prevents us from seeing
things as they truly are but pain is an experience which results in a
THE TRUTH OF UNSATISFACTORINESS 227
feeling of dissatisfaction. All activities, whether good or bad, stem

from this feeling. Indeed, if the truth were known, it often happens
that some great sorrow precedes a noble event. Witness, for
example, the Great Renunciation. Here we had the Prince
Siddhattha leaving his opulent surroundings only after having been
confronted with four significant sights: an old man, a diseased man,
a corpse and an ascetic. Hence, he left his palace to seek an escape
from the ills of life, not only for himself but for the benefit of all
those succeeding generations.
It may be asked: “Why bother to attempt to understand
dukkha?” The answer lies in the fact that Buddhism is not just a
means of escaping dukkha. As relieving a patient from physical or
mental pain only constitutes part of the process of rehabilitation, so
likewise, in order to overcome dukkha, one must first understand it.
Naturally, there are various types of dukkha. The
Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta and Satipaþþhána-sutta enumerate the
following: 1) birth, 2) ageing, 3) disease, 4) death, 5) sorrow, 6)
lamentation, 7) pain, 8) grief, 9) despair, 10) association with the
unloved, 11) separation from the loved, and 12) not to get what one
wants; in short the Buddha says, the five aggregates grasping
constitute dukkha.
This is an exhaustive list of the conditions of suffering. Every
mortal, irrespective of his station in life, has to pass through these
conditions. No one wants to have the company of those one does
not like. But sometimes one cannot avoid them and in some cases it
becomes a life-long affair. On the contrary we do not like to leave
the company of those who are very dear to us. But in spite of our
best efforts, sometimes we have to lose them and experience bitter
disappointment. If nothing else comes between us, death will surely
separate us at last.
Again, we have desires, hopes and ambitions which are not
fulfilled. Then we react with disappointment and frustration. At
times the disappointment is so intense that people lose their mental
balance and resort to suicide—destroying the very centre of their
desires.
Every one of us has to face these conditions in our journey
through life. These are plain facts which should be clear even to a
person of below-average intelligence. But this is not all. The Buddha
says that even those conditions which we take to be pleasant are in
fact dukkha, unsatisfactory. This should be understood in the light of
the doctrine of impermanence. There is nothing which is not subject
to this universal law. Pleasures are certainly no exception. They are

fleeting. So pursuing pleasure is like chasing shadows. When these
conditions are analyzed one by one, we can see how painful they are.
1. Birth—With birth, the five aggregates unfold and begin again
their ever-changing pattern. These aggregates, namely, i) matter, ii)
feeling, iii) perception, iv) mental formations, and v) consciousness,
represent these ever-changing physical and mental forces or energies
which combine themselves so as to constitute a being. Birth is
regarded as the manifestation and development of the aggregates of
existence in any living being from the time of rebirth-linking
consciousness up to the exit from the mother’s womb. Birth is dukkha
because it is the basis for all the suffering we experience.
2. Ageing—Ageing brings with it failing faculties, loss of
memory etc., in short, senility in every sense. Its characteristic is
ripening. Its function is to lead on to death. It is manifested as the
vanishing of youth. It is suffering because it is also a foundation for
suffering.
3. Disease—The unpleasant experience of numerous ailments to
which mind and body are subject.
4. Death—The dissolution and break-up of the life-faculty that
one has cherished for long years. The Buddha said, “A being, once
born, may die at any moment.” (Sn 576). Its characteristic is a fall. Its
function is to disjoin. It is manifested as absence from the destiny in
which there was rebirth. It should be understood as suffering because
it is a basis for it.
5. Sorrow—An inward burning resulting from loss of relatives,
friends, property, health, virtue, right view, or any other loss. It has
inner-consuming as its characteristic. Its function is to completely
consume the mind. It is manifested as continual sorrow. It is an
intrinsic form of suffering and also a basis for it.
6. Lamentation—The outward sign of sorrow, seen at times of
wailing or moaning for loss, mentioning the qualities of the person or
thing lost. Crying-out is its characteristic. Its function is proclaiming
virtues and vices. It is manifested as tumult. It is a state of suffering
due to formation and a basis for suffering.
7. Pain—Constituting bodily affliction and possibly resulting in
mental sickness. The oppression of the body is its characteristic. Its
function is to cause grief. It is manifested as bodily affliction. It is an
intrinsic suffering and it brings on mental suffering.
THE TRUTH OF UNSATISFACTORINESS 229
8. Grief—Mental affliction causing mental oppression and

distress. This intrinsic suffering brings on bodily suffering too. Those
who are gripped by grief undergo many kinds of suffering, possibly
leading to suicide.
9. Despair—A state of hopelessness burning up one’s mental
fibres. No crying here, but sighing only. Its characteristic is burning
up of the mind. Its function is to bemoan. It is manifested in faints
and states of dejection.
10. Association with the unloved—Resulting from one’s having
to associate or mix with undesirable company. It distresses the mind
and it is manifested as a harmful state.
11. Separation from the loved—To have to part from well-wishers
such as parents, brothers, sisters, relations, friends, etc., arouses
sorrow which may lead to instability of one’s mental faculties and
even to suicide.
12. Not to get what one wants—This goes without saying as, with
birth, one becomes endowed with an insatiable thirst for sense-
objects of every kind. Its characteristic is the wanting of an
unattainable object, or person. Its function is to seek it. It is often
manifested as disappointment.
Again, there are other ways to classify suffering.
1. Intrinsic or ordinary suffering—which includes all the usual
forms of physical and mental dukkha, such as old age,
sickness and death etc.
2. Suffering produced by change—e.g. when happiness turns
to sorrow due to its impermanent nature.
3. Suffering inherent in conditioned states—since every being is
a combination of aggregates and these are changing every
moment and therefore impermanent, it follows that whatever
is impermanent must of necessity be unsatisfactory.
There is also a further classification:
1. Concealed or non-evident suffering—i.e. that which is not
obvious and is hidden to others. When someone is afflicted
with a headache or some other bodily or mental affliction,
one has to question the sufferer to ascertain what it is.
2. Exposed or evident suffering—i.e. that which manifests itself
through agonized exclamations when one weeps or moans.
3. Indirect suffering—e.g. birth in itself, considered as a
relinking-consciousness with life, is termed dukkha because
it is birth that provides the basis for one kind of suffering or

another.
4. Direct suffering—i.e. all accepted forms of dukkha other than
those in 3.
“In short”, says the Buddha, “the five aggregates of clinging are
suffering.” Our very physical and mental faculties are equated with
clinging, the desire for life. The five aggregates of grasping
constitute an entire life which is nothing but suffering. Hence, it has
been truly said, that he who delights in life, delights in dukkha.
Early Western writers on Buddhism, however, saw this
philosophy of life as pessimistic in that it seemed to exhort people to
merely brood over the miseries of life. A case for calling a doctor a
pessimist, for example, could be made out if he did but diagnose
and failed to treat accordingly. However, as one would always be
given a prescription for medicine, so in Buddhism, one is shown the
Path which leads to freedom from desire and hence from dukkha.
Therefore Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic; it is
realistic.
Chapter 33
THE CAUSE OF UNSATISFACTORINESS
In our examination of the First Noble Truth we have seen the

universality of suffering and uncovered its origin, namely, the five
aggregates of existence (material form, feeling, perception,
volitional acts and consciousness). We have also seen that suffering
extends to all realms of life, whether of the sensuous, fine material
or immaterial spheres.
These same aggregates are, of course, subject to the law of
anicca—that of change or momentary decease and re-arising.
However, this continuous change does not occur without a cause,
according to Buddhism. (To theists, this matter presents no
problem, as they would put forward the hypothesis of a Creator
God).
In his first discourse (the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta; Vin I 10f;
S V 420ff.) the Buddha enumerated the causes of suffering:
“The craving which causes rebirth is accompanied by
passionate pleasure, and takes delight in this and that object,
namely sensuous craving, craving for existence and craving for
annihilation.” (Vin I 10; D II 308; M I 48 passim.)
When connected with the self, craving can be very potent as
witnessed by these typical egoistic expressions: “My home”, “My
family”, “My reputation”, “My career”, “My interests” etc. The
main underlying theme is one of rank selfishness. Just as smoke
arises from a fire, so likewise, craving results from the formation of
the five aggregates.
Yet why is it that we continually crave if we recognise that the
aggregates are of such a fundamentally unsatisfactory nature? The
answer surely is because we are deluded into thinking that these
possess lasting qualities with which to satisfy our every want. It is
these that cause us to forget the suffering in life. Indeed, these
aggregates may be compared to a poisoned cake; possessing not
only an attractive exterior (and taste and smell) but also a deadly
content: Greed, hate and delusion are as virulent as the toxic
properties of the cake, but mankind obstinately clings to them.
From the meanest worm to the highest divine being, these

aggregates are the most prized possessions. Furthermore, not just
content with them in their most basic form, every effort is made to
perfect their quality and function. The aggregates are following one
from one life to another, binding one to existence. It is like one is
falling from the sky, anxious to find a foothold, but never
succeeding,.
Whenever contact is made with external objects by use of the six
senses, these are seen as good, beautiful and of permanent duration.
Such objects are wanted again and again, and one is forced to
gratify the senses day and night in order to keep the aggregates
satisfied. One labours to maintain life, but faces endless difficulties,
not only in securing the basic necessities of life, but in acquiring the
various wants which are artificially created for the ‘average
consumer’. When one seems to possess more than enough, a
mysterious longing presents itself for yet more commodities.
However, we are not always successful in our endeavours.
Disappointment, frustration and mental instability cannot be
discounted whilst we remain in the ‘rat race’. Confronted with
duties one cannot perform alone, marriage is most often resorted to,
only to realise further obligations; to husband or wife, children, in-
laws etc. Now we are forced to satisfy their desires as well! We are
further assailed by family quarrels, creditors, etc.
All crimes result from craving for wealth, power, position, etc.,
in short, in the desire to be a step ahead of everyone else. However,
as in times of war, it is inevitably the innocent or those not wishing
to become involved, that are the victims in such a ruthless struggle
to remain on top.
Now we must turn to a very difficult problem which requires
our careful consideration and reflection: how does craving cause
future rebirth and dukkha?
The body, which is made up of four chief elements, namely,
extension (i.e. earth), cohesion (water), radiation (fire) and motion
(air), lasts a lifetime. However, the mind operates indescribably
quickly. Because of not noticing the quick arising and passing away
of the mind, unenlightened people regard the mind as either of an
eternal nature or as dying on the decease of the physical body, as
with the extinguishing of a flame. Both of these views are incorrect
according to Buddhism.
Only if a person has extinguished the flame of craving, then the
flame of individual consciousness will be extinguished also. If this is
THE CAUSE OF UNSATISFACTORINESS 233
not the case, however, then the desire for continued existence will
persist as before. This desire for future life is powerful enough to
produce one of three signs: 1. habitual act (kamma), 2. mental
appearance of the object (kamma-nimitta) and 3) place of rebirth
(gati-nimitta).1 Due to grasping these signs with craving, there is
rebirth. With the advent of birth, the six senses (sa¿áyatana) come
into being: vision (cakkhu) audition (sota), smell (gháóa), taste (jivhá),
form (káya) and mind (mano). The continuance of life is thus assured;
craving is indeed the creator of birth as well as of death.
However, it should be borne in mind that when the Buddha
speaks of craving as being the cause of dukkha he means the main
cause, because there are innumerable other factors of varying
degree that result in craving, as stated in the formula of Dependent
Origination.
If only we recognised the inherent unwholesome quality of
kamma according to the following four characteristics or senses of
it, then our upward climb on the path of liberation would already
have begun:
1. The characteristic of accumulating dukkha (áyúhanaþþha).
2. The characteristic of creating fresh sets of aggregates
(nidánaþþha).
3. The characteristic to bind the aggregates firmly to dukkha
(saíyogaþþha).
4. The characteristic of being obstructive nature; craving is
constantly seeking new and subtle methods to prevent the
liberation of beings from the Wheel of Existence
(palibodhaþþha).
Thus it is kamma, not God, which is the creator of the world and
of ourselves.
1. See Chapter 22 above and Visuddhimagga p. 457, 549–550, 554.

Chapter 34
THE ANATTÁ DOCTRINE
At the time of the Buddha, opinions concerning the nature of the

self (attá) varied widely. The Buddha summarises these points of
view as: 1) “My self is minute1 and has material qualities”, 2) “My
self is limitless and with material qualities”, 3) “My self is minute
and without material qualities”, 4) “My self is limitless and without
material qualities”. There are also persons who would make no
declaration concerning the self (D II 64).
The Buddha then asks how the self is perceived. It is perceived
thus: “Feeling is my self”; “Feeling is not my self, my self does not
experience feeling”; “Feeling is not my self, my self does not lack
experience of feeling”; “By my self are things felt, the thing that
feels is my self.” To those who hold these views that the feeling is
“my self”, it should be said that feeling may be happy, unhappy or
neutral; any one of these three feelings, while it endures, excludes
the other two. All of them are impermanent, conditioned, arising
from other relationships, things of decay, age, destruction,
annihilation. If to a person experiencing any one of them it should
seem, “This is my self”, then with the passing of that feeling it
should also seem to him, “Gone is my self”. A person declaring,
“Feeling is my self”, is taking the self as impermanent, a mixture of
happiness and suffering, a thing coming into existence and dying
away, here amongst the things of the world. Therefore, the
statement, “My self is feeling”, is not acceptable (D II 64).
On the other hand, to a person who declares, “My self does not
consist in feeling, my self does not experience feeling”, it should be
said, “Where there is entirely no feeling, can it be said ‘I am’?”
Again, whether it is claimed that, “My self does not consist in
feeling, my self does not lack experience of feeling”, or the converse,
it may also be replied that if feeling should cease utterly, in every
respect, could it be said there that “I, this person, am”?
1. In each case the word ‘minute’ refers to the theory that the self is
composed of atoms very much finer that those which go to the building up
of material substances such as the body.
THE ANATTÁ DOCTRINE 235
None of these statements concerning feeling and the self is

therefore acceptable (D II 66–68). The Buddha concludes, “From the
time, Ánanda, that the bhikkhu ceases to regard the self as consisting
in feeling or in experiencing feeling, and does not maintain, ‘My self
experiences feeling, the thing that feels is my self’, he grasps at
nothing in the world, and, not grasping, does not long for anything.
Not longing for anything, he attains to his final release from self. He
comes to know, ‘Exhausted is birth; the higher life has come to
perfection; that which should be done has been done; there will be
no more of the present state’.” (D II 68).
Concerning the existence of the Tathágata after death, the
Buddha said that any statements that he did or did not exist, or both
or neither, were ‘foolish theories’. Why? “As far as the contact of
mind and mental objects and the range thereof, as far as language
and the range thereof, as far as concepts and the range thereof, as far
as intelligence and the roaming of intelligence, so far does there
reach the cycle of rebirth and its turnings. Having thoroughly
understood that, the bhikkhu is freed, and, being so freed, does not
know and does not see in the same way, to him such theories are
not intelligent.” (D II 68).
From the direct statements of the Law of Dependent Origination
it is clear that ‘life’, in the usual interpretation of the term, moves as
a vicious circle, continuously kept in motion by a drive of anxiety
that it should do so. It is necessary to bear in mind that the term
‘consciousness’, as used in the Law, refers to the general sense of the
term, as one might say that a person is ‘conscious’ if he knows what
is going on around him, ‘unconscious’ if he does not. Having
established contact with an object or event, one registers judgement
on it; one may find it pleasant or unpleasant, or one may be
indifferent to it. In the first two cases one wishes either to
perpetuate the liaison or to destroy it; in the third, one is merely not
interested.
Though in the main there are no fixed standards of pleasantness
and unpleasantness, there are certain states which man, irrespective
of time or place, dislikes, and certain others which he ardently
desires. The outstanding example of the first is death, and of the
second, life. Only the worst possible agonies to which a man has
been subjected have made him desire death, while dissertations on
happy after-lives, Elysian Fields, or whatever their appellation,
have never superseded his desire to prolong the present existence.
But the present existence has never shown any security of tenure.
To make it continue, or appear to continue, indefinitely, the

dominating instinct of living beings has always been to reproduce
the species, irrespective of conditions of famine, sickness or other
adversity.
Since life is followed by death, or a series of lives punctuated by
deaths, how much of man has ever ‘lived’? What is it of him that
‘dies’, and what is it of him that is ‘reborn’? The suttas quoted above
give the answer to these questions. Far from living a single, isolated
life, man lives a long series of lives, connected with each other by a
potential generated by his previous actions. As one life draws to a
close, the characteristics which would previously have been taken
to constitute ‘consciousness’—using the term in the general sense—
disappear. There remains, however, a consciousness, sometimes
referred to as the subconsciousness or infra-consciousness, that is
the potential which leads to blind activity or energy, the effect of
which is the will to live. At the moment of conception, the first stage
of the individual existence is that of the infra-conscious mind, or the
blind will to live. Its next stage of development lies in that of mental
and physical states, the stage of pre-natal growth with the mind and
body in combination. From here onwards we have the development
of the sense-organs, the making of contact with the outside world,
and so on. But throughout these events, and throughout the
existence just started, is the undercurrent of potential, the results of
past actions, which determine the personality of the individuality in
question and which is constantly making itself felt.
How far the individual can improve on this undercurrent will
decide his circumstances and disposition in future lives, but there is
no question of any organ representative of the individual, such as
jìva or a soul, experiencing one existence only and fading out into
some realm of happiness or misery, or with its potential lost in the
general mass of the world’s activity. Just as modern biologists tell us
there is no permanent part of the physical organism which sustains,
or could possibly sustain, the whole process of life, but that life
consists in the process of growth, renewal, nourishment, and such
like which were once assumed to be the accompaniments to life, so
there is no central ‘self’ which stands at the centre of the mentality
to which events and characteristics accrue and from which they fall
away, leaving it intact, at death. The stream of consciousness,
flowing through many lives, is as changing as a stream of water.
This is the anattá doctrine of Buddhism as concerning the
‘individual’ being. Extended to all the phenomena of the universe, we
THE ANATTÁ DOCTRINE 237
have a parallel to the ‘Theory of Continuous Creation’ as advanced

by present-day astronomers, this contrasting with the former
periodical creation as developing from Brahmá or a primeval atom,
or with the once-and-for-all creation as put forward by
Zoroastrianism, Christianity and other monotheistic religions. The
anattá doctrine is counted among the three characteristics of all
mental and physical phenomena: impermanence, unsatisfactoriness,
non-self or soullessness. They are essentially present in all teachings
claiming to be ‘Buddhism’. The Dhammapada says:
“All mental and physical phenomena are impermanent.
Whenever through wisdom one perceives this,
Then one is indifferent to suffering.
This is the road to purity.”
“All mental and physical phenomena are unsatisfactory.
This is the road to purity.”
“All things are without a permanent self.
This is the road to purity.” (Dhp 277–279)
Chapter 35
THE ENIGMA OF ANATTÁ
The Mahánidána-sutta contains the theories (váda) giving rise to the

idea of self or soul that were prevalent at the time of the Buddha (D
II 64–71). The Pañcattaya-sutta deals specifically with five of these
theories, and in this sutta the Buddha points out that Nibbána does
not depend on any one of them (M II 228–238). Further, the
Brahmajála-sutta discusses sixty-two forms of speculation
concerning the world and the soul taught by other teachers of the
period (D I 12–46). In contrast, the Buddha propounds the theory of
anattá (non-soul, non-self, egolessness). Buddhism therefore does
not propound the existence of a permanent soul (attá or átman). On
the other hand, it propounds rebirth based on kamma and, therefore,
moral disciplines.
Down through the ages, questions regarding the consistency
between the doctrines of anattá and that of kamma have been raised
and answered again and again. It is one of the most important
topics of discussion between King Milinda and Venerable Nágasena
(Mil 25ff.). One such discussion is:
“If there cannot be wholesome deeds because there is no self
(attá) which performs them, then an imaginary (parikappita) self
also does not exist, because there is no other maker of that self.”
“If there be a self even when there is no maker of it, then it must
appear that there can be wholesome deeds even when there is
no doer of them.”
How can the former proposition be accepted and the latter
rejected? Just as it can be observed that plants etc., arise from such
causes and conditions as seeds, earth, water, light and so on, though
no one would consider that a soul was present in them, so in the
same way should it be understood that morality etc., arise by virtue
of certain causes and conditions (hetuppaccaya sámaggì) and not
because of the presence of any such thing as a soul.
Those reared in theocentric religions will ask: “How can one
take a new form after death without presupposing the existence of a
reincarnating entity?” and “Who is it who speaks, acts and thinks?”
An analogy may prove helpful: two men are standing by the side of
THE ENIGMA OF ANATTÁ 239
a lake. The water is undulating as a result of the action of the wind.

One of the men is not well-versed in scientific phenomena while the
second man is. The former maintains that the water is being carried
along by the wind but the latter says that his colleague’s
observation is defective since he knows that the waves are not a
single mass of water being carried along but a process of vertical
and rotational motions that create the illusions of horizontal
movement and the continuity of individual waves.
Hence, one should understand rebirth as a process of change
inherent in the collection of life-forces we call a ‘being’. The sages of
old, including the Buddha, actually experienced insight into their
previous lives but ‘worldlings’ do not possess such knowledge and,
as a result, are easily misled into thinking that there is an
unchanging personality. The Buddha penetrated the heart of the
matter, as is evident from his doctrine of Dependent Origination. In
spite of all this, however, human nature being what it is, the
misleading terms of ‘me’, ‘mine’ and ‘myself’ in common parlance
still have universal currency with very few realising that they only
have relevance to a conventional usage.
Such expressions as “I am”, “This is mine”, are expressions of
egoism and are common in languages throughout the world.
Springing from selfish considerations they have led to quarrels
between members of one society and even to vast conflicts between
nations.
The truth of anattá is revealed not as a religious dogma but as a
philosophical perception of reality. Things and beings are seen as
constantly changing their outward appearance, and yet we like to
believe there is, nevertheless, something of an unchanging, durable,
everlasting nature inside us which can somehow be identified as the
real ‘me’ or ‘you’. Many extend this belief to a state outside their
experience, maintaining that in some mysterious way there is a
conscious intelligence which moves and has its being in the
universe—a cosmic soul Paramátman or Brahman, which is termed
‘Absolute Reality’ whilst the mundane world is regarded as illusory
(máya) in nature. Pursuant to this concept, men are simply scattered
parts of this One Reality who, out of ignorance, separated
themselves from it and they should aspire to return to it in their
meditation.
Physical and mental change is mandatory in all compounded
things. There is a radical transformation throughout the stages of
our growth from infancy to old age, yet somehow we ‘feel’ the
same. On this basis, some philosophies justify the soul theory as

accounting for this continuity of identity in spite of the outward
changes. Man sees himself as the same ‘person’ and in this lies the
delusion which, in Buddhism, is called sakkáyadiþþhi, personality-
belief.
It should be argued that if it is necessary to believe in a soul to
account for one’s continuity, then why not apply the theory to
inanimate objects as well? If, however, there is no soul, then what
constitutes the ‘personality’ of man? What am I? Although the
concepts ‘soul’, ‘átman’ and ‘jìva’, were applied to man in the
Upaniåads, upon close examination it will be found that no such
factor is required or proven. In truth, mind and matter comprise
‘man’ and they are always in a state of flux, the whole process only
ceasing finally with the attainment of Nibbána when craving and
desire, the fuel sustaining existence, are finally eliminated.
When certain motor parts are assembled, the net result is a car;
when the five aggregates are assembled, the net result is a man.
There is no substance in the term ‘car’ except in a conventional
sense when we wish to distinguish this particular collection of
manufactured parts from some other, perhaps similar, construction.
Thus, the wheels, axles, chassis, radiator, gear-box, steering-wheel,
battery, petrol tank, etc., by themselves or collectively, can never be
described as a car until they are put together in a proper manner.
Likewise, the aforementioned physical and mental parts comprising
a man cannot be so described either collectively or singly but only
when they come together through opportune circumstances. When
philosophers claim they have ‘discovered’ a soul, all they have truly
realised is a mental delusion based upon a conditioning process.
The term ‘I’ can mean any of the following:
“I am here”, “I was there”—these signify a particular location of
the individual.
“I think”—this relates only to the operation of the cognisant
mental faculty.
“I said”—this connotes the active cooperation of the mind and
voice.
Therefore, this term can be used in connection with the mind,
body or both. Man is made up of bodily and mental processes and
states. The body comprises matter (rúpa) which is a specialized
combination of the four elements (solidity, cohesion, radiation and
motion); and mind (náma)—consisting of feeling, perception,
volitional activity and consciousness. No ‘being’ exists outside of
these five factors, just as a ‘table’ does not exist apart from the pieces
of wood it is made of.
If, with reference to attributes, we examine further as to whether
there is a permanent entity called a soul which performs moral
actions etc., the question should be asked whether a permanent
soul, acting in the role of agent and experiencer, is conscious or
unconscious. If it be unconscious it is no better than a wall, a tree, a
stone or any other inanimate object. Moreover, in such a case, it
could not be an agent or an experiencer. Therefore, the proposition
that the soul is unconscious is untenable. Alternatively, if the soul
be conscious it must be identical with consciousness.
However, consciousness is subject to change. So, it would
follow that with a change of consciousness there would be an
equivalent change in the soul also. It might be said that the changes
which take place in consciousness do not effect the soul as the soul
is a permanent thing. This is a position logically impossible to
maintain for if the soul is conscious it is necessary to admit that it is
either identical or co-extensive with consciousness and is, in either
case, therefore, still subject to the same objection.
It may then be insisted that the soul is both permanent and
conscious, but from what has been said already, if the soul is
permanent then consciousness must also be so. It is a position,
moreover, which is contrary to all experience, for consciousness
clearly changes. Two things which are identical or coextensive in
nature must follow the same laws. It is, therefore, not possible to
maintain that one and the same thing could remain permanent and
at the same time be subject to change.
If it is still maintained that the one is not affected by changes
brought about in the other, it would mean logically that they are
two different and separate things, for only in such a case would the
one be unaffected by changes in the other. For example, a horse is
different and separate from a buffalo, hence the changes that take
place in the one do not affect the other and vice versa.
Accordingly, it would be necessary to give up this proposition
and admit that soul and consciousness are neither identical nor
coextensive; and that they are two different things like other objects
in the world. The proposition that the soul is conscious becomes
untenable. Therefore, it is clear that neither the unconscious nor the
conscious theory of soul is valid.
It may be said that identity is one of ‘unity in diversity’. This
kind of unity could be one of location or of attributes. If it be the
former, it may be illustrated with reference to the following

examples: it is observed that colour, taste, smell, etc., exist in the
same object; for instance, a pot. In the same way it could be said that
while soul and consciousness are different things, they yet may
exist in the same location. This, again, is not a tenable position. It
may be refuted in the following manner and with reference to the
same example; thus when the pot is baked it is not only the colour
that undergoes change but also its other attributes of taste, smell,
etc. In the same way a soul could not remain unaffected by changes
taking place in consciousness, if their location is identical.
The argument may then be advanced in another form, viz., that
though a soul and consciousness have the same location, they are,
nevertheless, two quite distinct things. Therefore, one is not affected
by changes in the other. This is the argument of ‘unity of attributes’.
If this argument is sound, it should hold good in the case of the
pot and its attributes also. This, however, is not so. Changes for the
one still mean changes for the other as stated above; the relation of
soul and consciousness is here one of attributes and is the same as
that between the pot and its attributes. Thus when one is overtaken
by changes, the other cannot remain unaffected. Therefore, this
argument is not satisfactory either.
The alternative now left is to say that soul and consciousness are
two different things which exist separately and that their location
also differs. In this case, the proportion of identity as ‘unity in
diversity’ is surrendered. Further, it has to be noted here that when
it is said that soul and consciousness do not exist in one and the
same location, it must also be admitted that they are two separate
things. In which case, therefore, the soul will necessarily be an
unconscious item. This, however, comes back to the first argument
and does not allow the second. So in conclusion it is shown that
neither the existence nor the moral necessity for a soul can be
argued.
Against these explanations may be quoted the following sayings
of the Buddha which appear to refer to the existence of something
permanent passing from one existence to another.
“The man who goes from this world to another enjoys the result
of good actions and suffers from bad actions done by him in this
life.” (Abhidh-av 779–787)
“A living being wandering in saísára has to face the greatest
fear of suffering.” (S I 37; Abhidh-av 780–787)
“There are mother, father and spontaneously manifesting

