BACTERIA (Singular = Bacterium)

BY G.S. OLAHAN

Bacteria are the simplest prokaryotic (organisms without nuclear membrane) microorganisms
having the common chemical composition of DNA, RNA and protein. They were among the
first living things to appear on Earth, and are present in the soil, water, acidic hot springs,
radioactive wastes, and the deep portions of the Earth’s crust. They also live in symbiotic and
parasitic relationships with plants and animals. They are also known to have flourished in
manned spacecraft. Their ability to inhabit all the habitats listed above is as a result of their
high adaptability to extremes of temperature, pH, oxygen tension as well as osmotic and
atmospheric pressures. There are approximately 5 X 1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a
biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals.

Bacteria were discovered by Antonio Van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single lens
microscope of his own design. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg introduced the word
“bacterium” in 1828. Bacteriology, the branch of Microbiology concerned with the study of
bacteria was established by Pasteur, who made the importance of bacteria as disease –
causing organisms (pathogens) known to the World. A typical bacterial cell measures a few
micrometers (0.5 – 5.0 µm) in length. Bacteria number over 2,000 species and belong to the
kingdom Monera.

Characteristics of Bacteria
 They are single – celled organisms.
 They lack organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria.
 They do not have the true nucleus found in eukaryotic cells (They are Prokaryotic).
 It has double stranded DNA that is continuous and circular located in a nucleoid
without a nuclear membrane.
 They have a cell membrane and a cell wall that is often made of peptidoglycan.
 They have a large surface area to volume ratio which gives them an advantage in
nutrient – poor environments.
 They grow in numbers, not in size.
 They make copies of themselves by dividing into half.
 Some of them exist as a single cell while others exist as clusters to form colonies.
 Most bacteria are heterotrophic (parasitic or saprophytic) while some of them are
autotrophic.
 Reproduction occurs through binary fission, which is the splitting of a bacterial cell
after it reaches a certain size.
 True sexual reproduction is lacking, but genetic recombination occurs by conjugation,
transformation and transduction.

 The plasma membrane is invaginated to form mesosomes.

 They have no natural death.
  They have a number of shapes, ranging from sphere to rods and spirals. The wide
variety of shapes is important because it influences their ability to acquire nutrients,
attach to surfaces, swim through liquids and escape from predators. Most bacterial
species are spherical (Cocci; singular = Coccus) or rod – shaped (Bacilli; singular =
Bacillus). Some bacteria (Vibrio; singular = Vibrium) are shaped like slightly curved
rods or Comma – shaped; others can be Spiral – shaped, called Spirilla (singular =
Spirillum), or tightly coiled, called Spirochetes. A small number of bacterial species
even have tetrahedral or cuboidal shapes (Arcula sp). A bacterial cell can be elongated
to form filaments. Some bacterial cells alter their shapes or size in response to
environmental conditions (Eg. Deinococcus sp, Helicobacter pylori and Mycosplasma
sp) .

Plate 1: Shapes of a bacterial cell.

Source: https://microbiologyinfo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Different-Size-Shape-
and-Arrangement-of-Bacterial-Cells.jpg

The Cocci are further modified into:

a. Staphylococcus or Micrococcus: Cocci arranged in irregular clusters due to
successive division occurring in different planes.
b. Diplococcus: paired cocci as a result of division.
c. Streptococcus: Cocci arranged in chains due to successive cell divisions in the
same axis.
d. Sarcina: Cocci arranged in cubical packets of 8 or multiples of 8 due to division in
3 planes at right angles to each other.
e. Tetrad: Coccus that divides in 2 planes and remain in groups of 4.
  They are either motile or non – motile. They move by gliding. Egs. Pseudomonas
aerigunosa, Myxococcus xanthus, Oscillatoria sp., Nostoc pruniforme and
Cylindrospermum sp. Some motile bacterial cells have long whip – like flagella which
may arise from one or both ends of the cell or from all over the cell. Motile bacteria
without flagellum are termed atrichous. Based on flagellar arrangement on a bacterial
cell, it is classified as:
a. Monotrichous: Presence of a single polar flagellum at one end of the cell. Eg.
Xanthomonas sp.
b. Lophotrichous: Presence of several flagella at one or both end(s) of the cell. Eg.
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Spirillum undula.
c. Peritrichous: Presence of several flagella over the entire cell surface. Egs. Erwinia
sp., Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp.
d. Amphitrichous: Presence of a single flagellum or multiple flagella at both ends of
the cell. Egs. Alcaligenes faecalis, Caulobacter cresentus, Rhodospirillum rubrum
and Idiomaria loihiensis.

