administrative

sciences

Article
The Multiple Advantages of Self-Leadership in Higher
Education: The Role of Health-Promoting Self-Leadership
among Executive MBA Students
Rune Bjerke

Department of Leadership and Organization, Kristiania University College, 0107 Oslo, Norway;
rune.bjerke@kristiania.no

Abstract: The purpose of this conceptual and explorative study is to document the advantages of
health-promoting self-leadership practice. Professional certification programs are criticized due
to a lack of practice among participants, involvement, and short duration. This study is based on
self-leadership practices over several weeks of two executive MBA student classes from spring 2020
and 2021. A preliminary theoretical framework is developed suggesting that health-promoting
self-leadership, which includes three orientations, has an impact on self-efficacy, mental fitness, and
performance. Two different self-leadership classes with managers from the public and private sectors
went through a self-development process as a semester project. The content analyses of 112 student
reports unfolded students’ self-development processes and results identified in diaries, notes, tables,
training schedules, and reflections. The findings, based on two different samples and aggregated
data, support the theoretical framework. Moreover, the processes of self-development and self-
leadership seem to be advantageous for almost all managers. The health-promoting self-leadership
practice improved managers’ mental and physical fitness, energy balance, self-efficacy beliefs, and
performance. These outcomes were achieved through physical activity, self-talk, meditative exercises,
reward systems, visualizing, diet programs, and routines. The findings underscore the importance of
self-development processes amongst managers, and that health-promoting self-leadership courses
should last over several weeks.

Keywords: health promoting self-leadership; self-development process; value- and behavior-oriented

Citation: Bjerke, Rune. 2024. The self-leadership; self-efficacy- and energy-oriented self-leadership; mental fitness; performance
Multiple Advantages of
Self-Leadership in Higher Education:
The Role of Health-Promoting
Self-Leadership among Executive
1. Introduction
MBA Students. Administrative Sciences
14: 211. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Ford et al. (2011) state that poor health can cause a significant reduction in work
admsci14090211
performance. Therefore, health promotion measures should have positive impacts on
coping and performance, which are two essential aspects of self-leadership (Amundsen
Received: 22 July 2024 and Martinsen 2015; Neck and Houghton 2006; Stewart et al. 2011). Goldsby et al. (2021)
Revised: 31 August 2024
argue that self-leadership should extend beyond merely completing tasks and achieving
Accepted: 2 September 2024
objectives. One suggested focus is on an individual’s well-being. Thus, it could be argued
Published: 9 September 2024
that self-leadership serves as a self-development tool that can also be applied to improve
people’s health. One national measure to combat the COVID-19 pandemic was instructing
organizations to implement home offices (Von Gaudecker et al. 2020), even though research
Copyright: © 2024 by the author.
on possible negative health effects was lacking (Fadinger and Schymik 2020). Preventive
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. measures are defined as the most effective means of hindering the rise of lifestyle diseases
This article is an open access article (Sturm and An 2014). Additionally, preventive measures to develop health resilience
distributed under the terms and represent a positive psychological approach (Gable and Haidt 2005).
conditions of the Creative Commons Manz (2015) proposed a “self-leadership high road” with the intention of elevating self-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// leadership practice and self-influence processes to a higher level by focusing on improved
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ authenticity, personal responsibility, and capacity. Authenticity concerns the why and
4.0/). what of self-influence. Responsibility is analogous to corporate social responsibility but

Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090211 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/admsci

Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 2 of 21

at an individual level. Capacity addresses how to harness self-leadership potential to

enhance, among other things, authenticity, and responsibility, as well as self-influence over
emotions, health, and fitness. Goldsby et al. (2021) review the self-leadership research
published in recent decades and propose the Meta-Performance Model, which centers
around self-leadership as a toolkit for enhancing the individual performance of leaders.
They suggest integrating self-leadership training, which aims at improving skills and
undertaking preventive measures to reduce stress, with other professional development
programs offered by professional certification bodies.
In the educational sphere, self-leadership has been linked to improved stress coping
and academic success among students. Houghton et al. (2024) referred to the recent
self-leadership research and emphasized the importance of emotional intelligence and self-
leadership in helping students manage stress more effectively, which is crucial for academic
achievement, especially in challenging environments. Sampl et al. (2017) demonstrated
through a randomized controlled trial that combining mindfulness with self-leadership
strategies effectively reduces student test anxiety, stabilizes stress levels, and improves
mood and academic performance. Furthermore, research by Maykrantz and Houghton
(2020) revealed that self-leadership practices among college students can reduce stress, and
they demonstrated that coping skills could function as a moderator on student stress.
To date, the literature on self-leadership in the education domain still lacks research
on how managers address self-leadership aspects such as authenticity, responsibility, ca-
pacity, and in particular well-being and health issues. The existing studies suggest that
self-leadership may enable students to enhance self-efficacy, performance, mood, well-
being, and overall life mastery, as well as reduce stress. The purpose of this study is to
document the multifaceted value creation of self-leadership practices among managers and
to argue that self-leadership programs should be integrated into higher education curricula.
As part of a course in self-leadership during the pandemic, managers participating in
an executive MBA program were instructed to undertake a five-step self-development
process as a semester project (home exam). At an aggregate level, the research aim is to
investigate the managers’ self-development processes and to seek support for the proposed
conceptual model.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Self-Leadership
In this theoretical section, the essence of self-leadership is explained, particularly how
we can use ourselves as a tool to influence our thoughts and actions. It is argued that
self-leadership can be divided into three orientations, which together constitute health-
promoting self-leadership. Furthermore, the theory links these three orientations to mental
fitness and emphasizes the importance of physical activity.
Manz (1986) describes self-leadership as a process aimed at individuals controlling their
own behavior by influencing and leading themselves. Coping and coping beliefs were early
identified as central to self-leadership (Manz 1986; Neck and Houghton 2006), focusing on the
belief in one’s own ability to learn or perform (Bandura 1986, 1997). Self-leadership involves
influencing oneself to enhance motivation, execution, performance, coping, achievement, and
life direction (Amundsen and Martinsen 2015; D’Intino et al. 2007; Manz 1986; Neck and
Houghton 2006; Stewart et al. 2011), where tools such as self-talk, visualization, and cognitive
strategies are effective (Neck and Manz 1992). The concept of self-leadership was linked
to managers and employees in the workplace starting from the 1990s and 2000s (Neck and
Houghton 2006). Amundsen and Martinsen (2015) associate self-leadership in the workplace
with job satisfaction, effort, and creativity. Personality traits can also play a significant role in
an individual’s predisposition to be a natural self-leader, although self-leadership skills can be
learned and developed through practice (D’Intino et al. 2007).
There are essentially three strategy categories within self-leadership that are generally
linked to achieving a self-defined goal (Neck and Houghton 2006). Behavioral strategies,
such as self-observation and routine changes, can promote feelings of self-determination
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 3 of 21

and competence. Natural reward strategies involve providing oneself with rewards for
achieving goals, which can strengthen feelings of meaning, competence, and self-control.
Cognitive strategies, such as visualization, self-talk (Neck and Manz 1992), and the devel-
opment of growth-oriented thinking (Tat and Zeitel-Bank 2013), are also critical. Sesen
et al. (2017) conducted a field study involving 440 primary school teachers and found
that self-leadership behaviors significantly impact job satisfaction, organizational com-
mitment, and innovation, with self-observation and thought activities related to natural
rewards being the most significant tools. Additionally, Houghton et al. (2024) refer to their
previously developed conceptual model (Houghton et al. 2012), which is supported by
empirical research in the last years. They highlight the importance of integrating emotional
regulation and self-leadership interventions in management education. In this study, the
existing theory is challenged by theorizing what health-promoting self-leadership might
involve and whether the three underlying orientations, explained below, can be supported
by collected empirical evidence.