(opapátika) beings.” (M III 52; Abhidh-av 780–787)
“In this cycle of birth and death the five aggregates
constitute a burden and the individual is the bearer of the
burden. Taking up the burden is suffering and laying it aside is
happiness.” (S III 26; Th-a III 15; Abhidh-av 781–787)
“Whatever a man does with his body, speech and mind
becomes his own, and he will carry it along with him in his
journey through saísára.” (S I 93; Abhidh-av 782–787)
“It has been said by the great sage; if the bones of one person
in the course of one world cycle were accumulated they would
make a heap as big as a mountain.”
(S II 185; It 17; Abhidh-av 783–787)
“He indeed is the greatest of men who is free from blind
faith, who is the knower of the uncreated (Nibbána), who has
cut the bonds of birth and death, and who has put an end to
both good and evil, thereby renouncing every desire.”
(Dhp 97; Abhidh-av 784–787)
What is the importance of these sayings of the Buddha? Do they
in fact refer to the existence of a being who transmigrates from life
to life?
Other statements of the Master appear to have the opposite
meaning. For example:
“Do you believe in the existence of a being here? It appears that
you are subject to the view of Mára. This is a heap of pure
aggregates. Here there is no being as such. The word ‘chariot’ is
used for the parts which constitute it. So also the word ‘being’ is
used for the five aggregates which constitute a being.” (S I 135)
These and other sayings refer to pure states (dhammas) and not
to beings although there are sayings of both meanings.
The Buddha preached the doctrine in two ways with reference
to conventional truth (sammutisacca) and the ultimate truth
(paramatthasacca). Sayings that refer to such expressions as men,
gods and so on, and which refer to the existence of beings have to be
understood in the conventional sense, whereas those which refer to
aggregates, sense bases and elements have to be understood in the
ultimate sense.
Chapter 36
NIBBÁNA
1. Meaning
The goal of all Buddhists is Nibbána (Skt. nirváóa). It is a condition
that cannot be defined in general terminology although Pali
literature describes it in various ways. While traditional exegesis
analyses it as ni = non, + vana = craving, the term may be derived
from nir + va. The meaning of the root va is to ‘blow’ and Sanskrit
grammarians interpret the term as ‘cessation’, as of a lamp when the
light is extinguished. In this connection, one recalls the verse in the
Ratana-sutta:
“With the old (kamma) extinct, nothing new (kamma) to be
reproduced, the mind detached from future birth—they have
destroyed the seeds of existence. Their desires do not spring up
again and those wise ones go out even as this lamp.”
(Khp 5; Sn 235)
Aøvaghoåa versifies the same as follows:
“Just as a lamp, when it goes out, the flame does not go hither or
thither, neither to the earth nor to the sky, neither in this
direction nor to that, it having been utterly blown out on
account of the oil being consumed, similarly a sage obtains
nirváóa when the desires and the passions have been consumed;
he goes neither this way nor that; but obtains utter peace.”1
Apart from the above definition, however, there have been
many interpretations, the following being recorded in the great
Sarvástivádin commentary called Abhidharma-mahávibháåa-øástra:
1. Vána, implying the path of rebirth, + nir, meaning ‘leaving
off’ or ‘being away from the path of rebirth.’
1. Saundaranandakávyam, Ch. XVI v. 28. Dìpo yathá nirvrtimabhyupeto;

naivávanií gacchati nántarìkåam; disám na kiñcid vidisám na kiñcit; snehakåayát
kevalam eti øántií.
NIBBÁNA 245
2. Vána, meaning ‘stench’, + nir, meaning ‘freedom’; ‘freedom

from the stench of vexatious kamma.’
3. Vána, meaning ‘dense forests’, + nir, meaning ‘to get rid of =
‘to be permanently rid of the dense forest of the five
aggregates (pañca skandha), or the ‘three roots of greed, hate
and delusion (lobha, dveåa, moha)’ or ‘three characteristics of
existence (impermanence, anitya; unsatisfactoriness, dukkha;
soullessness, anátma).’
4. Vána, meaning ‘weaving’, + nir, meaning ‘knot’ = ‘freedom
from the knot of the vexatious thread of kamma.’
That this difficulty in defining is not of recent origin is
illustrated by the following revealing dialogue between the Indian
arahant, Nágasena, and the Greek king, Menander (Menandros;
Pali, Milinda), sometime in the first century B.C.E. in north-west
India.
“Venerable Nágasena, this Nibbána that you are always talking
of—can you make clear to me by a simile, explanation, reason or
argument its form, figure, duration or size?”
“That I cannot, O King, for Nibbána has nothing similar to it.
By no simile, explanation, reason or argument can its form,
figure, duration or size be made clear.”
“That I cannot believe, Nágasena, that of Nibbána which
really, after all, is a condition that exists, that it should be so
impossible in any way to make us understand either the form,
figure, duration or size. How do you explain this?”
“Tell me, O King, is there such a thing as the great ocean?”
“Yes.”
“Well, suppose someone were to ask your majesty, ‘How
much water is there in the ocean and how many creatures dwell
therein?’ How would you answer him?”
“I should say this to him, ‘My good fellow, such a question
should not be asked and it is a point that should be left alone.
The oceanographers have never examined the ocean in that way
and no one can measure the water there or count the number of
creatures that dwell therein.’ Thus, sir, would be my reply.”
“But why should your majesty make such a reply about the
ocean? The ocean is, after all, a thing which really exists. Ought
you not rather to count and tell him, saying, ‘So and so much is
the water in the ocean and so and so many are the creatures that
dwell therein?”
“That would be impossible, sir, for the answer to such a

question is beyond one’s power.”
“As impossible as it is, O King, to tell the measure of water
in the ocean or the number of creatures dwelling therein
though, after all, the ocean exists, so impossible is it in any of the
ways you suggest to tell the form, figure, duration or size of
Nibbána, though, after all, it is a condition that does exist. And
even, O King, if one endowed with psychic powers, mastery
over mind, were to be able to ascertain the quantity of water and
count the creatures in the ocean, even he would never be able to
tell the form, figure, duration or size of Nibbána.” (Mil 315–318)
There is no way of understanding the nature of Nibbána other
than by individual realisation by following the methods prescribed
in the texts. The above explanations are, however, insufficient to
understand fully the nature of Nibbána. It is a significant fact that
even the great Nágárjuna himself resorted to a negative
interpretation, “That is called nirváóa which is not acquired, not
reached, not extirpated, not eternal, not suppressed, not
produced.”1 The negative aspect of Nibbána, therefore, implies the
extinction of the threefold fire (lobha, dosa and moha), leading to the
annihilation of all desire and complete liberation of mind.
2. The positive aspect

I now reproduce the lucid explanation of the positive aspect of
Nibbána given by Venerable Nágasena to Milinda.
“Venerable Nágasena, I grant that Nibbána is bliss unalloyed and
yet that it is impossible to make clear either by simile,
explanation, reasoning or argument, its form, figure, duration or
size. But is there no attribute of Nibbána which is inherent also in
other things that it can be made evident by metaphor?”
“Though there is nothing as to its form which can be
explained, there is something as to its quality which can.”
“Oh happy word, Nágasena, speak then that I may have an
explanation of even one point in the characteristic of Nibbána.
1. Mádhyamikakáriká of Nágárjuna ed. L. de la Valleé Poussin (Bibl.

Budd.) with Candrakìrti’s commentary, Prasannapadá, St. Petersburg, 1903–
1913, Ch. xxv, Káriká 3: Apratìtam asampráptam anucchinnam asásvatam;
aniruddham anutopannan eva nirváóam ucayate.
NIBBÁNA 247
Appease the fever of my heart by the cool breeze of your

words.”
“There is one quality of the lotus, O king, inherent in
Nibbána, two qualities of water, three of medicine, four of the
ocean, five of food, ten of space, three of the wish-fulfilling gem,
three of red sandalwood, three of the essence of ghee and five of
a mountain peak.
“As a lotus is not wetted by water, Nibbána is unsoiled by
the defilements.
“Like water, it cools the fever of defilements and quenches
the thirst of craving.
“Like medicine, it protects beings who are poisoned by the
defilements, cures the disease of suffering, and nourishes like
nectar.
“As the ocean is empty of corpses, Nibbána is empty of all
defilements; as the ocean is not increased by all the rivers that
flow into it, so Nibbána is not increased by all the beings who
attain it; it is the abode of great beings [the arahants] in whom
the great evils and all stains have been destroyed, endowed
with power, masters of themselves, and it is all in blossom as it
were, with the innumerable and various fine flowers of the
ripple of its waves, so is Nibbána all in blossom, as it were, with
innumerable and fine flowers of purity, knowledge and
freedom.
“Like food which sustains life, Nibbána drives away old age
and death; it increases the spiritual strength of beings; it gives
the beauty of virtue, it removes the distress of the defilements, it
drives out the exhaustion of all sufferings.
“Like space, it is not born, does not decay or perish, it does
not pass away here and arise elsewhere, it is invincible, thieves
cannot steal it, it is not attached to anything, it is the sphere of
noble ones (ariya) who are like birds in space, it is unobstructed
and it is infinite.
“Like a wish-fulfilling gem, it fulfils all desires, causes
delight and is lustrous.
“Like red sandalwood, it is hard to get, its fragrance is
incomparable and it is praised by good men.
“As ghee is recognizable by its special attributes, so Nibbána
has special attributes; as ghee has a sweet fragrance, Nibbána
has the sweet fragrance of virtue; as ghee has a delicious taste,
Nibbána has the delicious taste of freedom.
“Like a mountain peak, it is very high, immovable,

inaccessible to the defilements, it has no place where defilements
can grow, and it is without favouritism or prejudice.”
“Excellent, Nágasena, that is so and I accept it as you say.”
(Mil 317–323)
The positive aspect of Nibbána implies, however, the complete
fulfilment of three cardinal virtues, viz., generosity (dána), loving-
kindness (mettá) and wisdom (paññá); together with the utter
abandonment of the ten fetters (dasa saíyojana): wrong belief in a self
(sakkáyadiþþhi), doubt (vicikicchá), belief in and perverse adherence to
rites and ritual (sìlabbataparámása), sense desire (kámarága), ill-will
(vyápáda), the craving for material states of being (rúparága), the
craving for non-material states of being (arúparága), conceit (mána),
restlessness (uddhacca kukkucca) and ignorance (avijjá).
A purely intellectual comprehension of Nibbána by individuals
like us is not possible because it is not within the scope of logic
(atakkávacara). However, one can argue with logical consistency,
after reflecting on the positive and negative aspects of life that if
there exists ill, there must also exist an opposite state. The only way
to comprehend Nibbána is to attain the state of a developed mind
and realisation by following the Noble Eightfold Path with
knowledge, earnestness, industry and perseverance. Any attempt to
comprehend it prior to such realisation may be likened to someone
attempting to understand the taste of sugar without actually tasting
it or the labour pains at child-birth by one who has never gone
through that experience.
3. Without mundane comparison

To say that there is no Nibbána or that it is nothingness, simply
because one cannot perceive it through one’s senses, is as illogical as
to maintain that light cannot exist because the blind cannot see.
The following fable illustrates the incomprehensibility of
Nibbána by worldlings (puthujjana).
Once upon a time there lived a fish and a turtle who were
friends. The fish having lived all his life in the water knew nothing
whatever about anything else. One day, as the fish was swimming
in the water, he met his friend the turtle, who had just returned
from an excursion on dry land. On being told this, the fish said, “On
dry land! What do you mean by ‘dry land’? I have never seen such a
NIBBÁNA 249
thing—‘dry land’ is nothing!”

“Well,” said the turtle, “you are at liberty to think so, but that is
where I’ve been all the same.”
“Oh, come” said the fish, “try to talk sense. Just tell me, what is
this ‘land’ of yours like? Is it wet?”
“No, it is not wet,” said the turtle.
“Is it nicely fresh and cool?” asked the fish.
“No, it is not fresh and cool” replied the turtle.
“Is it clear, so that light can come through it?”
“No, it’s not clear. Light can’t come through it.”
“Is it soft and yielding, so that I can move my fins about in it
and push my nose through it?”
“No, it is not soft and yielding. You cannot swim in it.”
“Does it move or flow in streams? Does it ever rise up into
waves with white foam on them?” asked the fish, becoming rather
impatient at the string of “No’s.”
“No,” replied the turtle, “it never rises up into waves.”
The fish then asked, “If the land is not a single one of these
things, what else is it but nothing?”
“Well,” said the turtle, “if you are determined to think that ‘dry
land’ is nothing, I cannot help you. But anyone who knows what is
water and what is land would say you were a silly fish for you think
that anything you have never known is nothing because you have
never known it.”
This fable shows that neither the turtle who was acquainted
with both land and water could explain to the fish the real nature of
land, nor could the fish understand what the land was, being
acquainted only with water. In the same way, arahants, who are
acquainted with both the mundane and supramundane states,
cannot explain the supramundane to a worldling using mundane
terms, nor can a worldling understand the supramundane merely
with mundane knowledge. Hence, although in our vocabulary there
are found words to describe mundane objects, for Nibbána, being of
a supramundane nature, no adequate comparison can possibly exist
for it.
4. Characteristics and qualities of Nibbána

Although Nibbána is devoid of dukkha, it is not devoid of sukha,
‘happiness’ or ‘ease’. However, it should be clearly understood that
there are two kinds of happiness. First there is the kind derived
from sensual pleasures (vedayita), which may arise from an
enchanting sight, captivating sound, enticing smell, delicious taste,
pleasant touch or fascinating thought; in other words the
satisfaction derived from food, clothes, money, etc. and from
association with close friends. “I proclaim that everything
experienced by the senses is dukkha” the Buddha said to disciples
like Udáyi. The other kind of happiness is that derived from
emancipation (vimutti) or from release from an unpleasant
experience. This occurs when one ceases to suffer from an existing
ailment or is relieved from future suffering and, comparable to this
is the happiness of Nibbána.
Before we try to understand the nature of Nibbánic bliss, we
must realise what constitutes vimutti, emancipation or happiness
derived from release, in this very life. When, for example, one
suffers from toothache, the feeling of pain registers in one’s mind.
When this ache is over, the feeling of relief likewise registers, which
one naturally considers as a kind of happiness. However, this
happy feeling would continue only until another such ailment
occurred and in the same way, sensual pleasure or happiness is also
of a temporary nature and, therefore, not of much value. Another
characteristic of sensual pleasure is that one tends to refuse it if in
excess (one can have too much of a good thing), whereas happiness
derived from emancipation is not so. The story goes that a certain
treasurer, guild-master (or alderman, seþþhi) of Rájagaha was
afflicted with a severe headache. Jìvaka, the Buddha’s own
physician, cured him and then asked what reward the treasurer
would give him. “I will give you all my wealth and become your
slave.” (Vin I 273 ff.). If the value of the first kind of happiness is
that a person, if seriously ill, will give all that he has in order to
escape death, it is therefore impossible to conceive of the true value
of happiness connected with the escape or relief from countless
deaths.
Since there is nothing to compare with (anidassana) the exalted
state of Nibbána, one can only get an idea of the nature of bliss there
by reflecting on the unlimited extent of dukkha which one has to
undergo in the countless existences in the cycle of births (saísára).
NIBBÁNA 251
Every being has experienced such dukkha in the past and there is no
conceivable end to dukkha in the future; hence, unless Nibbána is
realised, endless births in various states of being are inevitable. The
extent of bliss in Nibbána is therefore in proportion to the extent of
suffering experienced by living beings—i.e. is a perfect antithesis to
it. Similarly, the safety which Nibbána affords is in perfect antithesis
to the horrors of dukkha, and the comfort it affords to the dangers of
dukkha.
In this saísára without beginning or end,1 there can be no doubt
that each being has enjoyed happiness of various kinds, but all such
pleasant experiences fade in the memory, proving once more that
sensory happiness has no lasting or intrinsic value. Once Nibbána is
realised, however, real and lasting happiness is never lost.
From what has already been said, Nibbána, being the only
unconditioned thing which has not arisen from a cause, may be said
to possess four characteristics, namely:
1. Nissaraóaþþha—Total release from dukkha, or emancipation
from the defilements (kilesa). Outside this state, dukkha is
omnipresent.
2. Vivekaþþha—Void of dukkha and the defilements. Nibbána is
totally unconnected with them; hence, outside this state, there is no
peace, no rest from dukkha. Just as in heat there is no cold, in light no
darkness, so in Nibbána there is no pain.
3. Asaòkhataþþha—Absence of the need for protection or
fostering, producing or repairing. It is only when one is attached to
the aggregates (khandha) that one is forced to put forward effort in
order to protect and feed them and to stave off decay and dissolution
(i.e. death). In Nibbána, however, not being conditioned by any
cause, there is no arising, decay and death, no cause and effect
present. It is a state which represents the opposite of dukkha, as heat is
opposed to cold, or light to darkness.
4. Amataþþha—Eternal. Aggregates produced through kamma
continuously change, hence the fear of death, but in Nibbána there
is eternal security from death.2
Nibbána is also associated with three distinctive qualities:
1. Cf. S II 178–193; S III 149–151; S V 226; Nid II 273; Kv I 29. Quoted in

Chapter 23.
2. For the four characteristics, see Paþis I 110.
1. Dhuva—It is eternal or stable. Everything cosmic or hypercos-

mic belongs to one of two classes: conditioned by cause (saòkhata) or
not conditioned by cause (asaòkhata). Nibbána, by belonging to the
second category, is birthless, deathless and, therefore, eternal.
2. Subha—Desirable. Everything in the universe belongs to the
conditioned-by-cause (saòkhata) category. Every such conditioned
thing, ranging from the smallest particle to the highest being or the
most massive object, is constantly changing without remaining the
same for a second. The rise and fall of nations, the rapid changes a
person undergoes during his lifetime, the transitoriness of mind
and matter all prove the fluctuating and changing nature of life.
Everything that springs from a cause must pass away: this is the
universal law of flux. Therefore, all such things are undesirable and
its opposite, the unconditioned (asaòkhata), must be desirable.
3. Sukha—Happy. What we call happiness is nothing but the
gratification of some sense desire. All such desires are insatiable
and the resulting happiness fleeting in nature. That which is
transient cannot be real happiness, but the happiness of Nibbána
grows neither stale nor monotonous, nor is it ever lost; therefore it is
termed a ‘happy state.’
The nature of our life can be aptly illustrated by the following
allegory contained in a Sinhalese verse which is presumably based
on a famous Jain parable:
“Being hotly pursued by an elephant in a forest, a man runs for
his life through the forest paths. He comes across a deep pit
with creepers hanging down. Clinging to one of them, he
descends some distance down the creeper for refuge. He looks
down to the bottom of the pit and sees deadly snakes there;
raising his eyes upwards, he notices the elephant with upraised
trunk waiting threateningly for him. Then he looks around the
pit and sees two mice, one black and one white, engaged in
ceaseless gnawing at the creeper he is clinging to. Meanwhile,
he observes that drops of honey are falling on his body from a
beehive that is hanging above him. Notwithstanding the
dangers he is beset with at that moment, he holds his mouth
open, and enjoys the honey.”1
Herein, the forest is saísára, the creeper is rebirth, the elephant is
death, the snakes are old age, disease etc., and the two mice are night
NIBBÁNA 253
and day, while the drops of honey are the fleeting sensual pleasures
of life.
While defining Nibbána in his Abhidhammattha-saògaha, Anu-
ruddha says:
“Nibbána, which is reckoned as beyond the world and therefore
a transcendental and supramundane (lokuttara) state, is to be
realised through the knowledge belonging to the Four Paths
(catumaggañáóa). It is the object of those Paths and their Fruits
(i.e. Path and Fruition cognition). It is called Nibbána in that it is
separated from (nikkhantattá) craving (taóhá) which is called
vána.”1
Here are those supramundane Paths (magga) and Fruitions
(phala) which are realised by Noble Ones (ariya puggala) one after
another, consisting of four pairs:
1. The path of Stream-entry (sotápatti) and its fruition.
2. The path of Once-return (sakadágámi) and its fruition.
3. The path of Non-return (anágámi) and its fruition.
4. The path of Perfection (arahatta) and its fruition.
‘Path’ (magga) is a mere designation for the moment of realising
the four stages produced by intuition or insight (vipassaná).
‘Fruition’ (phala) means those moments of consciousness which
follow immediately thereafter as a result of the path.
1. Through the first path, one becomes free from three fetters
(saíyojana) which bind beings to existence in the sensory
sphere, viz., i) personality belief, ii) doubt, and iii) perverse
adherence to rites and rituals.
2. Through the second path, one weakens the fourth and fifth
fetters, viz., iv) sense desire, and v) ill-will.
3. Through the third path, one becomes fully free from the
fourth and fifth fetters.
1. Samaráicca-kahá, ii, ed. H. Jacobi in Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta, 1926, pp.