Plate 2: Flagellar arrangement on a bacterial cell

Source: https://microbeonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/flagellar-arrangement-of-
bacteria.jpg
 Structure of a Bacterial Cell

Source: http://cdn.biologydiscussion.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/clip_image004-110.jpg
A typical bacterial cell can be divided into 5 regions namely Surface Appendages, Surface
Adherents, The Cell Wall, The Plasma of Cell Membrane and The Cytoplasm.

Surface Appendages: These are the Flagellum, Fimbria and Pilus.

Flagellum (Plural = Flagella): It is the rigid structure, about 20 nm in diameter and up to 20
µm in length used for motility. It originates from the cytoplasm, and it is many times longer
than the bacterial cell. The protein structures are called flagellin. A flagellum consists of 3
parts, a basal body, the hook and the filament. Hook connects filament to the motor portion of
the flagellum called basal body. The basal body is anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane
and cell wall. It is driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an
electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-Schematic-presentation-of-bacterial-flagellum-
structure-The-pentameric-FliD-cap-at_fig2_262381363.

Fimbria (Plural = Fimbriae): They are fine filaments of protein, usually 2-10 nm in
diameter and up to several µm in length. Fimbriae are shorter and stiffer than flagella. They
are distributed over the surface of the cell wall, and resemble fine hairs when viewed under
the electron microscope. They have adhesins on their surface which are involved in
identification of target host tissues, ensuring that the bacteria attach to the correct substrate.
They are also essential for the virulence of some pathogenic bacteria.

Pilus (Plural = Pili): Pili are small tube-like projections found on the surface of a bacterial
cell wall. They are similar to the fimbriae in structure, but slightly larger. A specialized pilus,
the sex pilus, allows the transfer of plasmid DNA from one bacterial cell to another in a process called
conjugation. Pili can also generate movement.

Surface Adherents or Glycocalyx: These are the Slime Layer and the capsule,
which are produced by many bacteria to surround their cells, and vary in structural
complexity. They can protect the bacterial cell from engulfment by eukaryotic cells. They can
also act as antigens and be involved in cell recognition, as well as aiding attachment to
correct surfaces. They also serve as storage product which may be consumed by the bacterial
cell when the need arises.

Slime Layer: It is a disorganised layer of extra-cellular polymer which is non-fluid in

consistency. It is loosely associated with the bacterium and can be easily washed off. It
protects the bacteria cell from environmental dangers such as antibiotics and desiccation.
It also allows bacteria to adhere to smooth surfaces such as prosthetic medical devices and
catheters.

Capsule: It is the outermost layer of the bacterial cell. It is highly structured and composed
of polysaccharides or disaccharides and in some cases, polypeptides. It is relatively narrow
and well-defined. It is attached tightly to the bacterium and has definite boundaries.
Depending on its thickness, it is designated as a macro-capsule (when it is > 2 µm in
thickness) or a micro-capsule (when it is < 2 µm in thickness).

The Cell Wall: A common bacterial cell wall material is peptidoglycan which is made
up of glycoproteins, lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. The cell accounts for 20% of the
dry weight of the bacterial cell. It gives shape and firmness to the bacterial cell. It can resist
mechanical and chemical injuries as well as attack by an enzyme called lysozyme.