2.2. Value- and Behaviour-Oriented Self-Leadership

Personal values can be linked to authenticity and virtue (Manz 2015) and are often seen
as the guiding principles in our lives (Schwartz 1992). Our attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and
behaviors are frequently governed by these values, with which we may have a conscious
or unconscious relationship (Ind and Bjerke 2007; Schwartz 1992). Shared values can also
foster a sense of togetherness and common identity (Ind and Bjerke 2007). Zhao and Wang
(2024) documented that students generally demonstrated strong self-leadership qualities,
particularly in value selection and self-perception. Value selection is about value rationality,
where a set of values function as a moral compass, crucial for guiding the development of
students. Bryant and Kazan (2013) maintained that self-leadership encompasses a seamless
integration of personal values with a greater sense of social responsibility.
“Healthy” is one of the fifty-six universal values identified in the study by Schwartz
(1992), which is based on a cross-cultural investigation to identify terminal and instrumental
universal values. Examples of instrumental values include being healthy, environmentally
conscious, and influential. Living out these three values can support the terminal value of
finding meaning in life. The value of health also encompasses taking responsibility for the
well-being of the world and the surrounding environment (specific values include a beauti-
ful world, peace in the world, and environmental consciousness) (Schwartz 1992), which
can be linked to responsibility (Manz 2015). Thus, health-promoting self-leadership also
involves the individual as a relationship builder and citizen with greater social responsibil-
ity, as emphasized by value- and behavior-oriented self-leadership. Values such as health,
honesty, respect, and friendship (Schwartz 1992) can be utilized in a self-evaluation process
aimed at becoming aware of one’s values and how they can be translated into value-based
behavior. Furthermore, socialization is the most important explanatory variable behind
longevity (Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015) and can be connected to values such as a sense of
belonging, respect for traditions, a safe family life, social recognition, true friendship, and
enjoying life (Schwartz 1992). The link between values and behavior supports the concept
of value- and behavior-oriented self-leadership.

2.3. Self-Efficacy-Oriented Self-Leadership

According to Manz (1986), a primary goal of self-leadership strategies is to strengthen
self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy beliefs concern whether an individual believes they
have the necessary capabilities to carry out a task (Neck and Houghton 2006). Neck
and Houghton (2006) reference several contexts where the concept of self-leadership has
been studied. For example, Neck and Manz (1996) found that in a workplace setting,
the group that received training in self-leadership strategies became significantly more
effective compared to the control group that did not receive such training. Therefore, the
practice of self-leadership in the workplace may enhance self-efficacy, leading to improved
performance (Prussia et al. 1998).
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 4 of 21

Amundsen and Martinsen (2015) explored the application of self-leadership among

entrepreneurs and identified two main areas: (1) performance orientation, which includes
self-objective setting, focus on new ideas, competence development, collaboration, coordi-
nation, self-observation, and positive internal dialog; (2) self-leadership, which involves
task prioritization, facilitating working conditions, self-reward, practice, self-observation,
and the visualization of outcomes. Rigotti et al. (2008) validated a short version of a scale
that measures coping beliefs across five countries, consisting of six questions related to
objective attainment, trust in one’s abilities, and solution orientation. Şahin and Gülşen
(2022) found that self-leadership serves as a partial mediator in the relationship between
the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, academic self-efficacy, and career adaptability.
Based on the data collected from 256 operational employees, Boonyarit (2023) revealed
positive associations between self-leadership and factors such as taking charge, individ-
ual innovation, psychological empowerment, and self-efficacy. The literature emphasizes
self-efficacy, particularly in relation to self-regulation and performance orientation, as a
critical theme in self-leadership, thereby legitimizing a self-efficacy-oriented approach to
self-leadership.