55–80; see The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths, ed. R.C. Zaehner (q.v.
article on Jainism by A L. Basham), Boston, 1967, p. 265; Mahábhárata 11, 5.
For other versions of this parable, particularly Chinese, see Vikn pp. 36–37
n. 27.
1. Abhidhammatthasaògaha, ed. T.W. Rhys Davids, Journal of the Pali Text
Society, London 1884; Paþis vi.14; Compendium of Philosophy, p. 168.
4. Through the fourth path, one becomes free from the five
remaining fetters, vi) craving for material existence, vii)
craving for non-material existence, viii) conceit, ix)
restlessness and x) ignorance.
5. Two kinds of Nibbána

All phenomena in the universe are differentiated as either internal or
external, distant or near, high or low, base or exalted. Conditioned
by a variety of causes, such phenomena constantly change their
nature and, as we have already seen, do not remain fixed or
unaltered for two consecutive moments; therefore, they contain
within them the seeds of their own dissolution and insubstantiality.
The state of Nibbána, however, being outside the concepts of time
and space cannot be included in the above category.
Just as those with eyesight can see the moon, so those who have
attained to one or other of the four paths of sanctity can perceive
Nibbána with the eye of wisdom. Just as the blind cannot see the
moon, so those who never practise sìla or samádhi or acquire paññá
can never hope to perceive Nibbána. Short of the realisation,
however, a wise worldling (puthujjana) might appreciate the
significance of Nibbána by unravelling the underlying truths of
impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and non-self (anicca, dukkha,
anattá).
Nibbána, therefore, is the objective of the four paths and fruits
thereof and it stands to reason, that without Nibbána, these fruits
can never be attained.
Pointing out the existence and character of Nibbána, the
Buddha says:
“Monks, there is a state which is neither earth, nor water, nor
heat, nor air, neither infinity of space nor infinity of
consciousness, nor nothingness, nor perception, nor non-
perception, nor this world nor that world. That, monks, I call
neither coming nor going, nor standing; neither death nor birth. It
is without establishment, without procession, without a basis,
that is the end of unhappiness, Nibbána.”
“Monks, there is an unborn, unoriginated, unmade,
unformed. Were there not such a state, there would be no
escape from what is born, originated, made, formed. Since,
NIBBÁNA 255
monks, there is such a state, there is an escape from the born,

originated, made and formed.” (Ud 80 f.)
In the biographies of the great disciples of the Buddha, like
Sáriputta, Moggallána, etc., we have convincing proof of their attain-
ment. If there is no Nibbána, the four paths and fruitions would be
unattainable stages. But those who attained to those stages categori-
cally mentioned that they enjoyed the bliss of Nibbána.
Nibbána is, in its nature, single, but for the purpose of logical
treatment (káraóapariyáyena) there are two aspects of Nibbána:
1. Sopádisesanibbána—i.e. Nibbána with the aggregates of
existence1 still remaining (sa = with, + upádi = material substrata, +
sesa = remaining). This is also called kilesanibbána, i.e. Nibbána with
the extinction of the defilements (kilesa) such as greed, hate,
delusion etc. In other words, one has attained to Nibbána with the
still remaining stuff of life; the substratum, basis or nexus of the five
aggregates. This is the Nibbána attained by individuals who, having
annihilated all kammas, fetters, torments, and the three roots of evil,
are still living.
2. Anupádisesanibbána—i.e. Nibbána without the aggregates
remaining (an = without, + upádisesa). This is the state of Nibbána
attained by Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas and arahants on their death,
or, more accurately, on their parinibbána. This is also called
khandhaparinibbána, i.e. Nibbána with the extinction of the
aggregates. It connotes that there is no further continuity of this
psycho-physical process of existence.
As the Buddha says,
“O monks, there are two elements of Nibbána. What are they?
Nibbána with the residue of the aggregates and Nibbána
without the residue of the aggregates.” (It 38)
Commenting on Nágárjuna’s Mádhyamikavºtti, Candrakìrti
defines the two-fold Nibbána in his Prasannapadá as follows:
“(The first) of them is conceived as something attainable by
complete deliverance (prahána) from the whole catalogue of
defiling elements (kleøagaóa), e.g. illusion (of personal identity,
avidyá), desire (rágádi), etc. A substratum is what underlies (all
these defiling agencies), it is (the inveterate instinct) of cherishing
1. Viz. form, feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness.

one’s own life (átmasneha). The term ‘residual substratum’ thus

refers to that foundation of our belief in personal identity
(átmaprajñapti) which is represented by the ultimate elements of
mundane existence (upádána-skandáh = sarvadharmáý), which are
systemised in five different groups. A residue is what is left. A
substratum is left (in a partial nirváóa).
What is the thing (in which there is still a residue of personal
feeling)? It is nirváóa. It is a residue consisting of pure elements
of existence alone (skandhamátrakameva), delivered from the
illusion of an abiding personality (satkáyadºåþi) and other
stealthy defilers (kleøataskara), a state comparable to that of a
town in which all criminal gangs have been executed. This is
nirváóa at lifetime with some residue (of personal feeling).
A nirváóa in which even these purified elements themselves
are absent is termed (final nirváóa) a nirváóa without any
residue (of personal feelings), because of the idea that here
(nirupadhiøeåa) the residue (of personal feeling) is gone (it is
impersonal). It is a state comparable to that of a destroyed town,
a town, which, after all the criminal gangs have been executed,
has itself also been annihilated.”1
In addition to the above, there are three further characteristics of
Nibbána:
1. Øúnyatá (voidness, emptiness)—All conditioned things are
conducive to dukkha. Because one is generally unaware of this fact,
one is prevented from gaining ultimate peace of mind. Hence,
Nibbána is devoid of conditioned things.
2. Animitta (signlessness)—All conditioned things are associated
with signs, objects, concepts and the like and such hallucinations,
erroneous views, perceptions and ideas come about when one
regards, for example, impermanent objects as permanent or of
unchanging quality. Hence Nibbána is devoid of all such signs and
hallucinations.
3. Appaóihita (desirelessness)—All conditioned things are
associated with hopes, wishes and desires which results, inevitably,
in frustration, sorrow, ill, misery. Hence, Nibbána, which is devoid
of all such factors, is regarded as a state of absolute contentment,
literally neither hankered after nor longed for.
1. Stcherbatsky, Conception of Buddhist Nirváóa, Leningrad, 1927, p. 183f.

NIBBÁNA 257
6. Means to know Nibbána

One is only able to obtain a valid knowledge of Nibbána in one or
other of the four proximate means (pramáóa).
1. Perception (pratyakåa).—Nibbána can be ascertained by
actual realisation of it through the attainment of the paths and
fruitions. Albeit it is beyond the capacity of science to prove the
existence of non-materiality, transiency is easily proven and should
therefore be regarded as a state to which one should not become
attached. In this connection, worldly happiness, as has been shown,
usually means the gratification of the senses: we long for name,
fame, wealth, power, even though we court the risk of becoming
objects of hatred or jealousy. Worldly happiness, therefore, is all too
often a prelude to pain in some form or another, but since Nibbána
is over and above all this, the latter is considered as a calming, never
fluctuating state.
When the three roots of greed, hatred and delusion are even
temporarily suppressed, true happiness results.1 When the five
hindrances (pañca nìvaraóa) viz: sense desire (kámacchanda), ill-will
(vyápáda), sloth and torpor (thìnamiddha), restlessness (uddhacca-
kukkucca), and doubt (vicikicchá) are eliminated, then jhánic states (of
meditative absorption) are easily developed. Further, insight
(vipassaná) is developed resulting in the realisation of Nibbána. In
short, on eliminating craving (taóhá), one will attain to one’s
cherished goal that is the certain assurance provided by perception
(pratyakåa).
2. The inference which is intended for oneself (svárthá-
numána).—The cause is inferred from its effect. It is quite legitimate to
deduce the presence of one form from the presence of another. For
example, if one commits an unskilful or unwholesome act (akus-
alakamma) one would surely be subject to unwholesome results, and
vice versa in the case of a wholesome act. Both Noble Truths—first
and second—unhappiness (dukkha) and its arising (samudaya) as crav-
ing (taóhá) are certain and visible to us without a shadow of doubt. It
is therefore quite legitimate to deduce that the remaining two
truths—the cessation of unhappiness (Nibbána) and the way leading
to the cessation of unhappiness are also just as certain.
3. The syllogism intended for the sake of others (parárthá-
numána).—This process of logical reasoning is a simple inference; on
1. Vin I 34: Kena ádittaí rágagginá, dosagginá, mohagginá ádittaí.

the analogy of the perceptible truth, imperceptible things are also

considered as true facts. Through this, one can reason out and come
to the logical conclusion that Nibbána exists. This proximate means
(pramáóa) was employed by the Bodhisattva Sumedha who contem-
plated thus:
“Even as, although there dukkha is,
Yet happiness is also found,
So, though indeed existence is,
A non-existence should be sought.
“Even as, although there may be heat,
Yet grateful cold is also found,
So, although the threefold fire exists,
Likewise Nibbána should be sought.
“Even as, although there evil is,
That which is good is also found,
So, though ‘tis true that birth exists,
That which is not birth should be sought.”1
4. Verbal testimony (ágama).—This is the reliable testimony of
worthy persons who had attained Nibbána and experienced it.
Their words, giving expression to the bliss of Nibbána, have been
recorded authoritatively in the Tipiþaka—the Buddhist Canon. One
can, therefore, accept the reality of Nibbána on the validity of this
corpus and become acquainted with this sublime state by accepting
the evidence furnished by such references in the Buddhist texts like
Theragáthá and Therigáthá.2
7. Where is Nibbána and who attains it?

Two questions which are often asked should perhaps be briefly
answered. They are: 1) Where is Nibbána? and 2) Who attains it?
Just as a fire when it goes out or a wind which stops blowing
cannot be said to be stored up somewhere else, so also Nibbána
cannot be said to occupy any geographical region but is only realised
1. J-a I 4, Bv 7; translation adapted from Buddhism in Translations by

Henry Clarke Warren, Harvard, 1947, p. 6.
2. Psalms of the Early Buddhists, verses tr. Mrs C.A.F. Rhys Davids, The
Sisters, 1909 and The Brethren, 2nd ed. 1937, PTS; Elders’ Verses, prose tr.
K.R. Norman, Vol. I 1969, Vol. II 1971, PTS.
NIBBÁNA 259
on fulfilling certain conditions. In the Milindapañhá, Venerable

Nágasena answers this question in the following words, “There is no
spot looking east, south, west or north, above, below or beyond,
where Nibbána is situated, and yet Nibbána is: he who orders his life
aright, grounded in virtue and with rational attention may realise it,
whether he lives in Greece, China, Alexandria or in Kosala.” (Mil
326ff.)
As a fire which goes out due to lack of fuel, so also the so-called
individuality is extinguished due to the absence of the rebirth-
producing factor of craving. Hence, no ‘I’ or ‘being’ attains Nibbána,
there is simply realisation. This ‘personality’ composed of mind and
matter (náma-rúpa) in reality is not a ‘being’ but a becoming. The
‘being’ is thus a ceaseless flux of mind and matter. As there is
neither a permanent ego (attá) nor identical being, it goes without
saying that there can be no ‘I’ or ‘being’ in Nibbána.
The Buddha said, “Nibbána is the highest happiness.” (Dhp
204). This constitutes the absolute cessation of all conditioned
phenomena (saòkhára). This fact is quite clear in the Buddha’s
explanation of the third Noble Truth:
“Now this, O monks, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of
dukkha. It is the cessation without remainder of craving (taóhá),
the forsaking of it (paþinissaggo), release from it (mutti), non-
attachment to it (análayo).” (Vin I 10; M I 49, 299; M III 251, etc.)
Although attempts have been made to define this exalted state,
it is surely to be realised within oneself, rather than talked about as
it is “not within the scope of logic”, being a supramundane state.
King Milinda questioned, “Venerable Nágasena, things produced of
kamma, cause and season are to be seen. Tell me what in the world
is born neither of kamma, nor of cause nor of season?”
“These two, sire, in the world are born neither of kamma, nor of
cause nor of season—space and Nibbána.”
“Do not, Venerable Nágasena, corrupt the Conqueror’s words
and answer the question wrongly!”
“What did I say, sire, that you speak thus to me?”
“Venerable Nágasena, what you said is true of space, but with
many a hundred reasons did the Lord point out a way to the
realisation of Nibbána—and yet you speak thus, ‘Nibbána is not born
of a cause’.”
“It is true, sire, that with many a hundred reasons did the Lord
point out a way to the realisation of Nibbána; but he did not point
out a cause for the production of Nibbána.”
“Here we, Venerable Nágasena, are entering from twilight into
pitch darkness; from a jungle into a thicket; in as much as there is a
cause for the realisation of Nibbána but no cause for its production.
If, Venerable Nágasena, there is a cause for the realisation of
Nibbána one would also require a cause for the production of it. For
as there is a child’s father, for that reason we would also require a
father of the father. Because there is a top of a tree, for this reason
there is also a middle and a root. Even so, Venerable Nágasena, if
there is a cause for the realisation of Nibbána we would also require
a cause for the production of Nibbána.”
“Nibbána, sire, is not produced; therefore, a cause for its
production has not been pointed out.”
“Please, Venerable Nágasena, convince me by means of a
reason, so that I may know there is a cause for the realisation of
Nibbána but no cause for its production.”
“Well then, sire, attend carefully and I will tell the reason for
this. Would a man, sire, with his natural strength be able to go from
here up a high Himalayan mountain?”
“Yes, Venerable Nágasena, he would.”
“But would that man, sire, with his natural strength be able to
bring a high Himalayan mountain here?”
“Certainly not, venerable sir.”
“Even so, sire, it is possible to point out a way for the realisation
of Nibbána but impossible to show a cause for the production of
Nibbána. For what reason? It is because of the uncompounded
nature of the thing.”
“Venerable Nágasena, is Nibbána uncompounded?”
“Yes, sire, Nibbána is uncompounded. It is made by nothing at
all. Sire, one cannot say of Nibbána that it arises or that it does not
arise; or that it is to be produced or that it is past or present or
future; or that it is cognizable by the eye, ear, nose, tongue or body.”
“If that is so, venerable sir, then there is no Nibbána.”
“Nibbána is, sire; for Nibbána is cognizable by the mind. A
noble disciple, faring along rightly with a mind that is purified,
lofty, without obstructions, without temporal desires, can see
Nibbána.”
NIBBÁNA 261
“But what, venerable sir, is that Nibbána like that can be

illustrated by similes? Convince me with reasons according to
which a thing that is can be illustrated by similes.”
“Is there, sire, such a thing as the wind?”
“Yes, venerable sir.”
“Please, sire, show the wind by its colour or configuration or as
thick or thin; long or short.”
“But it is not possible, venerable sir, for the wind to be shown;
for the wind cannot be grasped in the hand or touched; but yet there
is the wind.”
“If sire, it is not possible to show what the wind is; is there then
no wind?”
“I, venerable sir, know that there is wind, I am convinced of it,
but I am not able to show the wind.”
“Even so, sire, Nibbána is, but it is not possible to show Nibbána
by its colour or configuration.”
“Very good, Venerable Nágasena, well shown is the simile, well
seen the reason; thus it is and I accept it as you say; there is
Nibbána.
8. The way to realize Nibbána

Nirváóa (Skt.) or Nibbána (Pali) means literally, “That which is
blown asunder”; ‘That’ comprising the three evil roots of greed,
hate and delusion.
The wanderer Jambukhádaka spoke thus to the Venerable
Sáriputta; “Venerable sir, it is said, ‘Nibbána’; now what venerable
sir is Nibbána?”
“Whatever, your reverence, is the extinction of passion, of
aversion, of confusion; that is called Nibbána.”
“Is there a way, venerable sir, for the realisation of this
Nibbána?”
“There is, your reverence. This Noble Eightfold Path itself is for
the realisation of Nibbána, that is to say, Right View, Right Thought,
Right Speech, Right Action, Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. But for certain it needs
diligence.”
“Excellent, venerable sir, is the Way; excellent the course for the
realisation of Nibbána. But for certain it needs diligence.” (S IV 251,
252.)
It is essentially craving that has to be discontinued, resulting in

the attainment of Nibbána. The Buddha said, “It is called Nibbána
because of the getting rid of craving.” (S I 39) And again, “As to this,
Ánanda, he perceives thus; ‘This is the real, this the excellent,
namely the calming of all the mental formations, the casting out of
all biases (ásava), the extinction of craving, dispassion, cessation,
Nibbána’.” (A V 322)
By way of a simile, so long as the electric current is operating, so
long will the fan move; hence, when desire ceases, life ceases. But it
is absurd to ask what happens to someone upon his attainment of
parinibbána (i.e. in the case of an arahant who dies), as it is to ask
what happens to the movement of the fan after the current has been
switched off! This again, reminds one of the comparison with the
extinguished flame of a lamp (see § I above).
This goal of Buddhism corresponds to ‘salvation’ except that the
former is not attained through the agency of another or outside
being but solely through one’s own efforts. What happens to an
arahant on death? It cannot be stressed strongly enough that he is
not annihilated, which opponents put forward as the only logical
answer. The argument devolves around the Buddhist view of the
self; no part of the individual can possible be identified with a self
or soul; hence, one cannot speak of the annihilation of the latter. In
the West, however, many follow the theories of Plato and maintain
that the soul is synonymous with consciousness, and that it is this
that is immutable and immortal. This view, which is denied by
Buddhism, is very much akin to the Hindu átman theory.
Nibbána is a permanent state and to be experienced only by
those who have attained thereto ... to the question, “Is there any
consciousness in Nibbána?” the reply comes back, “Nothing else
but the bliss of Nibbána.” This is the ultimate state and there is
nothing beyond it. Referring to the parinibbána of an arahant, the
Buddha said, “That monk of wisdom here, devoid of desire and
passion, attains to deathlessness, peace, the unchanging state of
Nibbána.
Dispassion is called the way to the passionless state of Nibbána.
It is said, “Through dispassion one is freed.” Yet, in meaning, all
these words—cessation, renunciation, surrender, release, lack of
clinging—are synonyms for Nibbána. For according to ultimate
meaning, Nibbána is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering.
But because, when Nibbána is reached; craving detaches itself and
ceases, there is renunciation and there does not remain even one
NIBBÁNA 263
sensory pleasure that is clung to; it is, therefore, called cessation,

renunciation, surrender, release, lack of clinging. Its distinguishing
mark is peace; its flavour is unchangeable or is a means of
comforting; its manifestation is the signless or is unimpeded. (See
Vism XVI.66/p. 507.)
9. Buddhaghosa’s Catechism
Dispelling the misunderstanding of those who accuse Buddhism of
being nihilistic, Buddhaghosa examines and elucidates Nibbána by
means of a catechism in his Visuddhimagga:1
Q: Could it be said, “Indeed, there is not Nibbána. It is like the horn
of a hare; it is not to be got at”?
A: No, this could not be said, for it is apprehensible by a certain
means. It is apprehensible by means of attainments suitable to it, as
the worldly thoughts of others are apprehensible by such cognition
as encompasses the mind. Therefore it should not be said, “Because
it is not apprehensible by ordinary means it does not exist”, any
more than it should be said that the knowledge of the worldly
thoughts of others does not exist because it is not apprehensible by
the ordinary person.
Moreover, it should not be said that Nibbána is not because the
practice of Dhamma is not barren. For if Nibbána were not, there
would be barrenness in regard to spiritual attainment in the three
categories of moral habit, concentration and wisdom. But due to the
attainment of Nibbána there is not this barrenness.
Q: But according to what was said, beginning, “Whatever, your
reverence, is the extinction of greed, hate and delusion” (S IV
251)—it might be asked, “Is Nibbána extinction?”
A: No, because it would follow that arahantship also, was mere
extinction, shown by such expressions as that just cited.
Furthermore, if Nibbána were of short duration and so on, it
would be stained. Were this the case, one might conclude that
Nibbána, short in duration, with ‘compounded’ as its distinguishing
mark, would be attainable without any need for Right Effort.
1. Vism 507–509.
Q: If, after extinction, there is no further procedure, is not that a

stain on the existence of Nibbána?
A: No, for extinction such as this does not exist. Even had it
existed, it could not have transcended the stains we have spoken of.
And belonging to the Noble Way is the finding of the existence of
Nibbána. For the Noble Way extinguishes stains, and is, therefore,
called extinction. Further than that there is no procedure for stains. It
is called ‘Extinction’ because in a broad sense it is the sufficing
condition of the extinction which is called stopping without rebirth.”
Q: Why is it not called this explicitly?
A: Because of its extreme subtlety. Its extreme subtlety is
successful in bringing unconcernedness to the Buddha and in being
seen through noble vision and because a Noble One’s eye is needed
to see it (M I 510).
This Nibbána is attainable by one possessed of the Way, is not
shared by all and from having no earliest beginning, is without a
source.
Q: But if it exists due to the existence of the Way, is it truly not
without source?
A: No, because it cannot be produced by means of the Way. It is
only attainable by means of the Way. Therefore it is precisely
without source. Because it is without source it is unageing and
undying. Because there is no source, no ageing or dying, it is
permanent.
Because it transcends material shape, it is without material
shape—formless and immaterial. The Buddha’s goal has no
plurality. There is only one goal. Attained by someone through
mind development, it is called Nibbána with the groups of existence
still remaining. For here, although defilements are allayed, some
groups of existence still remain and grasping is still evident. But he
who, by getting rid of its arising, and with the last thought of the
fruit of kamma extinguished, from the non-arising of the
‘procedure’ groups of grasping and from the disappearance of those
that have arisen—for him there is then the absence of the groups of
existence. And for him, now without the groups of existence
remaining it can be laid down; ‘Here there is not a group of
existence remaining’.
NIBBÁNA 265
Because it is attainable by means of special cognition perfected

by unfailing effort, because it was spoken of by the Omniscient One,
because it has existence in the ultimate meaning, Nibbána is not
‘non-existence’. So this was said: “There is, monks, an unborn, not
become, not made, uncompounded.” (It 37; Ud 80).
Thus the total extinction of the conditions of being as well as
that of the ásavas represents the Nibbána without remainder, the
complete and perfect freedom, the highest bliss. 1
1. This article, which was the Sir Baron Jayatilaka Memorial Lecture, of
1981 was published by the British Mahabodhi Society in 1984.
Chapter 37
THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL
Everyone in the world desires to attain everlasting happiness.