There are broadly speaking two types of cell wall in bacteria, a thick one in Gram-positive
bacteria and a thinner one in the Gram–negative bacteria. The names originated from the
reaction of bacterial cell walls to the Gram stain, a test employed for the classification
bacterial species. Bacterial cells which retain the Gram stain after alcoholic treatment are
termed Gram-positive and those which do not retain the Gram stain after alcoholic treatment
are termed Gram–negative.

The Gram Staining Test: It was devised by Hans Christian Gram in 1884. The method is as
follows: A bacterial suspension prepared from a young culture is spread on a glass-slide and
fixed by gentle heating. The glass-slide is then dipped into crystal violet and dilute iodine
solutions successively. The bacteria of both groups get stained to deep-purple colour. The
preparation is then treated with alcohol or acetone for the decolorization test. Gram-positive
bacteria retain the colour of the stain, while the Gram–negative bacteria get decolorized. This
observation can be made by simply looking at the glass slides. When counter-stained with
safranin or carbol-fuschin, the Gram–negative bacteria become red, while the Gram-positive
bacteria remain deep purple. Examples of Gram-positve bacteria are: Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus,
Mycobacterium, Mycoplasma, Nocardia, Gardnerella, etc. Examples of Gram–
negative bacteria are: Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
Chlamydia trachomatis, Yersinia pestis. etc.

Differences Between the Cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram–negative Bacteria

Character Gram-positive Bacteria Gram–negative Bacteria

Appearance in electron Homologous layer. 3-layered.
micrographs
Chemical composition Mucopeptide forms major Lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharides
portion (85%) form major portion (88-99%)
Teichoic acid present. Teichoic acid absent.
Rigidity Much-rigid. Less-rigid.
 Differences Between Gram-positive and Gram–negative Bacteria

Gram-positive Bacteria Gram–negative Bacteria

Cell wall thicker and contains only traces of Cell wall thinner and may contain up to 20%
lipids. lipids.
Not all the amino acids are present. All the amino acids are present.
Teichoic acid present. Teichoic acid absent.
Muramic acid plenty in content. Muramic acid less in content.

The Plasma or Cell Membrane: It is made up of lipids. It encloses the contents

of the cell and acts as a barrier that holds nutrients and othetr essential components of the
cytoplasm within the cell. Functions of the plasma membrane include:

- It contains various biosynthetic pathways.

- It prov ides permeability barrier needed by the enzyme permeases for transporting
nutrients through it.
- In aerobic bacteria, it possesses the components of electron transport chain and
oxidative phosphorylation.
- In many photosynthetic bacteria, it is highly folded and fills most of the cytoplasm
with layers of light-gathering complexes, the photosynthetic apparatus.
- It controls chemotaxic property of the bacterial cell.
- It serves as attachment sites for chromosomal and plasmid DNA.

The Cytoplasm: It contains the following organells which do not usually have
membrane: nucleoid, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, chromtophores, volutine granules or
metachromatic granules, gas vacuoles, gas vesicles, carboxysomes, inclusions,
magnetosomes and plasmids.

- Carboxysomes are micro-compartments and they control bacterial metabolism.

They contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation.
- Nucleoid is the genetic material. It is a single circular chromosome with its
associated proteins and RNA.
- Ribosomes are often grouped in chains called polyribosomes, for the production
of proteins,but the structure is different from thatb of eukaryotes. Bacterial
ribosomes have a sedimentation rate of 70S (measured in Syedberg units); their
subunits have sedimentation rates of 30S nd 50S.
- Chromatophores are intracellular membranes use primarily for photosynthesis in
photosynthetic bacteria. They contain bacterio-chlorophyll pigments and
carotenoids.
 - Inclusions are non-living components of the sytoplasm made up of glycogen,
polyphosphate, sulphur or polyhydroxyalkanoates, lipid droples, crystals and
pigments. They are intracellular nutrient storage granule produced by some
bacteria for future use.
- Gas vesicles and Gas vacuoles are used to regulate the buoyancy of bacterial cells
in water bodies. They allow the bacterial cells to move up or down into water
layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels.
- Volutin granules or metachromatic granules are cytoplsmic inclusions of complex
inorganic phosphate. They have ability to display metachromatic effects.
- Magnetosomes are bacterial micro-compartments present in magnetotactic
bacteria (bacteria that contain magnetic crystals).
- Mesosomes arise as invaginatiobns of the plasma membrane. They are active in
cell wall synthesis and the secretion of extracellular substances. They are also
concerned with bacterial genome replication and septum formation during cell-
division.
- Plasmids are non-essential pieces of DNA which play similar role as nucleoids.

Physiological Processes in a Bacterial Cell

 Metabolism: Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic processes. They
take in raw materials only in the form of relatively small moleculkes, which enter the
cell by diffusion or through channels in the plasma membrane. Nutritional types in
bacterial metabolism are basically 3, namely phototrophs (use sunlight as source of
energy), litothrophs (use inorganic compounds as source of energy) and
organotrophs (use organic compounds as source of energy).
 Reproduction: It is through binary fissiob or budding which are forms of asexual
reproduction.
 Growth: Bacteria grow extremely rapidly under optimal conditions. Growth in
bacteria is affected by temperature (0 – 85º C), pressure, moisture and pH (5 – 9).