According to Buddhism the only kind of happiness that is
everlasting is the goal of Nibbána: a word perhaps better known in
its Sanskrit form of Nirváóa. The Buddha said, “Nibbána is the
highest happiness”. Hence the highest aim of the Buddhist is the
attainment of it. Nibbána is to be realised within oneself and by
oneself in one of three ways, viz: 1) by attaining sávakabodhi or
arahantship, 2) by attaining paccekabodhi or 3) by attaining
sammásambodhi.
Sávakabodhi refers to the enlightenment of the arahant who has
attained Nibbána by treading the path pointed out by a
Sammásambuddha. For this reason it is known as the enlightenment
of a disciple (sávaka, Sanskrit: ørávaka). When sávakas have
comprehended the truth they are expected to follow the example of
the Buddha and preach the Dharma for the benefit of others. The
Buddha exhorted his disciples to wander forth and preach the
Dharma for the well-being and happiness of the people. In
accordance with this exhortation of the Buddha; the elders preached
and taught the sublime teaching for the welfare and liberation of
humanity since the time of the Buddha. The Buddha said:
“Let one first establish oneself in what is proper and then instruct
others. Such a wise man will not be defiled. As he instructs
others, so should he himself act. Himself fully controlled, he should
control others; for oneself, indeed, is difficult to control.”
(Dhp 158, 159)
“For the sake of the other’s welfare, however great, let one not
neglect one’s own welfare.” (Dhp 166)
The elders who preferred to preach chose to study the Dharma
(gantha-dhura) and those who preferred the contemplative life
retired to the forest and led an exemplary life, practising meditation
(vipassaná-dhura). Such elders’ preaching and guidance has been
and still is of enormous benefit to the people. It is, therefore, quite
obvious that the monastic order of the Theravádins is not inactive
THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL 267
and indolent. Arahantship is only achieved by eradicating all forms

of selfishness. Egoism or personality-belief is one of the ten fetters
that has to be discarded for the attainment of arahantship and in the
noble ideal of that attainment there is no selfishness. Innumerable
wise men and women who benefited by the golden opportunity
offered by the Buddha and other saintly persons gained their
enlightenment in one life-time.
Paccekabodhi is the independent enlightenment of a highly
evolved being who achieves his goal by his own efforts, i.e. without
seeking the guidance of an enlightened instructor. He attains to the
perfect insight but passes away without proclaiming the truth to the
world. Although he attains enlightenment for himself, he doesn’t
possess the gift of enlightening others. But they, too, benefit others
by inspiring them with their supreme example of renunciation and
virtuous living.
Sammásambodhi refers to the supreme enlightenment of a
Buddha or Fully Enlightened One. He who attains this bodhi is
called sammásambuddha (or samyaksambuddha in Sanskrit). Only one
supreme Buddha arises at a particular time. He who aspires to
attain sammásambodhi is called a bodhisatta (or bodhisattva in
Sanskrit). Bodhi means wisdom or enlightenment; satta means
sentient being. Bodhisattva, therefore, means one who is devoted to
wisdom or enlightenment.
There are three yánas (vehicles or ways) which lead an aspirant
to the goal. The third yána was at first called Bodhisattva-yána and
later Maháyána. The other two were together known as Hìnayána.
The word hìna means ‘lower’, ‘inferior’ or ‘lesser’ and mahá means
‘higher’ or ‘greater’. 1 Although there is a yána of the paccekabuddhas,
they do not need a vehicle for their solitary career to enlightenment.
A bodhisattva strives to become a Buddha by attaining perfect bodhi
whilst an arahant is content with the attainment of Nibbána.
A bodhisattva preaches the doctrine dealing with perfections
(páramitá). He has taken the great vow, “I shall not enter into final
Nirváóa before all beings have been liberated”. The Maháyána has
1. The term hìnayána is to be avoided since it was a term that was used by
some Maháyánists to derogate the practices of early Buddhist schools,
which never used it themselves. A preferable terms is ørávakayána, “vehicle
of disciples”, or “ørávaka schools” or “early schools.” See The Bodhisattva
Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Maháyána, edited by Bhikkhu Nyanatusita,
Kandy 2013: 32ff., 75ff. (BPS editor.)
preached the ideal of compassionate Buddhahood for all. The

Saddharmapuóðarika sútra clearly teaches this gospel; “All shall
become Buddhas.” The word bodhisatta is very old and occurs in the
Pali Nikáyas when Gotama Buddha speaks of himself as a bodhisatta
with reference to the period before his enlightenment. The term
bodhisatta is used by him when referring to his previous lives as in
the Játaka stories. In both the Maháyána and Theraváda, great
wisdom (maháprajñá) and great compassion (mahákaruóá) are
regarded as equally important.
A bodhisattva’s career was said to commence with the
production of the thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta). He thus
thought of becoming a Buddha for the welfare and liberation of all
beings, made certain vows, and his future greatness was predicted
by a living Buddha. These three events marked the development of
an ordinary person into a bodhisattva. Later, the Buddhist
philosophers introduced a kind of novitiate of faith, worship,
prayer, aspiration and devotion as necessary antecedents that
should lead to the arising of bodhicitta. Øántideva speaks on the
bodhisattva ideal in the first person as follows:
“May I be an inexhaustible treasure for poor creatures! May I be
foremost in rendering service to them with manifold and various
articles and requisites!
“I renounce my body, my pleasures and all my merit in the
past, present and future so that all beings may attain the good
and accomplish their welfare. I have no desire for these things.
“I have devoted my body for the welfare of all creatures.
They may revile me all the time or bespatter me with mud; they
may play with my body and mock and make sport of me; they
may even slay me. I have given my body to them; why should I
think of all that?
“May I be the protector of the helpless. May I be the guide of
wayfarers!”
The Páramitás or Perfections must be developed by a bodhisattva.
According to the Cariyápiþaka commentary of the Theravádins, the
páramìs are those virtues which are cultivated with great compassion,
guided by reason, uninfluenced by selfishness and unsullied by
misbelief or any feelings of conceit. Param means beyond, i.e. bodhi or
enlightenment. The i means to go. Hence páramì means ‘excellence’.
Other translations of this word are ‘transcendental virtue’, ‘perfect
virtue’, ‘highest perfection’, ‘complete attainment’ etc. The forms
páramì and páramitá occur in both Pali and Sanskrit works. Six
páramitá are discussed in Buddhist Sanskrit works:
1. Dána (generosity) 4. Vìrya (energy)
2. Øìla (morality) 5. Dhyána (absorption)
3. Khanti (patience) 6. Prajñá (wisdom).
The four supplementary páramitá are:
1. Upáya (skilfulness) 9. Bala (strength)
2. Pranidhána (resolution) 10. Jñána (knowledge)
The Theravádins have the following ten páramì:
1. Dána (generosity) 6. Khanti (patience)
2. Sìla (morality) 7. Sacca (truthfulness)
3. Nekkhamma (renunciation) 8. Adhiþþhána (resolution)
4. Paññá (wisdom) 9. Mettá (loving-kindness)
5. Vìriya (energy) 10. Upekkhá (equanimity)
Páramitás confer prosperity and happiness on all beings. They
are sublime, supremely important and imperishable. They lead to
welfare, happy rebirth, serenity, progressive spiritual development,
successful concentration and the highest knowledge. They are free
from the contamination of sensual pleasure, partiality, love of
reward and culpable self-complacency. In fact, they are placed in
this order because they imply one another and form a progressive
scheme of practice. Each páramitá has three degrees:
1. It is ordinary when it is practised by the ordinary worldly
person for the sake of happiness in this life or the next.
2. It is extraordinary when it is cultivated by disciples for the
attainment of nirváóa.
3. It is superlative when it is developed by bodhisattvas for the
welfare and liberation of all beings.
All the páramitás can be cultivated only by means of attentive
thought, resolute purpose, self-mastery and wisdom in the choice of
means. Foolish and vain persons may misuse the páramitás leading
to their downfall as they may be puffed up with pride and
arrogance on account of their false sense of moral superiority.
1. Dána: Generosity
There are three kinds of dána:
1. The gift of wealth or material objects.
2. The gift of religious instruction.
3. The gift of friendliness or security.
The bodhisattva gives away his body, his pleasures and his
merits. The recipients are divided into three categories. Firstly are
his friends and relatives. Secondly, he should bestow gifts on the
poor and sick. Thirdly, he should offer gifts to the monks and
ascetics. Furthermore, the bodhisattva should exercise his discretion
in the choice of gifts. He should not give anything which may be
used to inflict injury on other living beings. He should also refrain
from supplying others with the means to gratify their sensual
appetites and passions. He should not give away poisons, weapons,
intoxicating liquor, drugs, or nets for the capture of animals. He
should not bestow on others land on which animals may be hunted
or killed. He should not give anybody the instruments of suicide or
self-torture. The wealth that he gives must be acquired righteously
and peacefully.
Besides wealth and material objects a bodhisattva should be
ready to sacrifice even his limbs for the sake of others. A
bodhisattva should also know the gracious manner of giving. He
should always be very courteous to the supplicants and receive
them with every mark of respect and deference. He should always
be happy and joyful when he gives something away. The donor
should be even happier than the recipient. He should not talk of his
charitable deeds. He should give quickly with a humble heart. He
should make no distinction between friends and enemies but
should give to all alike. He should not lose his sense of proportion
and measure in his charity. He owes a duty to many living beings
and must not sacrifice himself in vain for an unimportant purpose.
He must combine wisdom and mercy equally.
Buddhist literature abounds in stories, legends and parables of
charitable and self-sacrificing beings. The heroes and heroines of
these stories give away wealth, limbs, life, wife and children in a
spirit of exaggerated and fantastic philanthropy. A bodhisattva
threw himself down a cliff before a starving tigress to prevent her
eating her cubs. In another story a blind priest asks for the gift of an
eye so the bodhisattva gives both eyes and becomes blind himself.
The dána páramitá confers upon the giver the double blessing of
inhibiting selfishness and developing selflessness. A bodhisattva is
not very much concerned as to whether the recipient is truly in need
or not since his main objective is to eliminate the craving that lies
within himself. The joy of service, its attendant happiness and the
alleviation of suffering are other blessings of generosity. He expects
no reward in return, nor even does he crave enhancement of
reputation from it.
2. Sìla: Morality
As a páramitá, sìla has been defined in three ways. It has been
identified with virtue in general, and many other admirable
qualities have been enumerated as its characteristics. It has also
been interpreted in relation to the ideals of purification and restraint
as they are realised with body, speech and mind (deed, word and
thought). It is usually understood as referring to the five moral
precepts which are the Buddhist’s code of ethics. All errors and
wrong views spring from moha (ignorance). Rága (passion) and dveåa
(anger) are enemies of virtue, whilst moha cuts at the root of
wisdom. Sìla is thus rooted in the absence of sensuality and hatred
but its ramifications are many. The overlapping lists of virtues were
reduced to some kind of order in the threefold classification which
was based on the ideal of restraint and self-control (saívara) as
applied to the body, speech and mind. These must be controlled
and disciplined; they must be purified. According to the Buddha’s
teaching, the body can be controlled and purified by abstaining
from the three evil actions; viz., harming living beings, theft and
unchastity. Speech can be controlled and purified by abstaining
from falsehood, slander, harsh or impolite speech, and frivolous or
senseless chatter. The mind can be purified by the avoidance of
covetousness, malevolence and wrong views. In addition to these
ten evil actions to restrain from there are ten meritorious actions to
be cultivated, namely, i) charity, ii) morality, iii) mental culture, iv)
reverence, v) service, vi) transference of merit, vii) rejoicing in
other’s merit, viii) listening to the doctrine, ix) teaching the doctrine,
x) straightening one’s views (see Chapter 17).
Morality consists of duties that one should perform and
abstinences that one should practise. Rightly discerning the law of
kamma, of his own accord he refrains from evils and does good to
the best of his ability.
A bodhisattva disobeyed the command of his Brahmin teacher,

who asked his pupils to steal for his benefit. A king deeply
infatuated with the beautiful wife of one of his officials, refused to
gratify his passion, even though the husband was willing to give up
his wife out of loyalty. Prince Kuóála and Prince Kalyáóakári also
refused to be seduced by passionate women who fell in love with
them (Divyávadána 54).
3. Nekkhamma: Renunciation
This implies both renunciation of worldly life by adopting the
ascetic life and the temporary inhibiting of the hindrances (nìvaraóa)
by attaining jhána. Realising the vanity of fleeting pleasures he
voluntarily leaves his possessions and, donning the simple ascetic
garb, strives to lead the contemplative life in all its purity. He
practises the higher morality to such an extent that he becomes
almost selfless in his actions. No inducement; whether fame, wealth,
honour or gain; could tempt him to do anything against his
principles. He teaches both by word and by example. He is very
strenuous in working for his inner spiritual development but at the
same time caring for the spiritual needs of others. He is no burden
to society because he gives no trouble to any. His needs are few and
contentment is his wealth.
Nekkhamma is not separately mentioned in the Maháyána
literature but is included in the six páramitá as dhyána páramitá. The
word dhyána is defined as concentration and stability or fixing of the
mind (bodhisattva bhúmi). Dhyána is thus primarily and principally
the means of experiencing and attaining serenity and calm (samatha)
which is indeed coupled with mental concentration. A bodhisattva
who begins to practise dhyána must go through a preliminary stage
of preparation which may be said to include renunciation and
solitude, in cultivating the four sublime states (brahmavihára). He
must live as a celibate hermit. Køemendra relates the story of a
couple, who maintained a purely spiritual relationship in married
life, though they could not avoid marriage on account of the
pressure of external circumstances. Maháyána philosophers exalt
monastic celibacy and seclusion, while they consider household life
as an inferior state. A bodhisattva should devote himself to
meditation and self-examination, and also preach occasionally to
the people who may visit him.
4. Paññá: Wisdom
Paññá or prajñá is wisdom or right understanding of the reality of
the world as unstable (anicca), unsatisfactory (dukkha) and soulless
(anattá). Paññá is of three kinds:
1. Wisdom which depends on hearing the teaching of another or
on studying the scriptures (sutamayì paññá). In ancient times when
writing was not in common use, knowledge was passed on by word
of mouth. Hence a learned person was called bahusuta, or one who
has heard much, corresponding to the English word, erudite.
2. Wisdom which arises from thought, reflection, discussion,
experiment and research (cintámayì paññá). Modern knowledge of
psychology is mostly of this kind.
3. Intuitive wisdom which is a realisation founded on personal
practice or mental culture (bhávanámayì paññá). This is a superior
kind of understanding acquired by the practice of meditation or
mental culture (bhávaná). It is by such meditation that one
intuitively realises the truth which is beyond the reach of logical
reasoning. Meditation is not a passive reverie but an energetic
striving. It leads to self-discipline, self-respect and self-knowledge.
Insight into the three characteristics of existence (i.e. impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness, soullessness) is the apex of the practice of
meditation.
5. Vìriya: Energy
The word vìriya derives from vìra, which means vigour, strength,
heroism, fortitude, courage or perseverance. It is mental vigour
rather than physical strength. It is the persistent effort to work for
others both in thought and deed. Firmly establishing himself in this
páramitá the bodhisattva develops self-reliance and makes it one of
his prominent characteristics. Failures he views as steps to success;
opposition causes him to redouble his efforts; dangers increase his
courage. He looks straight towards his goal, nor does he stop to rest
until his goal is reached. Ceaselessly and untiringly he works for
others expecting no reward. It is effort coupled with wisdom that
serves as a powerful hand to achieve all ends.1
A bodhisattva resolutely combats all the great and small evils
and vices that may drag him down. He does not yield to despair as
he knows that all can and shall achieve the goal. He knows that self-
1. Hatthavanagallaviháravaísa, PTS, p. 6: Paññánuyátaí vìriyaí vadanti

sabbattha siddhiggahanaggahathaí.
sacrifice becomes easier with practice. A bodhisattva reflects

carefully before he embarks on an enterprise. But having started it
he carries it through to completion, he does not leave things half-
done. He acts on two great principles; “Equality of self and others”
and “Regard of others before self.”
6. Khanti: Patience
The word khanti or køánti has been rendered as forbearance,
patience, endurance of suffering. Patience is a quality of noble-
minded people. Tolerant of the faults and weaknesses of others, the
noble-minded can see the virtues and strengths in everyone. The
bodhisattva cultivates this virtue to perfection. He forgives all injury,
insult and criticism. Though abused or even beaten he does not
show his annoyance by retaliating. Knowing that the self is illusory
the only pain he feels is the sorrow at the unhappiness of others;
since they are already unhappy, how could he be angry with them
and increase their misery?
One of the most beautiful stories regarding khanti páramitá is that
of Kuóála. Emperor Asoka had a son, named Dhammavìradhara,
whose eyes were beautiful like those of a Himalayan bird called
Kuóála, hence he was known as Kuóála. When he grew to manhood,
his step-mother, Tisyarakøita, fell in love with him and tried to seduce
him but he preached to her the importance of virtue. He thus
incurred her enmity and she resolved to destroy him. Later, Kuóála
was sent to Takøasila in the north in order to quell a rebellion; and
thereafter he remained as a successful ruler. Meanwhile, Asoka fell ill
and Tisyarakøita nursed him back to health. She asked him to be
allowed to exercise royal power for a week and Asoka complied to
show his gratitude. She despatched an order in Asoka’s name to Tak-
saøila commanding Kuóála’s eyes to be put out. The citizens had to
obey the royal decree; Kuóála meekly submitting to the ordeal. He
even took the eyes in his hand and began to philosophize in verse. He
left the town and wandered back to Páþaliputta as a beggar accompa-
nied by his wife Káñcanamálá. The unfortunate couple found refuge
in the royal stable where they were discovered by the palace servants.
When they were taken to the king’s presence the vindictive queen’s
plot was exposed. Asoka was furious with rage and grief and threat-
ened to put her to death with cruel tortures but Kuóála said to the
Emperor, “O king, I am not troubled with pain at all. In spite of the
terrible wrong inflicted on me, there is no burning anger in me. My
heart is full of love for my mother who put out my eyes.”
7. Sacca: Truthfulness
Truthfulness is the most fundamental spiritual quality.
The bodhisattva acts as he speaks; he speaks as he acts. He
speaks the truth and nothing but the truth, and he does so at the
proper time. He is consistent and straightforward in his dealings.
He is no hypocrite since he adheres strictly to his principles.
He does not sow strife and discord in society by uttering
slanderous libels. He does not act as a tale-bearer, repeating to
others what he has heard if it would cause strife. He delights in
harmony and promotes concord wherever he can.
He does not indulge in harsh, bitter, offensive, vulgar or angry
speech. His speech is sweet, polite, gentle, agreeable and dignified.
But he does when necessary speak firmly to restrain foolish people.
He speaks at the proper time and his utterances are always well-
reasoned, relevant and instructive. He always abstains from
frivolous and senseless chatter. He speaks of Dhamma and avoids
worldly talk.
He does not use flattery to win the hearts of others, he does not
exalt himself to win their admiration. He does not hide his defects
to avoid blame. The praiseworthy he praises without envy. The
blameworthy he blames judiciously, not with contempt but with
compassion.
8. Adhiþþhána: Resolution
Without resolution or determination, the other páramìs cannot be
fulfilled. It is compared to the foundations of a building. Will-power
forcefully removes all obstructions from the path, and no matter
what hardships a bodhisattva has to endure he never turns away
from his goal. He is a man of iron determination whose high
principles cannot be shaken. As occasion demands he can be as soft
as a flower or as firm as a rock.
9. Mettá: Loving-kindness
Mettá or maitri may be translated as friendliness, loving-kindness,
universal love or benevolence. It is defined as the wish for the
happiness of all beings without exception. It is characterized by the
desire to do good to others and provide them with what is useful.
Mettá is mentioned and extolled more frequently in the Pali Canon
than karuóá or muditá but they are just different facets of the same
nobility of heart. As a divine abiding or brahmavihára, mettá is
developed through systematic meditation as are the other
brahmaviháras. This practice belongs to the dhyána páramitá of the

Maháyána. The bodhisattva abides pervading the whole universe
with his mind full of mettá, free from any trace of enmity, rivalry or
harmfulness.
10. Upekkhá: Equanimity

The Sanskrit for equanimity; upekåá is derived from ikkhá meaning
to see, view or discern. So the etymological meaning of the term is
discerning rightly, viewing justly or looking impartially, i.e.
without attachment or aversion. Here the term is not used in the
sense of indifference or neutral feeling but is a product of the fourth
of the perfections, intuitive wisdom (prajñá). As a perfection it goes
beyond the avoidance of dualistic distinctions. It is as dynamic a
quality as loving-kindness.
The bodhisattva, as he realises the emptiness of self-nature
(anátman), rises beyond the distinction of self and others. According
to conventional thinking, he now puts the welfare of others before
his own. But in realising his own emptiness, he sees that all share
this emptiness and ultimately are like himself. There are no beings,
there is only becoming that takes form in a myriad ways according
to conditions. Hidden behind all there is only Buddha-nature; there
is only one body, that ‘motivating power’ or ‘ground of ultimate
reality’ known in Maháyána philosophy as the Dharmakáya. The
perfection of equanimity is that the bodhisattva cannot do other
than act as a member of that body of the Dharma in the service of all
its other parts. He is a function of the One whose task is to realise
Oneness wherever it is manifested. The Bodhisattva Vow to save all
beings, to encompass all Dharmas, however manifold, is grounded
upon this final perfection of equanimity and cannot be realised, or
even understood properly, without it.
In order to systematise the teaching and make it more easily
comprehensible, the Buddha-dharma has been reduced to
numerous headings and lists. There are Four Noble Truths; an
Eightfold Path viewed from a threefold aspect; there are seven
Factors of Enlightenment; a twelve-fold chain of Dependent
Origination. There are ten or thirteen stages (according to school) of
Bodhisattvahood; there are six or ten perfections; and so on. There is
nothing sacrosanct about such teaching devices. They represent one
aspect of the supplementary perfection of wisdom of means (upáya).
Those who practise the Buddhist Way know that it is a dynamic
whole whose parts simply do not exist in isolation. The perfection of
equanimity extends from the simplest insight into the practice to the
highest realisation of Ultimate Reality. No one perfection can be
fulfilled without the presence and co-operation of all the others.
Each supports and aids the development of the others. The same
may be said of the Factors of Enlightenment and of the Eightfold
Path, with which the qualities to be brought to perfection overlap.
On this level too there is only the body of the Dharma. We may talk
of this aspect of the Path or that—of perfections, stages of
sainthood, of the bodhisattva’s development. But this is only to
strengthen our motivation, to focus our effort. It is the practice that
is important. Theories, systems, teaching devices are many, but the
practice is one and should be continuous.
May the merit of this teaching, then, be for the benefit of all
beings. May the noble resolve of all bodhisattvas come to fruition in
the fulfilment of the perfections. May the blessings of the practice
inspire and strengthen us all, and may the result be for the happiness
of all.
Chapter 38
THE BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
In the 6th century BCE, a high watermark of philosophical systems

was reached that this world has not since witnessed. In India, China
and Greece, enlightening systems of thought were propounded
whereby man might rise superior to the flood of sorrows that is
synonymous with mundane life.
At this time the northern half of India had already been invaded
and settled by Aryan tribes from the North-West. The religion
which they brought with them was preserved and developed by the
Brahmans, the priestly caste of Aryan society. This religion was
established on the traditional authority of the ancient Vedas and
came to depend upon the efficacy of the sacrifice. It constituted
Brahmanism and had rooted deep into Indian society and spread its
branches all over the country.
The supremacy and conventionality of Brahmanism was
ultimately discredited by philosophical systems expounded by free-
thinking Brahmins, ascetics and other sages. Those of the
philosophies which were in keeping with the Vedic tradition we
find recorded in the Upaniåads;1 they consist of various methods by
which the Flood of sorrows may be transcended and the Further
Shore gained—by means of knowledge. The period of the Upaniåads
marks the transition from Brahmanism to Hinduism.
In addition, in the 6th century BCE non-Vedic systems were
taught by which man might reach the Further Shore. At that time
among many ascetics and wanderers were six well-known teachers;
each of whom claimed that his path was the correct and infallible
way to liberation:
1. Puráóa Kassapa held a view wavering between anti-nomian-
ism and fatalism.
2. Makkhali Gosála, the founder of the Ájìvaka sect, believed
that beings were subject to re-animation and not death and
1. Certain mystical writings attached to the Bráhmaóas (i.e. mantras

portion of the Vedas) to ascertain the secret meaning of the Vedas. In the
Muktopaniåad, 108 Upaniåads are mentioned, but more were added later to
this number. The earliest Upaniåads predate the Buddha.
THE BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE 279
destruction. He added to it the doctrine that all beings were subject

to a fixed series of existences from the lowest to the highest and this
series was unchangeable (niyati saògati-bhava).
3. Nigaóþha Nátaputta or Vardhamána Mahávìra who was an
older contemporary of the Buddha had perfected himself in
disciplinary practices and realised the truth as inculcated in Jainism.
In his philosophy no definite statement (syádváda) can be made
about any subject, not even about highest truth.
4. Sañjaya Belaþþhiputta was an agnostic (ajñáóavadin) similar to
an eel-wriggler. He did not give out any definite views about the
ultimate truth.
5. Ajita Kesakambala, who denied an after-life, was a
materialist. According to him there is no need to do meritorious
deeds or sacrifices, or to serve one’s parents. There is no spiritual
advancement or perfection in knowledge. There is no demerit in
committing evil deeds. A being is composed of five elements: earth,
water, fire, air and space. After death each of these returns to the
corresponding mass of great elements while the sense organs
(indriya) pass into space.
6. Pakudha Kaccáyana was a pluralist and a semi-materialist.
Like Ajita he held that a being is composed of seven elements: earth,
water, air, fire, pleasure pain and soul (jìva). These seven are neither
created nor evolved. They are barren and fixed as a rock. Hence
there is no killer or instigator of killing. It is a form of atomism.1
The two most famous of the unorthodox philosophies shunned
by these six teachers were those put forward by Vardhamana
Mahávìra and by Gotama the Buddha. Their means of attainment
were through knowledge plus compassion. They differed from one
another in that: 1) the Jains (the followers of Mahávìra) were
extremists, whereas the Buddha counselled the Middle Path of
moderation; and 2) in their definitions of the ‘self.’
In common with the Hindus, both Buddhists and Jains
subscribe to belief in the Law of Kamma (Skt. karma) which
principle extends to the humanist sphere of moral retribution, and
demands for its functioning a continuity of lifetimes in this or in
other planes of existence. This means that death is necessarily
followed by rebirth: it is a process during which the character
1. D I 53ff; M I 409; cf. M II 121; A I 287; D-a 161–164; Basham, History and
Doctrine of the Ájìvakas pp. 243 ff.
evolves until it reaches perfection. The Buddha says how to bring

about perfection:
“By deeds, vision and righteousness,
By virtue, the sublimest life—
By these are mortals purified,
And not by lineage and wealth.” (M III 262)
In so far as this personal process of development or becoming is
an abstract one, it is erroneous to call it either transmigration or
reincarnation.
Buddhists, Hindus and Jains are also in agreement that life is
characterised by imperfection, unsatisfactoriness, sorrow (dukkha)
and by change, impermanence (anicca, anitya). To these two
characteristics the Buddha added a third—insubstantiality, non-
ego, soullessness (anattá, anátman), and it is by virtue of this
principle of ‘not self’ that Buddhism differs from all other
philosophies and religions. Anattá is peculiar to the Buddha
Dhamma and is at once the basis of Buddhist altruism, and the
refutation of the Hindu concept that a permanent entity such as an
individual ‘soul’ or ‘self’ seeks reunion (yoga) with the ‘Cosmic Self’
or Brahmá and that therefore all life is one. To comprehend
properly the principle of anattá is essential to the appreciation of the
Buddha’s philosophy of life—a philosophy in which no god is
called to play a part. Buddhaghosa says:
“There is no doer of a deed,
Or one who reaps the deed’s result;
No other view than this is right.
And so, while kamma and result
Thus causally maintain their round
As seed and tree succeed in turn
No first beginning can be shown. …
For here there is no Brahmá God,
Creator of the round of births,
Cause and component their condition.”
(Vism XIX.20/p. 602f.; transl. by Ñáóamoli)
In those days Indians gave the title Buddha, Wise One to many
enlightened sages. The country is said to have then abounded with
earnest ascetics (samaóas, øramaóas) who wandered from place to
THE BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE 281
place studying, contemplating, debating and expounding different

philosophic means by which nirváóa might be attained. Among
such wanderers and hermits, the Buddha Gotama attracted many
followers. Collectively the Buddha’s disciples formed a gaóa, group;
or a saògha, community or brotherhood. Members of other saòghas
of that time distinguished the teaching of the Buddha as
anattaváda—the doctrine of anattá. In particular, Gotama’s
philosophy of individual attainment stressed detachment and
spiritual freedom.
About a hundred years after the passing away of the Buddha,
differences of opinions and views arose among the monks about the
actual words of the Teacher and their interpretation. When the
Buddhist monks, because of their discipline and good behaviour
were attracting the general public’s regard and honour, greedy
heretics entered the Saògha and interpolated and distorted the
original teachings of the Buddha. In fact, the Buddha’s teachings
might have suffered a considerable distortion because of this
infiltration of selfish people. This situation gradually lead to the
formation of different sects and schools. Once the monks took the
liberty to create dissension among the Saògha the divisions went on
multiplying until the number of sects reached eighteen in the 2nd
and 3rd century after the Buddha’s passing away (parinibbána).
The pristine philosophy of an individual pursuit of wisdom
with equanimity gave way to a monastic phase characterised by
metaphysics. From this, inevitably, there soon developed a sectarian
stage, the result of variant interpretations of the static Vinaya rules
of the residential monasteries, and the elaboration of the Dhamma
as Abhidhamma. Finally this lapsed into the so-called ‘popular
stage’ which is commonly known as ‘Buddhism’ a religion for the
masses, with faith, worship, ritual and all the other embellishments
of an organisation that aims to embrace lay followers and those who
retain the attachments of the average man and woman.
The original austere way of living as practised and
recommended by the Buddha Gotama was popularized largely by
the incorporation of numerous indigenous beliefs and customs. This
resulted in the development of the Maháyána (the great vehicle).
Today, the Asian countries of the Theraváda tradition are Sri Lanka,
Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos; while those of the Maháyána
tradition are Tibet, China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan. The
Buddhists in India now form a small minority. In spite of the fact
that the noble philosophy of the Sakyan sage came to be elaborated
by embellishments which have resulted in much flamboyant

exaggeration, the modern Westerner, free of superstition and
traditionalism can still benefit fully by adopting the true Buddhist
way of life.
Some of the most ancient available records of the Buddha
Dhamma are to be found in the books of the Pali Canon of the
Theraváda school. These are divided into three sections (piþaka):
Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma. The Vinaya Piþaka includes the
monastic rules; the Sutta Piþaka consists of scriptures (ágama,
nikáya), anthologies and legends; the Abhidhamma Piþaka is the
philosophical, psychological and ethical teaching. The present,
conventional order of arrangement of the canonical books bears
little relation to their chronological sequence. The composition of
these fascinating works would appear to cover a period of some
three centuries, and numerous interpolations are apparent. The
later additions to the Canon are either pedantic or, frankly,
legendary. The whole philosophy of life as given by the great sage
Gotama himself is probably most clearly represented in the lively
Aþþhakavagga and Páráyanavagga of the Suttanipáta anthology,
supported by individual stanzas of the Dhammapada and the
beautiful discourses and dialogues preserved in the four Nikáyas
(Dìgha, Majjhima, Saíyutta and Aòguttara).
Chapter 39
THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
Self-discipline was the essence of Buddha’s teaching. Throughout

his life the Buddha emphasized that one should seek deliverance
through one’s own effort. Although he helped his disciples by his
superior experience, he did not wish to be looked up to as a saviour.
He asked his disciples to look upon the Dhamma as their guide and
themselves as their own refuge. They, however, came to regard him
more as a divinity than a human teacher and considered his mercy
more important than his insistence on self-endeavour in attaining
salvation.
This faith in his compassion brought into being the cult of Bud-
dha worship which began with the veneration of the places that had
been hallowed by him. His relics were also held sacred and vener-
ated, and finally the Buddha image itself came to be worshipped.
During his life-time the teaching of Buddha spread mainly in
the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The conversion of the Emperor Asoka after
the devastating battle of Kaliòga (3rd century B.C.E.) was a
landmark event in the history of Buddhism; the patronage of so
great and powerful an emperor provided a strong stimulus to the
spread of Buddhism in India and abroad.
Being a zealous Buddhist, Asoka took great interest in the well-
being of the Buddhist Saògha and took measures to safeguard it
against schisms. He erected memorial columns in different parts of
the land and inscribed simple rules of morality on them, as for
example, loving-kindness to man and beast, truth, respect for the
elders, care for the destitute and non-acquisitiveness.
Under the auspices of Asoka, a Third Buddhist Council was
held in Páþaliputta (now Patna). This council of the Theravádins led
to the compilation of the Kathávatthu, an Abhidhamma work
wherein heretical doctrines were thoroughly examined and refuted.
It is said that when this council ended, Asoka sent missionaries in
different directions as far as Macedonia, Syria and Egypt in the
West, and Sri Lanka in the South to propagate the Theravádin
doctrines. His own son Mahinda, is believed to have gone to Sri
Lanka to preach the Law of the Buddha and so also his own
daughter, Saòghamittá.
During the 1st century B.C.E. and later, one of the significant
factors leading to the continuing spread of Buddhism was the
support extended to it by foreign rulers, the most important among
whom were Menander and Kaóiåka. Menander, who ruled about
115–90 B.C.E. was an Indo-Greek king with a vast dominion. The
Milindapañhá or the Questions of Milinda (which is a quasi-
canonical Buddhist text) shows clearly that this ruler was greatly
interested in the Buddha’s teaching. Kaniåka, the best known of the
Kushan kings, flourished in the second century C.E., and from
Puruspura (modern Peshawar), his capital, ruled over a large part
of India. He is also credited with the conquest of Afghanistan,
Samarkand, Yarkand and Khotan. Kaóiåka was eclectic in his
religious outlook but his special inclination was towards Buddhism.
Under his auspices was held the Fourth Buddhist Council wherein
the main activity was the collection or composition of the
Sarvástiváda texts.
The early centuries of the Christian era were a turning point in
the doctrinal development of Buddhism which had grown by this
time into a vast religious organization. It had split up into as many
as eighteen schools or sects by about the second century B.C.E., and
the differences between the various schools had become more and
more pronounced with the progress of time. By about the first
century C.E. the Maháyána arose. The older schools continued to
follow the old texts, and the Maháyána developed the philosophy of
Buddhism mainly through new writings in Sanskrit. The Maháyána
became kaleidoscopic in diversity, endlessly subdividing into sects,
and a proliferation of doctrines, many of which diverged from the
original teaching.
The cardinal tenet of the Maháyána was that Gautama Buddha
was not a human teacher as the older schools held but an eternal
principle that appeared on earth for the salvation of mankind. The
Maháyánists also gave to Buddhism a new concept of the bodhisattva
who is considered as a being with universal love and compassion.
He refuses Nibbána, though fully entitled to it, until all the sentient
beings from man to the smallest insect are delivered. Bhakti or
devotion to Buddha and the Bodhisattvas became an essential part
of the Maháyána religious life.
Around the beginning of the common era, Maháyána Buddhism
gradually took form in India and later spread to Tibet and China.
The prestige of Indian learning enhanced by Buddhism facilitated
the acceptance of various Hindu philosophies in Tibet and China.
THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM 285
Some of the doctrines so introduced included the very teachings

against which the Buddha had rebelled. Ultimately, Maháyána
Buddhism came to embrace almost the entire gamut of speculative
human thought. Prominent among Maháyána missionaries was
Bodhidharma,1 an Indian Buddhist patriarch, who left India for
China in 526 C.E. and is credited with introducing Zen
(contemplative Buddhism) into Japan. He is the central figure in the
legend of the heavenly origin of tea: whatever the role of
Bodhidharma, Zen monks certainly use tea to keep themselves
awake during night-long vigils of meditation.
Since the intellectual and moral fibre necessary for the
attainment of enlightenment was considered to lie beyond the
capacity of ordinary folk, the doctrine of Bodhisattvas was designed
to meet this human failing. A Bodhisattva is a saintly person who
almost attains enlightenment but turns back at the threshold, as it
were, because of his wish to save all other living beings. He vows to
remain in the cycle of birth and death until the last being is saved
and becomes a divine being with the power to save those who
manifest faith in his merciful benevolence. Amida or Amitábha—
probably a mythical figure—is deemed to be the greatest of
Bodhisattvas and is equated with a great heavenly Buddha by his
worshippers. He gathers all those who call upon his name in faith to
his Western Paradise. Thus Amida sects exhibit close analogies to
Protestant Christianity: ‘Salvation by grace’ and ‘Justification by
faith’, doctrines which antedated the Protestant Reformation by
several centuries. Some Maháyána sects practically dispense with
Sakyamuni in favour of Amida or some other Bodhisattva. In other
sects the founder of Buddhism appears as one of the Heavenly
Buddhas. Fortunately, there has been little or no political conflict or
persecution of heterodoxy.
Some superficial comparisons of Buddhism and Christianity
may facilitate understanding, although such comparison is difficult
and perhaps misleading. The following should be read with a
strong caution against the limits of generalisations; any Christian
will feel that Christianity is misrepresented just as any Buddhist
might feel that the picture of Buddhism is inaccurate.
1. Bodhidharma discouraged the reading of the Canon and laid stress on

meditation by means of which enlightenment could be attained. He had
five successors who were held in great esteem by emperors of the T'ang
dynasty.
Both religions originated in the teaching of individual founders

and have subsequently developed doctrines based on the teachings
of their founders. Both religions have strong ascetic tendencies, and
both have holy Orders of monks and nuns. They both utilize
ordained male Priests; both have held general synods to
authenticate their teachings; both rely to a large extent on written
scriptures; believe in heavens and hells, conduct rituals and
administer sacraments. They both revere sacred relics, images of
saints and make use of sacred chants, prayer beads, incense and
candles. As regards their doctrines, both accept doctrines of the
miraculous birth of their founders and place great emphasis on the
value of love, compassion, charity and other good works. They also
both claim universal validity and have carried out missionary
enterprises thus spreading their noble traditions of art and
architecture into many lands. Among the sincere devotees of either
faith are thousands of admirable individuals—men and women of
integrity whose devotion and heroism command universal respect.
There are, nevertheless, some noteworthy differences. Whereas
some Buddhists believe in many gods, others are more agnostic and
some sects are clearly atheistic; Christianity insists upon belief in
one supreme God upon whom all human welfare depends.
Christians teach that men live but once and that his soul thereafter
passes eternity in heaven or hell. Buddhists teach that all living
beings undergo endless births in heavens, hells, in animal realms or
in the human realm until they attain the Buddhist goal of release
from rebirth. Buddhists regard even gods as subject to rebirth.
Christians regard God as omniscient, omnipresent and eternal.
SRI LANKA
The history of Sri Lanka starts with the colonization of the island in
the 5th century B.C.E. by Prince Vijaya from Bengal. Though it
would not be unreasonable to suppose that Vijaya may have
introduced the elements of Buddhism into Sri Lanka, the religion,
however, did not have any wide popularity here until the time of
Devánampiyatissa (3rd century B.C.E.). Tissa was contemporary
with Asoka and had friendly relations with the Indian Emperor. He
warmly received Thera Mahinda and other monks who were sent
by Asoka to preach Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Thera Mahinda chose to
arrive in Sri Lanka on the very day of the Poson festival, the full-
moon of the month of Poson, since it was a day for the people to
amuse themselves with sports usually played on that feast-day and
he wanted the king and the people to be in a happy mood

favourable for receiving the noble message of the Buddha.
First of all, Mahinda Thera assured himself about the fitness of
the Sinhalese king, Devánampiyatissa, to receive the doctrine. He
then gave the teaching on the elephant footprint simile contained in
the Cú¿ahatthipadopama-sutta (Majjhima Nikáya Sutta 27). In this
sermon, the Buddha tells the Brahmin Jáóussoói how the wise
disciple comes to the conviction that the Blessed One is fully
enlightened, that his doctrine is well-taught and that his disciples
have reached the right path. Jáóussoói was a very rich Brahmin of
high rank in Sávatthì. This discourse is a warning not to rush to
hasty conclusions as to what is the highest spiritual development
and who is the person who is most spiritually developed, namely
the Buddha. In everything there are degrees and grades and one
should not think that anything belongs to the highest grade without
sufficient conclusive evidence. An ordinary man, on entering a
forest might see a large footprint and come to the conclusion:
“Indeed, it is the footprint of the great royal elephant!” But the
skilled elephant tracker looking at the same footprint would think:
“This is not necessarily the footprint of the great royal elephant;
there are also stunted elephant cows who have such large
footprints.” The skilled elephant tracker follows the track until he
sees the great royal elephant for himself; only then does he come to
the conclusion: “Indeed, this is the great royal elephant!” Similarly,
only by going through the various stages of spiritual development
himself should one come to the conclusion: “Indeed the Buddha is
the Fully Enlightened One!”
At the end of the discourse, it is said that the king with his forty
thousand followers was established in the three refuges. The king
was so impressed with this sermon that he caused a splendid
preaching hall to be erected within the precincts of the palace.
Thereafter, Thera Mahinda delivered several other sermons. The
commentary on the Vinaya, the Samantapásádika, records that
Mahinda preached the Petavatthu, Vimánavatthu, Saccasaíyutta and
the Devadúta-sutta. On the second day after his arrival he preached
the Asivisopama-sutta in the Nandana Park and no less than 2,500
people are said to have realised the Dhamma.
King Devánampiyatissa sent a mission to India to bring a
branch of the Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha attained
enlightenment. When it reached Sri Lanka, he planted it in Anurad-
hapura with due pomp and ceremony. According to tradition,
monks from different parts of India came when the foundation

stone of the stúpa was laid.
The reign of Vaþþagámaói Abhaya (103–102 B.C) is an important
epoch in the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The Tipiþaka which
had been preserved so long in memory was committed to writing
by the monks of the Mahávihára, Anurádhapura. Abhaya built a
new monastery known as Abhayagiri which became a very
important centre of Buddhist culture. Fa-hien gives an interesting
account of this monastery which had, as he records, five thousand
monks as against three thousand in the Mahávihára.
Sri Lanka had grown by this time into a very important centre of
Buddhism—a position which it maintains even today. The
reputation of Sri Lankan monasteries as centres of learning attracted
scholars from far and wide. Buddhaghosa, the celebrated Buddhist
scholar, visited Sri Lanka in the 5th century C.E. during the rule of
King Mahánáma (410–432 C.E.). He studied in the Mahávihára for
some time before he undertook the translation of the Sinhalese
commentaries.
In the 11th century the capital was moved from Anurádhapura
to Polonnaruwa due to political instability and foreign invasions.
BURMA
The early history of Buddhism in Burma is obscure. If the Sinhalese
historical tradition is correct, two monks, namely, Soóa and Uttara,
were sent by Emperor Asoka (circa 273–236 B.C.E.) to preach
Buddhism in Suvaóóabhúmi which is generally identified with
Burma; there is however no evidence of any widespread popularity
of Buddhism there at such an early period. It appears from other
literary sources as well as archaeological evidence that Buddhism
gained popularity in Lower Burma during the early centuries of the
Christian era. The arrival of Buddhaghosa with a large number of
Pali books in Thatõn in the 5th century C.E.1 may have provided a
great stimulus to the spread of the religion in the land. The
archaeological excavations at Hmawza have yielded a number of
sculptures, terracottas and tablets of about 6th–7th century C.E.
1. According to the Burmese chronicles Buddhaghosa was a native of

Thatōn, who went to Sri Lanka and returned to Thatōn with the Pali
Tipiþaka, Visuddhimagga, commentaries, etc. however, this legend is not
accepted by modern scholars; see Roger Bischoff, Buddhism in Myanmar: A
Short History, Wheel Publication No. 395, BPS, Kandy, 1995. (BPS editor)
These objects and the Chinese accounts provide ample evidence of

the popularity of Buddhism in Prome and neighbouring places
during the period under review.
The reign of King Anavratha (Anuruddha) of Pagan (11th
century C.E.) is a landmark in the history of Buddhism in Burma. A
zealous convert, he made ceaseless efforts to collect Buddhist relics
and scriptures. He led an expedition to Thatõn and ended up by
carrying to Pagan not only loads of holy scriptures and other sacred
objects, but also a number of Talaing monks who were known for
their profound knowledge. He exchanged religious missionaries
with Sri Lanka and obtained from there copies of the complete
Tipiþaka, which were collated with the texts obtained from Thatõn.
Anavratha was a great patron of art. As a result of his efforts and
patronage, Buddhism became the religion of the whole of Burma.
The example of Anavratha was followed by his successors.
An important event in the history of Buddhism in Burma was
the establishment in circa 1182 C.E. of a Sinhalese Nikáya1 by Capaþa
who received his ordination in Sri Lanka. Rivalry between the
Sinhalese and Burmese Nikáyas arose and continued for three
centuries before it ended with a peaceful reconciliation.
As in Sri Lanka and several other countries in South-East Asia,
Buddhism is still a living force in the life of the Burmese people.
THAILAND
Buddhism seems to have been introduced to Thailand during the
first or second centuries of the Christian era. Before the occupation
of the Menam Valley by the Thais, Thailand under the name of
Dváravatì formed a part of the Cambodian Kingdom. The art of
Dváravatì shows a marked influence of Gupta sculpture and
painting.2 About the middle of the 13th century, the Thais became
masters of Thailand and Laos, bringing to an end their political
domination by Cambodia. The Thai rulers were great patrons of
1. Nikáya means a Chapter of the Order of monks. There are currently two
main Nikáyas in Thailand and about five each in Burma and Sri Lanka.
There is no difference in the doctrine preached by different Nikáyas unlike
the more significant differences between different Schools of Buddhism.
2. Dváravatì was a flourishing kingdom in the time of Hung Hsang in the
first half of the 7th c. C.E. In the 8th and 9th c. both Siam and Laos were part
of Cambodia. Both the Brahmanical religion and Buddhism flourished side
by side in these regions.
Theraváda Buddhism. The art of Thailand from this time onwards

was inspired by Sinhalese traditions.
NEPAL
The early history of Buddhism in Nepal is wrapped in obscurity.
Although Gautama the Sakyan Prince was born in 563 B.C.E. at
Lumbini in the Nepalese Terai, 15 miles from his father’s palace in
the city of Kapilavatthu, it is not known how far his thoughts
influenced the people of Nepal as a whole during his life-time. It
was the missionary activities of Asoka (c. 273–236 B.C.E.)1 that
introduced and propagated the Buddhist faith on an extensive scale
for the first time in Nepal. It is believed that some of the surviving
stúpas here were originally dedicated by Asoka. The Bodhnátha
and the Svayambhúnátha stúpas are probably of Mauryan origin.
During the middle ages, and in particular after the fall of Nálanda,
Nepal became an important centre of Tantric Buddhism. Nepalese
sculptures and paintings reveal the influence of the Indian style.
AFGHANISTAN
Culturally, Afghanistan may be considered a part of India during the
early period of its history. Buddhism seems to have been introduced
here as early as the time of the Mauryas who exercised an effective
control over the region. During the early centuries of the Christian
era, it was included in the domain of the Kushans and became an
important centre of Gandhara art as is evident from the archaeologi-
cal remains at Begram and Bamiyan. The exquisite style of the
Begram ivories has earned the admiration of all art connoisseurs.
TIBET
The Tibetans were originally the followers of an animistic religion
called Bonpo. Buddhism found its way to Tibet in the 7th century
1. It is believed that in the 3rd c. B.C.E. Asoka, while still a prince, quelled
a rebellion among one of the races of Nepal and restored peace and order.
His later visit to Lumbini and the erection of an inscribed pillar in
commemoration of the birth of the Buddha is an important landmark in the
history of Buddhism. Thereafter one of his daughters (Cáramatì) married a
Nepalese nobleman and built several stúpas and monasteries.
Vasubandhu, a great Buddhist philosopher of the 4th c. is said to have
visited Nepal for the propagation of the Sárvástiváda.
C.E., when the ruler Srong-Tsan-Gam-po married a Nepalese

Buddhist princess. Gam-po was a progressive ruler and maintained
a close contact with India. He is said to have sent a messenger called
Thonmi Sanbhota who studied Buddhism in India and also adapted
the Indian alphabet to the need of writing in Tibetan. However,
religious activity can be said to have begun in earnest with the
arrival of Øantarakåita and Padmasambhava in Tibet in the 8th
century C.E. Padmasambhava introduced Tantric Buddhism here
and built the monastery of Samyé (bsam-yas) about thirty miles
from Lhasa. The second period of Tibetan Buddhism which marks
the rise of successive sects was inaugurated by Dìpaòkara Ørìgñáóa
(also known as Atìøa) in the 11th century C.E. His reformed
teachings based upon the Yogácára traditions led to the
establishment of the Bka-gdams-pa school (School of the Oral
Precepts) which enforced celibacy upon the monks and discouraged
magic practices. The later history of Tibet records an uninterrupted
continuity of Buddhism with an extensive art and architecture.
CAMBODIA
Cambodia was pre-eminently a Hindu colony in the beginning.
Buddhism came to the land during the 5th century C.E., but it did
not occupy any dominant position until the time of Yaøovarman
who ruled in the 9th century C.E. Yaøovarman established a
Saugatáørama meant especially for the Buddhist monks, and
formulated elaborate rules for the guidance of the monastery. The
rise of King Jayavarman VII (1181—c. 1220 C.E.) is a landmark in
the history of Buddhism in Cambodia. For his extreme devotion to
Buddhism, Jayavarman came to be known after his death as Parama
Saugata. His munificence to Buddhist institutions was remarkable.
The early Buddhist art of Cambodia was purely Indian in
inspiration. From the 9th century C.E., however, it was the classical
Khmer art that became most dominant. Among the important
Cambodian temples mention may be made of the Bayon Central
temple of Angkor Thom built by Yaøovarman (9th century C.E.) and
the one built at Angkor Wat about 1125 C.E.
VIETNAM
Buddhism seems to have been introduced in Vietnam (Campa)
during the early centuries of the Christian era as is evident from the
discovery of a fine bronze image of Buddha in the Amarávatì style
at Dong-Duong. The Chinese chronicles bear evidence that the
religion continued to flourish here. The Chinese sacked the city of

Campá in 605 C.E. and carried away no less than 1,350 works. From
the evidence of I-tsing we know that several schools of Buddhism,
namely the Áryasammitìya and the Sarvástiváda, existed here. The
religion occasionally enjoyed the patronage of kings and high
officials of Campá also. King Jaya Indravarman established a
temple and a monastery at Dong-Duong in 875 C.E. After the
conquest of Campa by the Annamites from the north, the Chinese
form of Buddhism became predominant here.
INDONESIA
India’s cultural contact with the Malay Peninsula and the East
Indies goes back to the early centuries of the Christian era. In the
beginning, the Brahmanical faiths seem to have been more popular
in these regions than the Law of Buddha. Fa-hien during his visit to
Java early in the 5th century C.E. found very few Buddhists there,
although the number of ‘heretics and Brahmanas’ was enormous.
The Popularity of Hinduism in Java and neighbouring states during
the 4th and 5th centuries C.E. finds confirmation in the inscriptions
of King Púróavarman of Western Java and also those of King
Múlavarman of Borneo. However, Buddhism came to occupy a
prominent position in several of these states within a century or so.
I-tsing, who visited Sumatra more than once, remarks that the
islands of the Southern Sea were some very important centres of the
Buddhist religion. The king of Srìvijaya was a great patron of
Buddhism and there were more than one thousand priests in his
city. The school that was most popular there was the
Múlasarvástiváda although the Sammitìya and other sects were not
entirely unknown.
It is not definitely known when Buddhism first reached
Malaysia but it is known for certain that in the 7th century C.E.
Buddhism was introduced from Java to Malaysia. It existed
predominant in Malaysia until the coming of Muslim traders in the
15th century.
The most glorious epoch of Buddhism in those regions was the
rule of the Sailendra emperors (8th–9th centuries C.E.) who held
political sway over nearly the whole of Suvaróadvìpa comprising
the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo and other islands.
The Sailendras were staunch patrons of Maháyána Buddhism and
maintained a close contact with India, especially Nálandá. The
copper plate inscription of the reign of King Devapáladeva, found
in the course of excavations at Nálandá, refers to the erection, by