CLASSIFICATION OR DIVERSITY OF BACTERIA

It seeks to describe the diversity of bacteria species by naming and grouping them based on
similarities. Bacteria can be classified based on the cell structure, cellular metabolism (some
biochemical tests), or based on differences in their cell components such as DNA, fatty acids,
pigments, antigens and quinines, as well as Gram staining property of the cellwall.
Classification of bacteria based on all or any of the above criteria is not very reliable because
of lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria. To overcome these uncertainties, modern
bacterial classification emphasizes molecular systematics, using genetic techniques such as
guanine : cytosine ratio determination, genome – genome hybridization, as well as
sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer, such as the rRNA
gene. The major groups of bacteria are listed below:
 Phylum Proteobacteria: It is informally called the “purple bacteria and their
relatives”. They are Gram negative bacteria. Egs are bacteria belonging to the genera
Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, Helicobacter, etc.
 Phylum Actinobacteria: They are Gram positive bacteria. Egs are bacteria belonging
to the genera Mycobacterium, Nicardia, Rhodococcus, Corynebacterium, etc.
 Phylum Firmicutes: Most of them are Gram positive. Egs are bacteria belonging to
the genera Megasphaera, Pectinatus, Sclenomonas, Zymophilus, etc.
 Phylum Cyanobacteria: They are also known as blue – green bacteria and Cyano
phyta. Bacteria belonging to the following genera are egs Chroococcales,
Pleurocapsales, Osillatoriales, Nostocales and Stigonematales.
 Phylum/Class Chlamydales: Members are obligate intracellular pathogens; they
infect eukaryotic host cells. They are as small or smaller than many viruses. Egs are
Chlamydia trachomatis (pathogen of trachoma), Chlamydia pneumonia (pathogen of
a form of pneumonia) and Chlamydia psittaci (pathogen of Psittacosis.
 Phylum Planctomycetes: They are aquatic bacteria; found in samples of brackish,
marine and fresh water habitats. They are ovoid and have a holdfast called the stalk
for attaching to each other during budding. Egs.: Kolteria novifilia, Gemmata
obiscuriglobus, etc.
 Phylum Verrucomicrobia: They have been isolated from fresh water, soil and
human faeces. Egs: Verrucomicrobium spinosum, Chthoniobacter flavus, etc.
 Phylum Acidobacteria: They are physiologically diverse and abundant in the soil.
They can be classified as acidophilic because they thrive and reside within highly
acidic environments. However, not all the members are acidophilic. Egs:
Acidobacterium capsulatum, Holophaga foetida, Geothrix fermentans,
Acanthopleuribacter pedis, Bryobacter aggregatus, etc.
 Phylum Cytophaga: They are Gram negative, rod – shaped bacteria and utilize
glidding mechanism for locomotion. Egs.: Cytophaga columnaris, Cytophaga
johnsonae, Cytophaga psychrophila, etc.
 Phylum Bacteroidetes: They are rod – shaped, Gram negative bacteria that are non –
spore forming. They are found in anaerobic environments. The classes include
Bacteroidia and Porphyromonas. Egs. Chlorobium chlorochromatii, Chlorobium
llimicola, Chlorobium tepidium, etc.
 Phylum Chlorobi; They are obligately aerobic and photoautotrophic. They include
the green sulphur bacteria. This phylum is often grouped with Phylum Bacteriodetes
because their branches are very close together in the phylogenetic tree.
 Phylum Spirochaetes: They are distinctive double – membrane bacteria that are
characterized by their long, spiral – shaped cells. They are chemoheterotrophic in
nature, free – living and capable of thriving in anaerobic environments. The families
include Brachyspiraceae, Leptospiraceae and Spirochaetaceae, all belonging to the
order Spirochaetales. Some animal pathogenic spirochaetes are Leptospira (pathogen
of leptospirosis), Borrelia afzeli (pathogen of lyme – disease), Borrelia recurrentis
(pathogen of relapsing fever), Treponema pallidium sub. sp. pallidium (pathogen of
syphilis), Treponema pallidium sub. sp. pertenue (pathogen of yaws), Brachyspira
pilosicoli and Brachyspira aalborgi (pathogens of internal spirochetosis).
 Economic Importance of Bacteria
- They are very useful in bringing about decomposition of dead organic matter of plants
and animals by secreting enzyme. This ability has been used in waste management
and bioremediation.
- Some bacteria maintain and others increase the soil fertility. Eg.ammonifying,
nitrifying and nitrogen fixing-bacteria. Egs of ammonifying bacteria are Bacillus
ramosus and B. vulgaris. Egs of nitrifying bacteria are Nitrobacter spp. and
Nitrosomanas spp. Egs of nitrogen fixing-bacteria are Bacillus radicula, Clostridium
spp and Azotobacteer spp.
- They play a very important role in various industries. The products obtained as a
result of bacterial activities cannot be chemically prepared. Egs. (a) In the preparation
of alcohols, ethyl alcohol and butyl alcohol are manufactured by the activities of
bacteria such as Clostridium acetobutylycum in the sugar solution. (b) In the
preparation of vinegar, Acetobacter aceti acts on the sugarcane juice to convert it to
vinegar.
- They are used in the prepation of antibiotics. Egs. Bacitracin is produced by Bacillus
subtilis.; Streptomycin is produced by Streptomyces griseus; Terramycin is produced
by Streptomyces rimosus; and Aureomycin si produced by Streptomyces spp.
- They can be bio-engineered for the production of therapeutic proteins like insulin, and
growth factors because of their ability to divide rapidly.
- They can ve used to control pests and plant diseases biologically. Eg Bacillus
thuringenesis.
- They cause plant and animal diseases of various proportions Egs Diplocaccus
pneumonia causes pneumonia in humans; Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis
causes bacteril blight disease of cassava, etc.
- They destroy food by causing decay. Eg. souring of milk, rotting of meat, vegetables,
fruits, etc. Staphylococcus and Clostridium botulinum cause food poisoning when
rotten food is eaten by humans.
- Some bacteria, referred to as denitrifying bacteria destroy the soil fertitility by
reducing the soil nitrates and ammonium salts to free nitrogen which escapes into the
atmosphere. Eg. Bacillus denitricans.