King Bálaputradeva of this dynasty, of a Buddhist monastery at
Nálandá. With the Sailendra rule is also associated the history of the
construction of several Buddhist temples in Java.
CHINA
According to a Chinese tradition, Buddhism was introduced into
China as early as 217 B.C.E. but there is no authentic evidence in
support of this. The official and positive account is that in C.E. 65
the Emperor Ming-Ti of the Han dynasty sent into Khotan a
deputation of eighteen persons, who, accompanied by two Indian
monks, Kaøyapa Mátaòga and Dharmaraksa, came back in the year
67 with a collection of Buddhist works. Kaøyapa and Dharmaraksa
were placed in the monastery of Lo-Yang where they translated
several Buddhist works into Chinese. This marks the beginning of
Buddhist activities in China.
Some of the prominent monks from India visited China during
the 4th and 5th centuries and helped to spread the popularity of
Buddhism there by translating and expounding Buddhist texts and
philosophy. The activities of these monks created a deep impression
upon the mind of the Chinese people and many Chinese scholars
came forward to support the cause of Buddhism.
Tao-ngan, who flourished in the 4th century C.E., carefully
studied the translations of the Buddhist texts and wrote a series of
commentaries on them. His example was followed by his disciples
among whom the name of Hui-Yuan deserves special mention. Hui-
Yuan founded a monastery at Lushan and established there a school
known as the School of the White Lotus. He also introduced into
China the cult of Amitábha which played an important part in the
history of Far Eastern Buddhism.
The next important epoch in the history of Buddhism in China
is marked by the visit of Bodhidharma. Bodhidharma, according to
a Chinese account, was a prince of Káñchì (South India). He became
a monk and went to Indonesia to study the Dhyána School of
Buddhism. From there he went to China and established a school of
thought according to which meditation or the cultivation of one’s
own thought alone can lead one to enlightenment. Bodhidharma’s
teachings were popularized by his able follower, Chi-K’ai.
Buddhism continued to flourish in China under the patronage
of the T’ang and subsequent royal dynasties. The religion, however,
lost much of its force with the introduction of Lamaism in northern
China about the 13th century. This brought formal rites to the
forefront and relegated the real religion into the background.
KOREA
Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century C.E. at a time
when the country was divided into three provinces: Koguryu in the
north, Pakche in the south-west and Silla in the south-east.
Buddhism was first brought to Pakche by an Asian monk called
Máránanda. Silla was the last province to embrace Buddhism, about
thirty years later. Buddhism has received royal patronage almost
throughout Korea’s history. It was spread under the influence of the
kings of the Silla dynasty; during that time several famous scholars
went to China in order to study Buddhist philosophy. Among them
were: Yuan Ts’o (613–638 A.D) of the Fa Sian sect, Yuan Hiao (617–
670 A.D) and Yi Siang of the Houa Yen sect. Buddhism was at the
height of its influence in the 11th century A.D during the Wang
dynasty.
After the 11th century, Buddhism, which had hitherto been a
religion of the aristocracy, became the faith of the common people
through the efforts of a number of monks. During the Yuan dynasty
the Mongolian Empire gained sovereignty over the Wang dynasty
and Korean Buddhism was much influenced by Lamaism. After the
decline of the Mongolian Empire, the Rhee dynasty of Korea
accepted Confucianism which dislodged Buddhism from its
predominant position but it continued to flourish as the religion of
the masses. Modern Korean Buddhism is, in fact, Zen tinged with a
belief in Amitábha Buddha or Maitreyya Bodhisattva. Maháyána
Buddhism first flourished in China and gradually travelled to Japan
via Korea.
JAPAN
By the sixth and seventh centuries C.E., when Buddhism began to
filter into Japan from Korea, centuries of development had
enriched, altered and obscured the original orientation of
Buddhism. In the absence of any historical criticism of source
documents it was almost impossible to discriminate the original
contributions of Sakyamuni among the vast bulk of Buddhist
literature. A few of the early Japanese sects followed teachings of
early Buddhist schools. Various Maháyána sects also appeared in
Japan. More than once, a Japanese ruler has dispatched loyal monks
to China to find some new type of Buddhism that would not
indulge in political intrigue. In each instance, the outcome was the

establishment of another Maháyána sect in Japan. In addition to
these, several indigenous Japanese sects developed. Despite sharp
controversies within sects, there has been a minimum of hostility
between the many sects. In modern times the stronger sects actually
contribute towards the maintenance of temples and traditions that
represent the weaker sects, lest these monuments to history perish.
The progress of the Buddhist religion in Japan was somewhat
slow in the beginning, as one of the two parties struggling for
political power was opposed to its introduction. It however
received court sanction as soon as Prince Umayado or Shotoku
defeated the anti-Buddhist Mononobe family and became regent to
the Empress Suiko. Shotoku was a man of remarkable qualities and
he did for Buddhism in Japan what Asoka did for it in India. He
drew up Japan’s first Constitution and declared Buddhism to be the
ultimate object of faith. He sent many students to China to study
Buddhist doctrines, and himself wrote commentaries on Maháyána
texts such as the Sadharmapuóðarìka, the Vimalakìrti sútra etc.
Among his other achievements, mention may be made of the
construction of a large monastic establishment at Horyuji, which
was embellished with paintings recalling the Ajanta style.
The examples of Shotoku were also followed by emperors of the
subsequent period. The Emperor Shomu and his wife declared
themselves to be servants of the Buddhist faith. During their reign a
Buddhist temple was built in each province. The Todaji temple
dedicated to Vairocana became the main shrine of Nara. Side by
side there also arose a syncretic movement leading to a compromise
between Shintoism (the original native cult of Japan) and
Buddhism. The Shinto goddess, Amaterasu, was declared to be a
manifestation of Vairocana. This example of combining the worship
of the native deities with that of Buddhist deities was followed in
almost all parts of the country to the advantage of Buddhism.
The next period of Buddhism in Japan marks the rise of two
influential sects, the Tendai and the Shingon, founded by Saicho
(767–822 C.E.) and Kukai (774–835 C.E.) respectively. Their object
was to nationalize Buddhist doctrines in order to make Buddhism a
religion of the masses. Their efforts, as we know, met with
remarkable success.
Various other movements and sects came into existence
subsequently. Among them the Jodo sect (founded in 1175 by
Genku, better known as Honen), the Zodo-shin sect (founded by
Shinran) and Zen Buddhism with its various branches deserve

special mention. The followers of the Jodo sect place an implicit
faith in the saving power of Amitábha. Even the recitation of his
name entitles one, according to them, to gain access to his paradise
after one’s death. The teachings of the Jodo-shin affirm that all
living beings shall be saved on account of the vow taken by
Amitábha. Hence, the religious practices in ordinary life are nothing
but the expression of a grateful heart. Zen Buddhism lays great
stress on contemplation which alone can lead one to enlightenment.
In modern Japan the Tendai sect no longer holds the preeminent
place that it maintained in the ninth and tenth centuries. The
‘reformed sects’ of Jodo and Jodo Shinshu established in the twelfth
century and devoted to worship of Amida, claim the largest
numbers of adherents. The Zen sect imported from China in the
later years of the twelfth century wields great influence and the
indigenous sect of Nichiren, which dates from the thirteenth
century is popular in Eastern Japan. To the average Japanese
Buddhist, however, sectarian distinctions mean little; he generally
worships at any place that is deemed holy and is careful not to miss
any Buddhist temple or Shinto shrine when on a pilgrimage. As one
educated gentleman commented, “You know, some of them might
have power, it is best to worship all of the gods.”
Many forms of Buddhism can be seen in different parts of the
world. Their doctrines and practices are innumerable and often
contradictory. In the course of two thousand five hundred years
Buddhism has spread throughout India, Burma, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Indonesia, Indo-China, Tibet, China, Korea and Japan.
The protean forms of modern Buddhism stem from thinkers in
every part of southern and eastern Asia. Often the teachings of the
founder are submerged beneath doctrines evolved in subsequent
centuries. The numerous sects and diverse doctrines, are still,
however, recognized as Buddhism despite the fact that it cannot be
said of any one doctrine or ritual, “This, and only this, is
Buddhism.”
The spread of Buddhism over Asia provides one of the great
sagas of human history. Zealous missionaries from India carried the
doctrine, the philosophy and the art to every part of the vast
continent. Their influence transformed many a savage tribe into a
civilized people. Tthey imparted the mysteries of writing and
opened the gates to learning, while their new ideals of human
worth won support. Regional isolation has fostered the rise of
diverse Buddhist traditions; the Tibetan lama contrasts with the

bhikkhus of Sri Lanka, and both differ from the married priests of
Japan.
Buddhism also spread beyond the continent of Asia. We learn
from the Asokan inscriptions that some missionaries were sent to
the kingdoms under the Greek rulers Ptolemy II Philadelphus of
Egypt (B.C.E. 285–239) and Magas of Cyrene (B.C.E. 252–244).
Scholars have therefore come to the conclusion that the teaching of
the Buddha went as far as the Mediterranean countries and Africa.
Buddhism became a world religion without resorting to
persecution. Its success was mainly due to the indefatigable effort
and dedicated labour of the dhammadúta bhikkhus, the missionary
monks. Professor P. Lakshimi Narasu says: “The disciples of the
Great Teacher have always considered others first and themselves
afterwards. Forgetful of home, ready to meet death, indifferent to
renown or failure, they have laboured to open the minds and eyes
of those deceived by false teaching. To spread the holy doctrine they
travelled over land and sea, crossed through snowy mountains and
sandy deserts, and braved all toils and dangers.”1
1. The Essence of Buddhism, Madras, 1907, p. 41.

Chapter 40
THE EXEMPLARY DHAMMADHÚTA
The teaching and preaching of the Buddha’s sublime message is one

of the noblest missions in the world. The person who undertakes
this noble mission should be patient and absolutely detached from
worldly pleasures. He should be ready to sacrifice even his life for
this good cause. He should not expect name, fame or gains from the
people. He should not mix with unworthy people who indulge in
evil deeds and speech. He should be wary of frivolity, gossip and
harsh words. He should be satisfied with whatever food he receives
and devote himself entirely to his noble work. He should not
condemn other teachings in a bitter or intolerant spirit. He should
not quarrel with the teachers of other sects or religions and should
not enter into unnecessary controversy with them. Such a preacher
needs four other qualities to complete success in his mission. They
are: i) generosity, ii) pleasant speech, iii) sagacious conduct, and iv)
impartiality. As the Dhammapada says:
“One should first establish oneself in proper conduct, with
himself fully controlled the wise man will not be defiled.”
(Dhp 158)
In Buddhist literature we find such an exemplary missionary
monk or dhammadúta1 by the name of Puóóa who set an example to
others. Puóóa was a Buddhist apostle in the time of the Buddha. His
story is related in the Páli Tipiþaka as well as in the Divyávadána and
Avadánakalpalatá. He was born in a wealthy family of Suppáraka in
the Suóáparanta district.2 When he was a young man, he went to
Savatthì with a great caravan of merchandise. There he visited the
Buddha and requested him to teach him Dhamma. The Buddha
taught him to avoid finding delight in the pleasures of the senses.
Having understood the Dhamma, Puóóa joined the Order. He won
favour by his attention to his duties. He resolved to go back as a
dhammadúta to Suóáparanta which was inhabited by wild, barbarous
1. ‘Missionary’ is not a satisfactory translation of dhammadúta since the

Buddhist monk does not proselytize. The word dhammadúta literally means
‘Dhamma messenger’ or ‘Dhamma ambassador’.
THE EXEMPLARY DHAMMADHÚTA 299
tribes. He asked permission of the Buddha who tried to dissuade him

from his risky enterprise (Puóóováda-sutta, M II 267–270).
The Buddha said, “The people of Suóáparanta are fierce, violent
and cruel. They are given to abusing, reviling and annoying others.
If they abuse, revile and annoy you with evil, harsh and false words,
what will you think?”
Puóóa replied, “In that case, I would think that the people of
Suóáparanta are really good and gentle folk, as they do not strike
me with their hands or with clods.”
The Buddha: “But if they strike you with their hands or with
clods, what would you think?”
Puóóa: “In that case, I would think that the people of
Suóáparanta are really good and gentle folk, as they do not strike
me with sticks or weapons.”
The Buddha: “But if they strike you with sticks or weapons,
what would you think?”
Suóáparanta are really good and gentle folk, as they do not kill me.”
The Buddha: “But if they kill you Puóóa, what would you think?”
Suóáparanta are really good and gentle folk, as they release me
from this rotten carcass of a body without much difficulty. I know
that there are some monks who are ashamed of the body and
disenchanted and disgusted with it, and who slay themselves with
weapons, take poison, hang themselves with ropes or throw
themselves down from precipices. So I would thank them for
rendering me a service.”
The Buddha: “Puóóa, you are endowed with the greatest
gentleness and forbearance. You can live and stay in the country of
Suóáparanta. Go and teach them how to be free, as you yourself are
free.”
Then Venerable Puóóa, having rejoiced in what the Buddha had
said and greeted him, set out on tour for the Suóáparanta district.
2. A district of India where the seaport of Suppáraka was. There was a

regular trade between Bhárukaccha, Suppáraka and Suvaóóabhúmi. Vijaya
and his followers landed at Suppáraka on their way to Sri Lanka but had to
leave because the people were incensed by their behaviour (Mhv vi. 46; Dìp
ix. 15f). Suóáparanta (Skt. Sroóápranta) is identified with the modern
Sopára in the Thána district, to the north of Bombay (Imperial Gazetteer of
India).
While teaching and preaching he stayed there among the people of

Suóáparanta. During the rainy season Venerable Puóóa established
as many as five hundred men and as many women as followers of
Dhamma.
A number of monks later approached the Buddha and reported
thus: “Venerable Puóóa, who was exhorted by the Lord in brief, has
died. What is his bourn, what is his future state?”
The Buddha: “Puóóa, the young man who followed the
Dhamma, has gained final Nibbána, O monks.”
Delighted, those monks rejoiced in what the Buddha had said.
Chapter 41
BUDDHIST COUNCILS
THE FIRST COUNCIL

In the early period of Buddhism, three Councils (saògìti) were held
to draw together the canonical texts and to ensure their purest form.
The first Council settled the Dhamma and Vinaya and arose
from the determination of the disciples of the Buddha to preserve
the purity of his teachings. It was held at Rájagaha immediately
after the Parinibbána of the Buddha, with the Venerable
Mahákassapa presiding over the assembly of five hundred monks.
Upáli and Ánanda also played an important role (Vin II 284f.).
Mahákassapa had not been present at the Parinibbána of the
Buddha at Kusinára. While he was travelling between Pává and
Kusinára with a large retinue, news of the decease of the Master
was brought to them by a naked ascetic of the Ájìvaka sect. One of
the monks, the thera Subhadda exhorted the other monks, who
were vociferous in their lamentation, “Do not grieve, we are now
free from that great ascetic who used to admonish us for our
unbecoming conduct! We will now be free to do as we wish without
any hindrance.” This irreverent remark filled Mahákassapa with
alarm for the future purity of the Dhamma as preached by the
Master. The remarks of Subhadda were a clear indication of the
need for the convening of a Council for the fulfilment of this noble
objective. It may be observed in this connection that Mahákassapa
was not the only person to have such thoughts. There were many
others who felt that with the passing away of the Master, the
Dhamma he had taught would disappear.
After some deliberation, the town of Rájagaha was selected for
the meeting of the Council, and it was held near the Sattapaóói
Cave which was situated on the side of Mount Vebhára. The
meeting actually took place in the second month of the rainy season.
Mahákassapa took the initiative and chose 499 other monks to form
the Council. The number of the monks chosen was in pursuance of a
vote by the general congregation of monks assembled on the
occasion of the Master’s Parinibbána. There was however some
protest regarding the omission of Venerable Ánanda, and he was
accepted as a result of a motion put forward by the monks.
The procedure followed at the council was a simple one. With

the permission of the Saògha, Mahákassapa put questions on the
Vinaya to Upáli. All the questions related to the four offences of
defeat (párájika) as well as to the question as to who would be guilty
and who innocent of these offences. In the same manner the text of
all the remaining Vinaya rules was agreed upon at the Council.
Next, Mahákassapa put questions on the Sutta Piþaka, including
all the five Nikáyas, to Ánanda. The answers given by Ánanda gave
the occasions of the sermons and the person or persons with
reference to whom they were given. These answers settled the
corpus of the Sutta Piþaka.
Notwithstanding Ánanda’s very significant contribution in the
Council, there was in fact considerable agitation over his admission
to the Council. Venerable Mahákassapa is said to have entertained
misgivings on his admission on the grounds of his failure to reach
arahantship, which he did not actually reach until the eve of the
Council. Despite this achievement Ánanda was admonished at the
Council on several points as follows:
1. He neglected to ask which were the minor and lesser training
rules when the Buddha advised him that after his passing
away the monks could repeal them if they wished to. This
was due to his being overwhelmed with grief at the imminent
passing away of the Master (See Maháparinibbána-sutta, D II
154.).
2. He had to press the corner of the Master’s robe with his feet
while sewing it as there was no one to assist him.
3. He permitted women to worship the body of the Master
first.
4. He was under the spell of Mára (the evil one) when he
forgot to request the Master to live on to the end of the aeon
(kappa).
5. He interceded to plead for the admission of women to the
Order out of compassion for Mahápajápatì Gotamì.
Another important business that was conducted at the First
Council was the passing of the highest penalty on Venerable
Channa who was the charioteer of the Master at the time of his great
renunciation. Due to this he was extremely arrogant. The penalty
imposed was one of complete social boycott.
In summary, the First Council achieved four results:
BUDDHIST COUNCILS 303
1. The settlement of the Vinaya under the leadership of Upáli.

2. The settlement of the text of the Dhamma under the
leadership of Ánanda.
3. The admonishment of Venerable Ánanda.
4. The punishment of Venerable Channa.
There is an account of the First Council in the second volume of
Dulva, the Tibetan Vinaya of the Sarvástiváda school. According to
that account the fixing of the Canon took place in the following
order: 1) Dharma by Ánanda, 2) Vinaya by Upáli, and 3) Mátºká (i.e.
Abhidharma) by Mahákáøyapa himself. So according to the Dulva, the
Abhidhaºma was also established at the First Council. Fa-hian and
Hiuen-thsang1 also mention the First Council and the latter
mentions the redaction of Abhidharma by Mahákáøyapa.
THE SECOND COUNCIL

The Second Council was held at Vesáli a century after the passing
away of the Master. The monks of the Vajji country were in the habit
of practising Ten Points (dasa vatthúni) which were regarded as
unorthodox by Yasa, the son of Kákaóðaka. In the presence of the
supporters of the Vajji monks he declared these practices to be
unlawful and immoral. The Vajji monks, however, pronounced the
penalty of paþisáraóìya-kamma upon him. This formal act of the
Saògha commands the offender to apologize to a lay-person or
person he has offended. Yasa defended his own view and by his
eloquent advocacy won the lay supporters over to his own side.
This increased the fury of the Vajji monks who pronounced the
punishment of ukkhepaóìya-kamma upon Yasa, which meant his
virtual expulsion from the Saògha. This formal act of the Saògha
suspends the monk’s participation in the Pátimokkha recital and
other formal acts of the Saògha.
The ten points were as follows:
1. The practice of carrying salt in a horn (siògiloóakappa). This
practice is contrary to Pácittiya rule 38 which prohibits the storage of
food.
2. The practice of taking meals when the shadow is two fingers
broad (dvaògulakappa); i.e. when it is after noon. This is against
Pácittiya rule 37 which forbids the taking of food after midday.
1. S. Beal, Buddhist Records, I pp. lx-lxi; pp. 162–164; J. Legge, Records of

Buddhist Kingdoms, p. 85.
3. The practice of going to another house and taking a second

meal there on the same day (gámantarakappa). This is contrary to
Pácittiya rule 35 which forbids eating after being satisfied.
4. The practice of observing the Uposatha ceremony in various
places within the same monastic compound (ávásakappa). This is
contrary to the rules of residence in a monastic compound (sìma).
5. The practice of obtaining consent for a formal act of the
Saògha after it has been done (anumatikappa). This is contrary to the
monastic discipline.
6. The practice of using customary practices as precedents
(ációóakappa). It is only allowable to do so if the customary practices
are already allowable, but not if they are not. There is no freedom
from offence if one is following the custom of one’s teacher who is
also wrong.
7. The practice of drinking buttermilk after meals (amathita-
kappa). This is contrary to Pácittiya 35 which forbids eating after being
satisfied.
8. The practice of drinking fermented toddy (jalogií pátum).
This is contrary to Pácittiya 51 which forbids the use of intoxicants.
9. The practice of using a rug with no border (adasakaí
nisìdanaí). This is contrary to Pácittiya 89.
10. The practice of accepting gold and silver (játarúparajataí
paþiggahaná). This is contrary to Nissaggiya Pácittiya 18 which forbids
the acceptance of gold and silver. (Cú¿avagga Ch XII, Vin III 294ff,
305.)
Venerable Yasa declared these points to be unlawful. After the
sentence of excommunication had been passed on him, he went to
Kosambi and sent messengers to the bhikkhus of the Western
country and Avanti and the Southern country inviting them to
assemble and decide the question in order to arrest the growth of
irreligion and to ensure the preservation of the Vinaya.
Next, he proceeded to the Ahogaògá Hill where Venerable
Sambhúta the rag-robe-wearer dwelt and expounded the Ten Points
advocated by the Vajjian monks. About the same time, sixty
arahants came from the Western country and eighty-eight from
Avantì and the Southern country. These monks declared the
question to be hard and subtle. They proceeded to meet Venerable
Revata of Soreyya and enlist his support. They placed the issue
before Venerable Revata and each one of the Ten Points was
declared to be invalid by him.
Meanwhile, the Vajjian monks also went to Venerable Revata

who was then at Sahaji in order to enlist his support for them, but
he refused. However, they urged his disciple, Uttara, to take up
their case, but he too refused. At the suggestion of Revata, the
monks returned to Vesálì in order to settle the dispute at the place
of its origin. Seven hundred monks met in a Council, but there was
much rambling talk and fruitless discussion. In order to avoid
further irrelevant discussion, the matter was referred to a
Committee consisting of four monks from the east and four from
the west. Bhikkhu Ajita was appointed as the seat regulator.
Venerable Sabbakámi was elected as President. The Ten Points were
put one by one and they were declared unlawful. The questions
were stated again and the same decision was arrived at in the full
assembly of the Council. The unanimous verdict of the assembly
declared the conduct of the Vajji monks to be unlawful.
The Council was held in the reign of King Kálásoka, a
descendant of Ajátasattu. Kálásoka, though formerly in favour of
the Vajjian monks, was prevailed upon to give his support to the
Council of Theras. After the final judgement, the seven hundred
monks engaged in the recital of the Vinaya and Dhamma and drew
up a new edition resulting in the Piþakas.
THE THIRD COUNCIL

The Third Council was held at Páþaliputta under the aegis of
Emperor Asoka. He was won over to Buddhism within a few years
of his ascension to the throne. The occasion for the Third Council
arose from the need to re-establish the purity of the Canon which
had been imperilled by the rise of different sects and their rival
claims, teachings and practices. The Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa,
who is reputed to have converted the Emperor to Buddhism, was
pained to observe the corrupt practices that had crept into the
Saògha and the heretical doctrines preached by sectarians of
various descriptions.
The Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa elected a thousand monks of
the Saògha who were well versed in the three Piþakas to make a
compilation of the true doctrine. For nine months he worked with
the monks and the authentic Tipiþaka was completed. This Council
was held in the same manner and with the same zeal as those of
Mahákassapa and Yasa. In the midst of the Council, Venerable
Moggaliputta Tissa set forth the Kathávatthu wherein the heretical
doctrines were thoroughly examined and refuted. He succeeded in
subduing the heresies and expelling the sectarians from the Saògha.
The most significant outcome of the Council was that it restored
the true doctrine and propounded the Abhidhamma treatise, Points
of Controversy (kathávatthu) during the session of the Council. Thus
ended the Third Council in which a thousand monks took part.
Another momentous result of this Council was the despatch of
dhammadúta or missionary monks to different countries for the
propagation of the Saddhamma, the true Dhamma. It is to a large
extent due to these dhammadúta activities that Buddhism became the
predominant religion of a large portion of mankind.
THE COUNCIL OF KANIÅKA

The Fourth Council was held under the auspices of King Kaniåka
who was a powerful king of the Øaka or Turuska race. He was
esteemed as highly by Northern Buddhists as Asoka was by the
Theravádins. It is almost certain that the date of the Council held
under his inspiration and patronage was about 100 C.E. The place of
the Council was, according to one authority, Jalandhara; and
according to another, in Kashmir. The Theravádins do not recognize
this Council and there is no reference to it in the Chronicles of
Ceylon. One of the results of the Council was the settling of the
dissensions in the Saògha. The king built a monastery for the
accommodation of 500 monks who were called upon to write
commentaries on the Piþakas. The proceedings of the Council were
thus confined to the composition of the commentaries.
COUNCILS IN SRI LANKA

According to the Chronicles and other traditions of Sri Lanka, three
Councils were held in Sri Lanka. The first of these was held during
the reign of King Devánampiyatissa (247–207 B.C.E.). This Council
was held after the arrival of the Buddhist monks, headed by arahant
Mahinda, a son of Emperor Asoka. According to tradition, sixty
thousand arahants took part in the assembly and as desired by
arahant Mahinda, the Venerable Ariþþha, a Sinhalese Thera, recited
the Canon. Ariþþha is considered to be the first Sinhalese pupil of
Mahinda. The Council took place at the site of the Thúpáráma in
Anurádhapura.
In spite of this, the next Council, which was held during the
time of King Vaþþagámaói Abhaya (101–77 B.C.E.) is considered by
the Theraváda school to be the fourth council. According to the
Sinhalese tradition, not only was the Tipiþaka rehearsed, but its
commentaries were revised. The learned Mahátheras decided to

hold this Council so that the entire Canon and the commentaries
might be committed to writing. At the end of the Council, texts,
along with the commentaries, were inscribed on palm leaves. As
many as 500 learned monks took part in the deliberations under the
Venerable Rakkhita Maháthera as president. This is called the
Álokavihára Council as it was held at Áloka Cave in the village of
Matale in Sri Lanka.
About a century ago, in 1865 C.E., another Council was held at
Ratnapura in Sri Lanka under the Venerable Hikkaðuve Siri
Sumaògala. It continued for five months and was patronized by
Iddamalgoða Basnáyaka Nilame.
COUNCILS IN THAILAND
The Saògìtivamsa, written by Somdej Phra Vanarat during the reign
of King Rama I in B.E. 2332 (1789 C.E.), records as many as nine
Councils. Of these nine Councils, the first three were held in India,
the fourth to seventh in Sri Lanka and the eighth and ninth in
Thailand. The history of the first five Councils is the same as that of
the Ceylon Chronicles. The last two councils, as described in the
Saògìtivaísa, were not Councils in the true sense of the term.
The Sixth Council, as mentioned in the Saògìtivaísa, was held
during the reign of King Mahánáma in B.E. 516 (in Sri Lanka) in
which only the commentaries were translated from Sinhalese into
Pali by Venerable Buddhaghosa.
The Seventh Council is said to have revised only the commentar-
ies on the Tipiþaka and these were recited in the Council held under
Venerable Mahákassapa of Udumbaragiri as President. This took
place in B.E. 1587 in the reign of King Parákramabáhu the Great. This
Council, which took place in the royal palace, lasted a year.
The Eighth Council was convened by King Sridharmacakravarti
Tilaka Rájádhirája, the ruler of Northern Thailand, in Chiengmai,
his capital. The Council was held in Mahábodhi Áráma between
2000 and 2026 B.E. and continued for a year. All the learned monks
in Thailand took part in this Council.
The Ninth Council was held in Bangkok in B.E. 2331, after a war
between Thailand and a neighbouring kingdom. The old capital of
Ayodhya was destroyed by fire and many books and manuscripts
of the Tipiþaka were reduced to ashes. Under the royal patronage,
218 elders and 32 lay scholars assembled together and continued the
recitation of the Tipiþaka for about a year.
COUNCILS IN BURMA
The first three Councils having been held in India and the fourth in
Sri Lanka where the Pali books were committed to writing, the fifth
Council was held in order to prepare a uniform edition of the Pali
Canon and to record it on marble slabs. This great Buddhist Council
was convened at Mandalay in 1871 C.E. under the patronage of
King Mindon Min, and 2,400 learned monks and teachers
participated. The Elders Jágarábhivaísa, Narindábhidhaja and
Sumaògala Sámi presided in turn. The recitation and recording of
the Tipiþaka on marble continued for about five months in the royal
palace. Various available editions of the Tipiþaka were used for
comparison and collation by the learned Mahátheras, and the
recording was done with painstaking care on 729 marble slabs,
especially selected for the purpose.
The sixth Council was inaugurated in May 1954, in Rangoon,
with the collaboration and participation of the learned Mahátheras
of various countries of the world, particularly India, Sri Lanka,
Nepal, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Bangladesh.1 The Venerable
Abhidhaja Maháraþþhaguru Bhadanta Revata presided. Venerable
Mahási Sayadaw took the role of chief questioner, the central role in
clarifying the Tipiþaka. About 500 monks from Burma, well versed
in the Tipiþaka, took part in re-examining the texts of the Tipiþaka.
Similar groups of learned monks were organized in each of the
Buddhist countries to examine their texts. The Great Council that
was inaugurated in 1954 was to go on until the completion of its
task at the full-moon of Vesákha, 1956. That was the 2,500th
anniversary of the Buddha’s Parinibbána. In this Council the texts of
the Tipiþaka with their commentaries and sub-commentaries were
revised and edited and brought out in printed form, amounting to
118 volumes in Burmese script.
1. The author had the privilege to participate in this council.

Chapter 42
MAHÁYÁNA PHILOSOPHY
Buddhism is probably the most tolerant of all belief systems and it

has encouraged people to ‘come and see’ (ehipassiko). The Buddha-
Dhamma is dynamic, not static, and it has spread to many lands:
from India to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and Cambodia (as the
Theraváda, the School of the Elders), and to China and Japan, Tibet
and Mongolia (as the Maháyána), to name but a few places. People
of different intellectual levels adopted it and accepted it along with
many of their own indigenous traditions. It has been said that not a
drop of blood was shed in the peaceful penetration of Buddhism—it
adapted and took in all-comers who realised that the Dhamma is
ehipassiko.1
Maháyánists vary a good deal in their beliefs. They modified
Buddhism in two important ways: the attainment of liberation by
the individual ceased to be the ultimate aim, and the one who enters
into enlightenment is expected to work for the good of his
fellowman. He is not satisfied with his own individual ‘nirváóa’.
Such a person is a ‘wisdom being’ (bodhisattva) and the ideal
emphasises the well-being of others. The Buddha was a bodhisattva
in his previous lives. The ideal of the Maháyána is love and
compassion. Theraváda Buddhism, which most scholars agree is
much nearer to the original teaching of the Buddha, says that
Buddha was a human being essentially, while Maháyánists deify
him and some schools adopted worship of him as a way to salvation
(notably, the Pure Land School). One might argue that one can work
for the good of all beings best by attaining Nibbána but
Maháyánists would dispute this with vigour. Maháyána was very
much influenced by Hinduism and there are pantheons of
bodhisattvas, similar to theistic Hinduism with its pantheon of gods
and goddesses.
There are two main schools of Maháyána philosophy,
Vijñáóaváda and Mádhyamika.
1. Literally “come and see”. Buddhism invites investigation and no

attempt is made to proselytise or preach to others without their concurrence.
The Vijñáóaváda philosophy is subjective idealism (or

subjectivism), and it places all experience on the same level as
dreams. In other words, it abolishes the distinction between truth
and illusion because in both there is no object outside knowledge.
Knowledge, according to this school, points to no external object
whatsoever. There is only the self which is conceived of as a stream
of ideas but none of the ideas is here regarded as having any
objective counterpart. The doctrine reduces all reality to thought
and so it is called Vijñáóaváda, or ‘The Theory of the Sole Reality of
Ideas’. One of the chief arguments in support of it is based upon the
inseparable connection that is observed to exist between subject and
object. There is no knowledge which does not refer to an object and
there is no object that can be conceived except as known. The chief
objection to it is that it abolishes the distinction between truth and
illusion, because in both alike there is no object outside knowledge.
We infer that dreams are false by comparing them with our
experiences when we are awake. But, if waking experience is also
false, we may ask by what experience it is to be shown to be so.
Whatever the answer of the Yogácára to this question may be, his
position is untenable for he will have to admit either that there is a
higher kind of knowledge which is not false or else that waking
experience itself is true. Also, the subjectivist, as a consequence of
rejecting external objects, must deny the existence of all selves
beside his own, for if there is no reason to believe in external
physical objects, then, there can be none to believe in other people,
except as part of his dream. So it becomes solipsism or the theory
that there is only a solitary self and that everything else is mere
fancy. Such a theory cannot logically be proved to be wrong, but it
stultifies all the presuppositions of practical life and puts an end to
all philosophical inquiry.
The idealism of this school consists in this explanation of objects
etc., as but ‘states’ or ‘forms’ of the ‘mind’ (the flow of ideas which
makes up the self). The assumption of these forms of the mind is
due to the revival of former impressions (vasana) left on it by
previous experience and the diversity of perception is explained by
the nature of the revived impressions, and not by diversity in the
objects presented. It may be thought that the original impression at
least must be due to an external object. But two arguments are used
to ward off this. First, it is denied that the impressions have any
origin in time. They are literally without any beginning. Second, it is
pointed out that the impressions are left on the mind not merely by
MAHÁYÁNA PHILOSOPHY 311
valid knowledge caused by a corresponding object outside it, but

also by mistake, e.g. the fancied perception of a ghost. To suppose
that every mental impression should be finally traceable to an
external object, actually existing, is to beg the very question at issue.
So even if there were a beginning to any series of impressions it
would not establish the existence of a real object corresponding to it
at any time in the past.
The Mádhyamika (Øúnyataváda) philosophy denies not only the
reality of external objects but also of the self. It says that the notion of
things, physical and psychical, is full of contradictions and so cannot
be accepted as being real. Several arguments are put forward to
support it. One is based upon the Buddhist view of causation.
According to it, nothing is uncaused (except Nirváóa), and the
Mádhyamika points out that the notion of an object originating is not
possible, whether we regard it as existing or not before origination. In
the first case, it does not require to be produced; in the latter it is
impossible to produce it, for nothing cannot be made to become
something. It means that the notion of causation itself is a delusion,
and since, according to Buddhism, there is nothing that is permanent,
we have to conclude that the whole universe is illusory. Nágárjuna,
the greatest teacher of this school, says: “There is neither being, nor
cessation of it; there is neither bondage, nor escape from it.” The
doctrine is known as the ‘Doctrine of the Void’, øúnyaváda.
The explanation of all experience as a delusion is only from the
ultimate standpoint. The doctrine grants a sort of reality (samvºti-
satya) to the subject as well as the object and they are held to be real,
relatively, to the activities of everyday life. It does not deny that we
know, feel and act but it holds that the final significance of it is
nothing because all is void. So the term ‘relativism’ suits it better than
‘idealism’ does. The denial of consciousness is itself a state of
consciousness and therefore points to the persistence or
irrepressibility of mind. It may be wondered, too, if the Mádhyamika
can speak at all of a realm of relativity when it recognizes no reality
which is absolute. Both the Jains and the Hindus have made out that
this school contends that the ultimate reality is the void or vacuity-in-
itself. The majority of modern scholars who have studied it have said
that ‘the void’ (øúnya) here means only that it is nothing, as it were,
since it is altogether incomprehensible. This view is supported by the
Mádhyamika definition of the ultimate reality viz., that it neither ‘is’
nor ‘is not’ nor ‘both is and is not’ nor ‘neither is nor is not’—the
ultimate has to be seen as beyond all conception and not as an
absolute nothing. This is logically involved in the doctrine since the

negation of everything, without implying a positive ground is not
conceivable. The doctrine, according to this interpretation comes to
be one accepting an Absolute, and the Yogácáras, also accepted an
Absolute Consciousness or Universal Self in addition to the particular
egos. The goal of life in Maháyána Buddhism is merging in the
Absolute and not annihilation.
Chapter 43
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PARITTA
It is an undeniable fact that in every religion in the world many

aspects—philosophical, moral and benedictive—have been
developed by the followers beyond its original teaching and
practice. The benedictive aspect was often directed towards the
warding off of evil influences. Throughout history man has
commonly believed that there are ghosts, demons and evil forces
which can adversely influence and harm human beings and their
environment. Thus the benedictive aspects tended to be concerned
with important events of the world such as drought and rain,
calamity and tranquillity, danger and security, famine and
prosperity, illness and health. Therefore, in order to avoid these
situations, recourse was sought in various forms of benediction.
From time immemorial, most of mankind has thought that there
was a sense and a power in sounds and the composition of selected
syllables in the form of words, hymns or verses. Accordingly, the
tradition of chanting verses and prayers and uttering mantras on
occasions of happiness, joy and sorrow is widely prevalent in
diverse traditions. In India the need for benediction in very early
times was fulfilled by Brahmins with Vedic mantras, especially
those of the Atharvaveda. It played an important part in the religious
life of the people.
Similarly, the Buddhist believes that there is a great power in the
words that came out of the mouth of the Buddha who was totally free
from all defilements such as desire, anger and ignorance. By
attentively listening and following the words of the Buddha
(Buddhavacana), one can attain happiness in this life and the next and
is able to attain the ultimate, everlasting bliss of Nibbána. It is said,
“The word which the Buddha speaks, a sure, safe guide to Nibbána,
puts an end to all ill-will, that is the word supreme.” (S I 189).
After the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka in the third
century B.C.E., a book entitled the Catubháóavára-pá¿i1 was
compiled, containing appropriate texts gleaned from the Sutta
Piþaka for the purpose of chanting. These sayings of the Buddha
which were formalised for chanting were called Paritta.2
Paritta means ‘protection’, ‘safeguard’ or ‘safety’ and the

collection of texts is recited mainly on special occasions. It is still
widely used by Buddhists of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Sri
Lanka and other Theraváda countries for warding off evil
influences or to bring about fortune or prosperity. It is primarily
used for invoking blessings and benediction, but in some cases it
has become a formula for exorcism. There is a common belief that
most of the afflictions and misfortunes that men suffer are due to
the anger of malignant beings or forces, therefore it is believed that
the anger of these spirits can be appeased by chanting Paritta.
The paritta ceremony is used on all possible occasions, i.e.,
before embarking on a journey, inaugurating any project, and also
in times of illness, epidemic, drought, famine, flood, and other
disasters. New-born babies and newly-married couples are also
blessed by the chanting of paritta.
Dháraóì or protective ‘spells’ is the counterpart of paritta in
Maháyána. They constitute a large and important part of its
literature. Dháraóì is a synonym of rakøá . Like the Sinhalese
Buddhists, Maháyána Buddhists also transformed some sútras into
magical formulae. There are numerous invocations of deities of both
Buddhist and Hindu origin.
Buddhist philosophy teaches a theory of kamma (action) and
vipáka (consequences). However, vipáka could be mitigated by
various methods which are again stipulated in the teaching.
The Paritta ceremony is professed to have sanctity in the
surroundings as well as among the listeners, but its effect may be
reduced or negated by the effects of grave kamma, by the presence
of mental defilements in the listeners, or by lack of faith.
1. Bháóavára is a term for a literary work of measures or parts for recital.

8,000 syllables constitute a bháóavára. The book contains four (catu) such
bháóaváras. The alternative title of the work is Parittapotthaka (Sinhala: Pirit
pota or Piruvana-potvahanse).
2. Cf. Skt. Paritráóa—neuter, Mánavadharmaøáøtra, Prakrit, Parittána, n.
trai; Pali Paritta, feminine -tá—n. to to protect, with prefix pari—from all
directions = protecting from all directions. Sinhala Pirit (by enchantment) <
Parit.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PARITTA 315
THE PARITTA TEXTS

The Paritta text consists of four parts. According to Theraváda
tradition in Sri Lanka it should be memorised by all bhikkhus
before completion of their nissaya period.1
The word Paritta first occurs in the Cú¿avagga (Vin II 109; also in
J-a II 146) and the Aòguttara Nikáya (A II 72) in connection with the
Khandha Paritta as a protection for oneself. The occasion for the
delivery of this discourse was the death of a monk by snake bite.
When the Buddha was asked why the monk died, he said, “It was
because he did not show loving- kindness (mettá) towards the four
tribes of snakes, namely: Virúpakkha, Erápatha, Chabyáputta and
Kaóhágotamaka.” If he had practised mettá, he would not have died.
Rhys Davids comments on this as follows, “The profession of amity,
according to Buddhist doctrine, was no mere matter of petty speech.
It was to accompany an express psychic suffusion of the hostile man
or beast or spirit with benign, fraternal emotion—with mettá. For
strong was the conviction, from Sutta to Vinaya to Buddhaghosa’s
Visuddhimagga, that ‘thoughts are things’. That psychical action,
emotional or intellectual, is capable of working like a force among
forces. Europe may yet come round further to this Indian attitude.”2
The Mahámaògala-sutta (Khp 2–8; Sn 258–269) is often recited as
a protection. It deals with auspicious signs or blessings. From
ancient times all sorts of objects and events were regarded as good
or bad omens which could bring about good luck or misfortune.
Maògalas were auspicious signs regarded as blessings. In the
Mahámaògala-sutta, thirty-eight entirely different and practical
blessings were elucidated by the Buddha, for example: avoidance of
bad company, association with the wise, honouring those worthy of
honour, rendering service to parents, to wife and children, giving
alms, patience, obedience, etc. This sutta was preached by the
Buddha in reply to a god who asked about auspicious signs. It is
similar to the Øvástyáyana gáthá3 and also occurs in the Mahámaògala
Játaka (J 453), thus showing the great antiquity of these blessings.
The Ratana-sutta (Sn 222–238; Khp 3–6) is one of the finest lyrics
in early Pali poetry. It contains charming hymns of praise of the
Buddhist Holy Triad—Buddha, Dhamma and Saògha. It is recited
1. Nissaya, an initial five year period of dependence or apprenticeship,

during which a bhikkhu is to stay with his teacher.
2. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha III p. 185–86.
3. Verses on well-being; hymns which invoke blessings.
to ward off danger and to secure prosperity. Vesálì, a prosperous

city of the democratic Licchavi people, was plagued by drought,
famine and an epidemic of a contagious disease called ‘snake-
breath’ (ahivátaka); non-human beings were attracted to the city due
to the stench of the corpses. The Licchavis requested the Buddha to
come from Rájagaha. When the Buddha came, he stopped at the city
gate and addressed the Venerable Ánanda, “Learn this ‘Jewel Sutta’
and with the Licchavi princes perform a safeguarding ceremony
(Paritta) in procession around the city, taking with you materials for
making ceremonial offerings.” Then Ánanda took water in the
Buddha’s begging bowl and proceeded around the city sprinkling
the water and reciting the sutta. The demons fled on hearing the
sutta and the sickness of the people abated. The Buddha then
entered the city hall (santhágára) and preached the same Ratana-sutta
to the assembly. In the time of King Upatissa (370–412 C.E.) in Sri
Lanka, the island was afflicted by a drought, and on the advice of
the monks this sutta was recited and the calamities disappeared.
The king issued a decree advising the use of the same ceremony in
the future (Mhv Ch. xxxvii 189–198).
The Karaóìyametta-sutta (Khp 8–9; Sn 143–152) was preached by
the Buddha to some monks who complained of being harassed by
evil forces while meditating in the forest. The Buddha taught them
the Karaóìyametta-sutta and told them to develop the meditation on
loving-kindness. He instructed them to return to the same forest
grove, assuring them that those beings would wish them well.
The other suttas in the Paritta were chosen mainly for two
reasons: one is diffusing the benedictive nature of ethical and moral
teachings; the other is that some suttas are pleasing to deities.
The book of Paritta, the Catubháóavára-pá¿i, opens with the
Saraóágamana (taking refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Saògha),
Dasasikkhápada (the ten precepts), Dvattiísakára (meditation on the
thirty-two types of bodily impurities; Khp 1–2), and the
Paccavekkhaóá (introspection on the use of the four requisites; A III
388). Then the suttas begin; the first one being the Dasadhamma-sutta
(A V 87), which contains the ten virtues which should be often
recollected and practised by Buddhist monks. After this they invoke
the blessings with asseveration.
Then follow the three main suttas: Mahámaògala, Ratana and
Karaóìyametta which in turn are followed in sequence by the
Khandha Paritta (cultivation of loving- kindness towards snakes; A II
72; Vin II 109), the Mettánisaísa (on the benefits of friendship and
loyalty; A V 342), the Mora-paritta (a short verse said to have been

recited by a peacock to secure protection by praising the sun god,
the Arahants and the Buddhas; J-a II 33). Next are the Canda-paritta
(S I 50) and the Suriya-paritta (S I 51), connected with the virtues of
the Buddha and the relief of affliction coming from Ráhu (eclipse) by
paying homage to and reflecting on the Buddha; then the Dhajagga-
sutta (the crest or banner; S I 281f.; Mil 150) which embodies the
noble qualities of the Triple Gem and is a specific remedy against
fear. This is followed by the three Bojjhaòga-suttas recited by Cunda
to the Buddha (S V 81), by the Buddha to Mahákassapa (S V 80), and
by the Buddha to Moggallána (S V 79), respectively, on occasions of
illness. They contain the seven factors of enlightenment. Then there
is the Girimánanda-sutta (A V 108), which contains a list of different
ailments and is a meditation on the repulsive aspects of the body
taught by the Buddha to Ánanda for the benefit of Girimánanda
who was grievously sick. Next is the Isigili-sutta (an enumeration of
Paccekabuddhas; M III 68).
The next sutta, the Áþánáþiya-sutta (D III 253) was approved by
the Buddha on the recommendation of four guardian deities for
protection from demons. On one occasion, the Buddha was staying
on the Vultures’ Peak near Rájagaha when the Four Great Kings, the
guardian deities of the four quarters of the celestial regions, came to
tell him that there were many demons in the land who neither
believed in the Buddha nor abided by the five precepts, and who
would frighten and attack monks and lay devotees who retired to
lonely places for meditation. Therefore the Great King Vessavaóa
(or Kuvera) wanted to present the Áþánáþiya Paritta to the Buddha so
that it might be recited to make the displeased demons pleased; and
consequently the monks, nuns and lay devotees would be at ease,
guarded, protected and unharmed. It mentions gods and yakkhas or
demons who are not pleased with the Buddha. The Buddha gave his
consent by remaining silent so King Vessavaóa recited this Paritta
sutta. Then the four guardian deities departed. When the night had
passed, the Buddha addressed the monks and told them to learn the
Áþánáþiya-sutta by heart and to recite it constantly. It is regarded as
pertaining to the welfare of the disciples and as a saving chant (rakøá
mantra) to get rid of evil forces.
The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (Vin I 10ff; S V 420f.) was the
first sermon of the Buddha to the five ascetics who were his
companions. Because many thousands of deities assembled to listen
to this discourse, people believe that, on occasions of reciting it,
deities are pleased and so protect the listeners. The Mahásamaya-

sutta (Celestial Retinue of the Buddha; D III 194), mentions some
gods who are found in this earth, and also in the regions above. It
gives us a long list of gods. The Parábhava-sutta (Sn 91–115) is the
antithesis of the Maògala-sutta. It was taught by the Buddha to a god
who visited him and asked what was the cause of one’s downfall.
To put it in a nutshell, the Buddha told him that the love of
Dhamma led to progress, hating Dhamma led to downfall.
The Á¿avaka-sutta (Sn 181–192) consists of the answers given by
the Buddha to a demon named Á¿avaka who asked a number of
questions. The Aggikabháradvája- or Vasala-sutta (Sn 116–142; S I 213)
explains the true meaning of an outcaste. The Buddha explained to
Aggikabháradvája that by deeds alone one becomes an outcaste or a
noble man, and not by birth. The Kasibháradvája-sutta (Sn 76–82; S I
172) contains a conversation with a Brahmin on ethics and moral
principles. The Saccavibhaòga-sutta (M III 248) explains the Four
Noble Truths in detail.
The Áþánáþiya-sutta is recited at the conclusion of Paritta
ceremonies. It is regarded as having influence which pervades a
hundred million world systems, and therefore is recited with great
fervour. It begins with salutations to the seven Buddhas beginning
with Vipassi, and is followed by the names of other gods and
superhuman beings. This sutta is considered most powerful in
exorcism.
The recipient should take five precepts together with the
congregation, and then the Paritta is recited. If the evil forces do not
leave, the Paritta recitation is repeated, beginning with the Maògala-
sutta. The force should be told that if it leaves the victim, the merits
of the offerings will be transferred to him, and he should leave out
of respect for the Saògha. After declaring that the force must obey
the word of the Buddha, the Áþánáþiya-sutta is once again recited.
THE PARITTA CEREMONY

In Sri Lanka, no social function, religious festival or ceremony is
complete without the recital of Paritta. It can be a simple ceremony
or elaborate as the occasion demands. A special pavilion (maóðapa)
is constructed and gaily decorated with flowers and leaves. The text
of a palm-leaf manuscript is brought together with the sacred relic
casket which is installed on the altar. First the Buddha Pújá is
performed followed by casting flowers, fried grain, mustard,
broken rice, jasmine and a special kind of grass (Heteropogon hirtus).
Then the Paritta thread (pirit núla) is twisted round a new clay pot
filled with water, and the thread is hung around the interior of the
pavilion and tied around the Paritta text and the relic casket, and
then held by the monks and all of the congregation. The sponsor
then invites the monks to recite Paritta with the following gáthá:
Vipatti-paþibáháya sabbasampatti-siddhiyá,
Sabbadukkha-vinásáya parittaí brútha maògalaí,
Sabbabhaya-vinásáya parittaí brútha maògalaí,
Sabbaroga-vinásáya parittaí brútha maògalaí.
In order to ward of all calamities, to fulfil all fortunes,
For the destruction of all sufferings, please recite the parittas,
For the destruction of all fears, please recite the parittas,
For the destruction of all diseases, please recite the parittas.
Then the leading monk invites the devas as follows:
Samantá cakkavá¿esu
Atrágacchantu devatá
Saddhammaí munirájassa
Suóantu saggamokkhadaí
In all the world systems,
may all the devatas come to listen
to the Good Law of the king of sages,
which gives divine and Nibbánic bliss.
Then the assembled monks chant the three suttas, i.e. the Maògala,
Ratana- and Karaóìyametta-sutta, and conclude with the Jayamaògala-
gáthá. Thereafter they begin to chant the whole of the Paritta text from
beginning to end, in relays of two monks. Thus after one hour when it
is time for the next pair of monks they can change seats without
stopping the recitation. The period of chanting can be as little as one
hour or as much as one week, depending on the occasion. When the
chanting continues for several days, the whole group of monks
assemble three times a day to chant the three main suttas, and on the
morning of the last day a grand procession is organised to send a
messenger of the gods (devadúta) to the neighbouring monastery. The
messenger conveys messages to the guardian deities, who are invited
to attend the ceremony prior to its conclusion so that they may
partake of its benefits. Until the messenger returns, the officiating
monks remain seated, but the chanting is suspended. Then when the
messenger returns with the devatás the Parittas are chanted more
energetically than ever. An admonition (anusásaná) is delivered to the

assembly, and the Áþánáþiya Sutta is recited for the last time to bring
the ceremony to a close.
By then the thread and the water have become sacred, and the
sacred water is sprinkled over the participants who take a sip of it,
and the thread is tied around their wrists or necks by the monks. All
these observances are regarded as protective measures against
danger, and are blessings. The Buddhists in Theraváda countries
have great esteem for the recital of Paritta to ward off malignant
forces and to promote health and prosperity. The general rule
underlying the chanting of Paritta is to emanate loving-kindness
and compassion towards all beings. The chanting of loving-
kindness is no mere sentimentality, it is imbued with psychical and
emotional power. The reciters must have great love towards the
listeners, and the listeners must listen with respectful attention, and
thereby the expected result could be fully realised. Another aspect
of receiving the efficacy of Paritta is that of asseveration of truth
(saccakiriyá) by the monks.
The Paritta ceremony is not a deviation from Buddhism, but is in
perfect harmony with it. Of the forty meditation objects enumerated
in the Visuddhimagga, one of them is the recollection of the Dhamma
(dhammánussati; Vism VII.68–88/pp. 213–18). Therefore, the recital of
Paritta is another way of practising dhammánussati.
HINDU INFLUENCE
During the Polonnaruwa period (C.E. 1017–1235) in Sri Lanka
Hindu elements were gradually assimilated into the Paritta
ceremony. Then during the Kandy period (C.E. 1494–1815), several
ritual elements of the ceremony were given prominence, thus
making the ceremony more glamorous and devotional so that
Hindu devotees could participate with the Buddhists on such
occasions; aspects such as the messenger of the deities, gateway
message (dorakaða-asna) and the admonition (anusásaná) were
added, and mingled with the chants of Paritta.
Rites, rituals and ceremonies are not the essence of the Buddha’s
teaching, but these elegant and innocent practices give rise to
inspiration, devotion, unity, goodwill, and friendship.
THE EFFICACY OF PARITTA

The Paritta ceremony is a form of saccakiriyá (Skt. satyakriyá), an
asseveration of truth of something embodied in the Parittas. By the
assertion of the truth, evil influences and diseases are warded off.
This means establishing in oneself the power of the truth to gain
one’s end. The Buddha said, “The truth protects him who lives by
it” (dhammo have rakkhati dhammacárì). This power of truth is also
permeated throughout with the practice of loving-kindness (mettá).
The power of love is a limitless force in warding off evil influences,
healing diseases and promoting health. There are many stories
which depict the efficacy of Paritta, and the following one is well
known among Buddhists.
Two Brahmins became ascetics, but after practising austerities
together for forty-eight years, one of them reverted to lay-life.
Some years later he returned with his wife and child to pay
obeisance to his former companion. When he blessed them he
said, ‘Long life to you’ to the man and his wife, but not to the
child. When questioned about the reason for this, the ascetic
told them that their son had only seven days to live, and
suggested that they should see the Buddha to ask him if there
was any means of averting the child’s death. They did so, and
the Buddha told them to erect a pavilion outside their house for
the recital of Paritta. The monks recited Paritta for seven days,
and the Buddha did so all night long. At the end of the seven
days, the Yakkha Avaruddhaka, to whom the child had been
promised, could no longer claim him. The Buddha declared that
the boy would live for 120 years, and he was renamed
Áyuvaddhana. (Dhp-a II 235ff.)
The sounds of chanting are regarded as a penetrating and
effective force. The power of good thoughts mixed with the
vibrations of the sound can be transmitted to beings over great
distances. It is believed that the sonorous sounds of Paritta sooth the
nervous system, purify the blood and produce peace and
tranquillity of mind, thus bringing about harmony of the physical
state.
Again, in the Paritta there is the power of morality. One takes
the five precepts at the outset, and the Maògala-, Parábhava-, Á¿avaka,
and Vasala-suttas describe the benefits of a virtuous life. Listening
with reverence to the Dhamma is also a virtue, and morality is the
basis of mental culture (bhávaná) which purifies the mind from the
defilements which cause disease and distress.
Mrs C.A.F. Rhys Davids, whom we have quoted earlier, was of
the opinion that the Parittas are not alien to Buddhist doctrine, but
are as much in harmony with it as prayer is with theistic religions.

She remarks that the harmful spirits are not, as in other cults,
cursed, but are blessed with good wishes and suffused with love.
Even the most malignant beings are looked on, not as hopelessly
and eternally damned, but as erring unfortunates upon their long
upward way. These Parittas are intended to arrange benign agencies
on the side of the patient, and to ward off those that may harm. She
compares them to prayers like Balaam’s inspiration, “Let me die the
death of the righteous and let my last end be like his.”1
In the course of his teaching the Buddha never precluded the
practice of what is beneficial. He said:
“By chant and charm, well-worded speech,
Gifts and by custom rightly kept,
Where and whatever good may gotten be
Just there let him exert himself for that.”
(A III 56, 62; J III 205; cf. Mvu 290)
In the Milindapañhá, a Bactrian king, King Menander (2nd century
B.C.E.) asked:
“Venerable Nágasena, if the Blessed One said:
‘Not in the sky, not in the ocean’s midst,
Not in the most secluded mountain cleft,
Not in the whole wide world is found the spot,
Where remaining, one could escape the snare of death’.
(Dhp 127, cf. 128; Pv 21)
then the Parittas like Ratana, Khandha, Mora, Dhajagga, Áþánáþiya,
Aògulimála etc., prescribed by the Buddha for the protection of those
in danger must be useless. If the Paritta ceremony is not useless,
then it must be false that there is no escape from death.”
To this Nágasena replied:
“Paritta verses, O king, are meant for those who have some portion
of their life left to run. There is no ceremony or artificial means for
prolonging the life of one whose allotted span of life has come to an
end. There are three reasons for the failure of Paritta: the obstruction
caused by past kamma, that caused by present defilements, and that
caused by lack of faith. That which is a protection to beings loses its
power through the fault of their own making. Just, O king, as a
1. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha III pp. 186–187.

mother lovingly nourishes the son who has entered her womb and
brings him forth with care. And after birth she keeps him clean from
dirt and stains and mucus and anoints him with the most costly
perfumes, and when others abuse or strike him she seizes them and,
full of excitement, drags them before the Lord of the place. But
when her son is naughty, or comes in late, she strikes him with a rod
on her knee or with her hands. Now, that being so, would she get
seized and dragged along and have to appear before the Lord.”
“But why not?”
“Because the boy was at fault.”
“Just in the same way, O king, will Paritta, which is a protection
to beings, yet, by their own fault, turn against them.” (Mil 150–154.)
THE OCCASIONS
The Arahant Aògulimála, on the advice of the Buddha, performed
asseveration of truth for an expectant mother who was suffering
pangs of labour, declaring that he had not intentionally killed any
living thing from the time he became a noble disciple. Immediately
she got relief and delivered a child. In Buddhist countries expectant
mothers are blessed by this Aògulimála-paritta (M II 97, Mil 150–154).
In Sri Lankan Buddhist monasteries it is an indispensable
monastic duty (vatta) of the residing monks to chant Paritta every
morning and evening. They assemble in one place, either in the
Vihára or under the Bodhi Tree. First of all, each one reveals his
minor offences and they chant Paritta in unison. At the end they pay
salutation to their teachers and elders. This monastic observance is
known as Vatta-paritta (Sinhalese: Vata-pirita).
The chanting of Paritta either for blessings or safety at the outset
of auspicious work in the Vihára or in the homes of devotees, is
called Santi-paritta (Sinhalese: Set-pirita). In some cases, Paritta is
chanted for two or three sessions, morning and evening. All-night
Paritta and seven-day Paritta are also ceremonially conducted by lay
devotees as occasion demands. All-night Paritta, as well as seven-
day Paritta, begins with chanting of three suttas: Mahámaògala,
Ratana and Karaóìya mettá with the Jayamaògala-gáthá. As all the
assemblage of the monks takes part in unison, it called the
Maháparitta (Sinhalese: Mahápirita).1
Chapter 44
THE HISTORY OF THE STÚPA
It is recorded in the Pali texts (D II 156f.) that when the Buddha

passed away at the Malla princes’ park in Kusinára, and when his
body was cremated only fragments of the bones remained. The
Mallas laid these sacred relics in a golden chamber in their council
hall and then paid homage in veneration of them.
When the news of the Buddha’s passing away reached King
Ajátasattu of Magadha, the Liccavis of Vesálì, the Sakyans of
Kapilavatthu, the Bulis of Allakappa, the Koliyas of Rámagáma, the
Veþhadìpa Brahmin and the Mallas of Pává, each sent messages to
Kusinára, demanding the right to receive a portion of the relics. At
first the local Mallas were inclined to resist. Then the Brahmin
Droóa addressed the assembly: “I beg you, sirs, to hear me. The
Enlightened One taught us always to practise forbearance; it would
be unseemly if strife should arise, with war and bloodshed, over the
custody of the Buddha’s remains—that best of men! Let us take the
friendly way and agree to share them out in eight portions, so that
far and wide reliquary memorials might be raised and mankind,
seeing them, may find faith in the Omniscient One.”
This wise advice was approved and Droóa was commissioned
to see to the division and apportionment of the relics. After the
relics had been divided the Moriyas of Pipphalìvana came to know
of the Buddha’s passing and made a similar request for a portion
but by then it was too late and they could only obtain a portion of
the ashes left from the wood of the pyre. Brahmin Droóa was given
the golden urn which had originally contained the remains. Then all
those who had obtained a share of the relics built stúpas1 over them
in their respective cities. So altogether ten stúpas were built; eight
containing relics, one containing the ashes from the pyre and one
containing the golden urn (D II 164–168).
In the course of time further subdivisions were made and relics
were taken to various parts of India and into neighbouring
countries, where stúpas were erected for them in their turn.
1. This article was first published by the Council for the World's
Religons.
THE HISTORY OF THE STÚPA 325
Little remains from this very early era; most of the oldest
surviving stúpa sites date from the 3rd century B.C.E.—following the
conversion and patronage of the emperor Asoka. According to
inscriptions, Asoka, the last major emperor of the Mauryan dynasty
in India, renounced armed conquest after a particularly bloody
conquest of the Kaliògas in the Eastern coastal region of India and
became a Buddhist, adopting the policy of ‘conquest by Dhamma
(righteousness)’; this was the great turning point in his career.
Asoka was constant in honouring every aspect of the Buddha’s
teaching. He encouraged compassion and peace amongst the masses
and, as stated in the older chronicles, the Dìpavaísa and the
Mahávaísa, he erected 84,000 stúpas in as many townships (Vin-a 41
ff). This emperor’s vigorous patronage of Buddhism during his reign
furthered its expansion in and beyond his territories, and many of the
pillars remain on which he published decrees in the form of Buddhist
religious instruction. Because of his use of the more durable building
materials then in use, the oldest surviving Buddhist monuments date
from this period. The most important are the stúpas he had built to
enshrine relics, ashes and different offerings to commemorate the
Buddha, his predecessors and disciples.
The stúpa symbolizes peace, harmony, compassion and the
noble and exemplary qualities of the Buddha. As such it is
venerated by the Buddha’s followers and admirers alike. It was
originally known as stúpa in Sanskrit or thúpa in Pali, from which,
via the Hindi ‘top’, English has acquired the term tope for this kind
of reliquary construction. There was once in South India a gold coin
known as a stúpa, which has a tangential relation to Buddhist lore.
The proverbial phrase “shake the stúpa tree” means what a
Westerner would understand by having a ‘money tree’, and is
1. Ven. Saddhátissa used the term pagoda instead of stúpa in this essay,
however a pagoda is nowadays understood to be the multi-tiered and-roofed
Buddhist tower as found in China and East Asia, while the stúpa is
understood to be the dome shaped reliquary as found in South and South-
east Asia. The term pagoda is still retained archaically in the names of well-
known stúpas in Burma, such as the Shwedagon Pagoda, which is called
Shwedagon Zedi Daw in Burma. The terms stúpa (Skt.), thúpa (Pali), caitya
(Skt.), cetiya (Pali), seya, dágaba (Sinhala), and zedi (Burmese) refer to the
same structure. The Sinhalese word dágaba, from which pagoda might be
derived, is derived from Pali dhátu-gabbha / Skt. dhátu-garbha = “womb/
inner-chamber of relics”. (BPS editor.)
equivalent to the legendary ‘wish-fulfilling tree’ of the East. A

representation of this plays its part in the Kaþhina celebrations at the
end of the Rains Retreat in Buddhist countries: a triangular slatted
frame on a raised axis (looking somewhat like a Christmas tree)
festooned all over with bank-notes!
The stúpa has something of a pyramid about it. Like those of
Egypt, it developed as a receptacle for the remains of the revered
dead, and like those of Central America, it became a grandiose
temple with cosmological significance. The shape is supposed to
have developed from ancient burial mounds, or something like
those stone piles or ‘Herms’ of primeval Greece, in which the spirit
of the god Hermes, ‘he of the stone-heap’, was supposed to dwell.
Among the stúpas built by Asoka still in existence are those in
Bodhgayá, Sárnáth, Kusinára and Sáñchì. Perhaps the most
celebrated in India is that built by Kaniåka near Peshawar in the 2nd
century of our era to enshrine a collection of the Buddha’s relics. An
earlier example is one excavated at Pipráva, twelve miles south of
the Buddha’s birthplace at Lumbini, in 1897. A Pali inscription
around the funerary coffer it contained claims that it housed the
ashes of the Buddha enshrined by his own clan, the Sakyans. Upon
a base 15ft high and 116ft in diameter rested a dome 35ft high and
68ft in diameter. Beneath the solid brickwork was discovered a
massive coffer hollowed from a single block of hard sandstone and
weighing some 1,527 lbs. Inside were five assorted vessels
containing disintegrated ash with a small admixture of bone, and
pieces of jewellery left as keepsakes by his near relatives. The
contents were subsequently presented to Calcutta museum which, I
believe, later sent portions to interested Buddhist countries.
With the spread of Buddhism, stúpas began to be built in other
lands as well and are still to be found in all those countries it
touched, including some (Indonesia for example) in which the
practice of Buddhism has long since ceased to exist. One of the best
known reliquary stúpas outside India is the Ratnamáli Cetiya in
Anurádhapura, Sri Lanka. Another notable example is Burma’s
huge Shwedagon Pagoda, standing on ground some 168ft above
Rangoon and itself rising another 368ft to a tapering pinnacle—
higher than London’s St Paul’s Cathedral. The entire edifice is
covered with gold; housed inside its solid brickwork are relics of the
Buddha. Its imposing effect is enhanced by the fact that the road
dips before climbing the slope, so that the building looms up above
you as you approach it.
THE HISTORY OF THE STÚPA 327
The stúpa is not only a testimony to the peace and compassion

of the Buddha but may also symbolize the invisible axis joining the
centres of the earth. The Japanese refer to the four columns at the
corners of their pagodas as the pillars of the sky. This cosmic
diagram, fixed in architectural form, was thought to be an
emanation of the precious relics enshrined within. The concept of
the building as a magic diagram and of its animation by what it
houses probably had its origin in the altar of Vedic India.
Without doubt the most imposing of the cosmological stúpas in
the shape of a maóðala is at Borobudur in Java. Rising from a square
base 502ft across are a series of four terraces adorned with richly
carved decorative panels and many other sculptural features. These
lead up to a central platform where three circular terraces covered
with 72 stúpas, each containing a larger than life-size seated
Buddha, surround a great central stúpa. The whole is high and is set
on a small hill in the middle of the plain surrounded by volcanoes.
To travel up from its foot is to tread symbolically the path of
spiritual advancement. The base (and its accompanying bas-reliefs)
represent the realm of desire (kámadhátu); from this one ascends to
the realm of form (rúpadhátu), represented by the terraces and their
depictions of incidents from the lives of the Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas; above this again is the formless realm (arúpadhátu) in
which the stúpas very properly conceal the form of the Buddha.
In our own day the tradition of the purely symbolical stúpa has
been given new life by those responsible for the Peace Pagodas, and
for the first time they are now being built in countries where the
Buddha is little acknowledged. It used to be that for those of the West
the word ‘pagoda’ conjured up a building which, however exotic or
charming, was connected with superstition and heathen ways. It has
been the distinction of those in the Peace Pagoda movement to free it
of this taint and give the word a fresh and more positive significance,
for now it is associated with that active spirit of devotion which
manifests itself in caring for the welfare of all the world’s beings. As
such it provides a focus for all nations and creeds round which to
rally in their fight for survival and in defence of the true spiritual
values which all share, based on the perfection of love and
compassion. Rather than shrines of a past Enlightened One or
symbols of his virtues, they are the inspiration of Buddhas to be.
THE BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
The BPS is an approved charity dedicated to making known the

Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital message for all people.
Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books
and booklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications include
accurate annotated translations of the Buddha’s discourses, standard
reference works, as well as original contemporary expositions of
Buddhist thought and practice. These works present Buddhism as it
truly is—a dynamic force which has influenced receptive minds for
the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was when it first
arose.
For more information about the BPS and our publications, please
visit our website, or write an e-mail, or a letter to the:
Administrative Secretary
Buddhist Publication Society
P.O. Box 61
54 Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy • Sri Lanka
E-mail: bps@bps.lk
web site: http://www.bps.lk
Tel: 0094 81 223 7283 • Fax: 0094 81 222 3679
1
Editor’s Foreword to the First Edition ..................................................................iii

Editor’s Foreword to the Second Edition ............................................................. iv
Auuthor’s Preface .......................................................................................................v
Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Buddhism ............................................................1
Chapter 2: The Modern World ..............................................................................8
Chapter 3: Fundamentals of Buddhism .............................................................16
Chapter 4: What the Buddha did for Humanity ...............................................22
Chapter 5: The Approach to the Buddha’s Path ...............................................27
Chapter 6: The Noble Eightfold Path ..................................................................30
Chapter 7: Ethics of the Buddhist ........................................................................36
Chapter 8: The Ideal Individual ..........................................................................44
Chapter 9: The Psychology of Ethics ..................................................................55
Chapter 10: The Concept of Confidence in Buddhism .......................................60
Chapter 11: The Three Refuges ..............................................................................66
Chapter 12: The Five Precepts ...............................................................................72
Chapter 13: The Buddhist Monk ..........................................................................80
Chapter 14: The Debt to our Parents .....................................................................88
Chapter 15: The Doctrine of non-violence in Buddhism ...................................92
Chapter 16: The Buddhist Attitude to Food ........................................................98
Chapter 17: Kamma ...............................................................................................103
Chapter 18: Kamma: The Philosophical Standpoint .........................................117
Chapter 19: The Root Causes of Kamma ............................................................120
Chapter 20: Dependent Origination ....................................................................128
Chapter 21: The Doctrine of Rebirth ...................................................................138
Chapter 22: The Mechanism of Rebirth ..............................................................145
Chapter 23: The Buddhist View of Metaphysics ...............................................151
Chapter 24: Buddhist Metaphysics .....................................................................155
Chapter 25: An Interview about Buddhism and Meditation ..........................159
Chapter 26: The Middle Way for the West ........................................................174
Chapter 27: A Survey of Buddhist Meditation ..................................................177
Chapter 28: The Meditation on Loving-kindness .............................................185
Chapter 29: Satipaþþhána—Dhamma for All ......................................................204
Chapter 30: The Seven Stages of Purity ..............................................................209
Chapter 31: Impermanence ..................................................................................221
Chapter 32: The Truth of Unsatisfactoriness .....................................................226
Chapter 33: The Cause of Unsatisfactoriness .................................................... 231

Chapter 34: The Anattá Doctrine ........................................................................ 234
Chapter 35: The Enigma of Anattá ...................................................................... 238
Chapter 36: Nibbána ............................................................................................. 244
Chapter 37: The Bodhisattva Ideal ...................................................................... 266
Chapter 38: The Buddhist Philosophy of Life ................................................... 278
Chapter 39: The Spread of Buddhism ................................................................ 283
Chapter 40: The Exemplary Dhammadhúta ........................................................ 298
Chapter 41: Buddhist Councils ............................................................................ 301
Chapter 42: Maháyána Philosophy ..................................................................... 309
Chapter 43: The Significance of Paritta ............................................................... 313
Chapter 44: The History of the Stúpa ................................................................. 324

Saddhatidssa Facets of Buddhism

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Saddhatidssa Facets of Buddhism

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Saddhatidssa Facets of Buddhism

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FACETS OF BUDDHISM

Venerable Hammalawa Saddhátissa

First edition: The World Buddhist Foundation, 311, Kingsbury Road,

National Library of Sri Lanka-Cataloguing in Publication Data

Saddhatissa himi, Hammalawa

Typeset at the BPS in URW Palladio ITU

The author, Venerable Hammalawa Saddhátissa is very well-known

This collection of essays was first published privately in the UK in

1. See Buddhist Studies In Honour of Hammalava Saddhátissa, eds.

validity is recognised and its recommendations practised with

say, “I am a born Buddhist” since a commitment resulting from

Editor’s Foreword to the First Edition ..................................................................iii

Chapter 29: Satipaþþhána—Dhamma for All ..................................................... 204

A first and elementary point to which attention must be called, if

he married his cousin, a princess of great beauty named Yasodhará.

making its starting point the practical improvement, through self-

seats. As may be seen, these precepts take the form of disciplines,

The man of today is basically the same as his brother of yesterday;

wonder if perhaps happiness and suffering are not confined to

He teaches a method and what is more, he tells us what we may

1. Vin I 10; S IV 330, V 421; Paþis II 147.

hugging them to himself in an agony of greed, ever seeking to

We will have discovered by this time that our conception of self is

resulting in distortion. He sees the value of the analytical scientific

accepted by a vast number of people today as being sufficient

power of the mind.

The third current which carries us to misery is delusion or

Right Intention, the second factor of the Path: 1) thoughts of

To promote the spirit of world-fellowship, we must cultivate the

“He abstains from stealing and sexual misconduct. He refrains

The Buddha adjures men to practise active loving-kindness

1. Sn-a I 358; cf. J V 412; Dhp-a III 254ff.

It is also noteworthy that the Buddha made special provisions

spiritual was regarded as his equal and worthy of respect. As a

A unique feature of Buddhism is the omission of any ceremony akin

existence. Meditation is the main means whereby one may gain

1. Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot 69, 70.

perseverance (vìriya), 6. patience (khanti), 7. truthfulness (sacca), 8.

In the holy city of Benares, on the full-moon day of Ásá¿ha,1 the

1. In July, at the start of the rainy season in India. (BPS editor.)

4. Magga sacca—the Way to eliminate desire.

will or selfish interests; it should be free from dogmatic assertions

‘homeless life’ is the ideal state at which he aims, he should,

1. See chapters 31 to 35.

4. Restlessness and worry (uddhacca kukkucca),

The Buddha’s teaching not only forms the foundation for

THE BUDDHA’S LAY FOLLOWERS

observing the practical precepts prescribed for the laity.

THE FIVE PRECEPTS

On the contrary, committing these five evils is conducive to

Sigála was the son of a wealthy family in Rájagaha near Patna in

ADVICE FOR THE LAYMAN

3. The keeping of good company (kalyáóa-mittatá) with those

The code of discipline for lay disciples as expounded in the

“Energetic and not indolent,

Firm set in righteousness, with stain of stint

“In five ways should a master minister to servants and

Malliká, to you than yourself?” “There is no one, sire, dearer than

“Monks, there are these four rain-clouds. What four? The

“And what is the fear of rebirth in states of woe? Herein,