2.4. Energy-Oriented Self-Leadership

Neck et al. (2023) examined the paradox of self-leadership strategies in the context
of work pressure and its impact on stress, negative affect, and performance. The findings
indicate that while behavioral self-leadership strategies are effective for improving task-
based performance, they are less effective under high work pressure compared to cognitive
strategies. Crayne and Brawley Newlin (2024) examined its impact on rideshare gig
workers, finding that while self-leadership contributes to success and job satisfaction, it also
raises the risk of burnout and turnover, especially under high-stress conditions. Similarly,
Junça Silva et al. (2024) found that self-leadership enhances personal effectiveness and
productivity by enabling individuals to regulate their behavioral and set specific goals.
However, they also noted that at higher levels, self-leadership could lead to emotional
exhaustion, thus becoming counterproductive and potentially detrimental to mental health.
Therefore, there is a need to understand how self-leadership can be used to boost the energy
level as an appropriate tool under high-stress conditions.
Employee stress depletes energy, making it difficult to engage in positive behaviors
and maintain performance (Golparvar et al. 2012; Mitchell et al. 2019). Additionally, it
becomes challenging to position oneself to participate in larger societal tasks that extend
beyond the self, which Manz (2015) suggests is important. Goldsby et al. (2021) summarized
the self-leadership literature by stating that self-leadership practices primarily function as
pre-intervention, intervention, and coping processes that can reduce stress. Physical activity
and exercise are undoubtedly vital sources of energy and can be linked to the value of health.
Lovelace et al. (2007) highlighted several energy and health benefits that managers can
achieve through physical activity: the development of good physical, psychological, and
social resilience; strengthening of endurance and mental focus; and recovery of performance
efficiency. Fritz et al. (2011) investigated how knowledge workers manage energizing
strategies in the workplace. Of the non-work-related strategies, only meditation was found
to be energizing. Work-related strategies linked to learning, enhancing the meaningfulness
of work, and fostering positive workplace relationships (socialization) provided employees
with vitality.
Positive relationships at work provide energy both physically and emotionally, creat-
ing immediate and lasting effects on an individual’s heart, immune system, and neuroen-
docrine systems (Heaphy and Dutton 2008). Caring interactions with others are associated
with increased energy at work (Shraga and Shirom 2009). Some of this energy can be shared
with others, thereby enhancing one’s own energy and job performance (Baker et al. 2003).
Krampitz et al. (2023) highlighted the effectiveness of online self-leadership training in en-
hancing leaders’ skills, leading to better recovery experiences and overall well-being, which
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 5 of 21

is vital for maintaining a healthy work–life balance in today’s high-pressure environments.

The existing theory supports the orientation of an energy-oriented self-leadership.

2.5. Mental Fitness and Performance

The term “mental fitness” is used similarly to “physical fitness,” as explained by Robin-
son et al. (2015). The goal of achieving good mental shape can be attained through health-
promoting exercises, physical activity, and life-enhancing socialization (Holt-Lunstad et al.
2015), which can include humor and laughter. Laughter increases the production of endor-
phins, which contribute to a sense of well-being (Gray et al. 2015). Houghton et al. (2012)
suggest that emotional intelligence and self-leadership influence each other, which, in turn,
affects positive emotions and coping beliefs. These connections and interactions can help
individuals manage stress more effectively. Manz et al.’s (2016) conceptual model illus-
trates how emotion-based self-leadership, including the generation of positive emotions,
emotional authenticity, and well-being, can lead to increased workplace effectiveness. The
processes entrepreneurs undergo are also marked by emotions, such as optimism and joy
(D’Intino et al. 2007). Andrieieva et al. (2024) documented that a significant proportion
of female students initially reported psychological challenges, including mood swings,
anxiety, and depressive states. However, after the implementation of mental fitness pro-
grams, 71.4% of the participants reported improved mood, 67.9% noted better physical
condition, and 57.1% experienced reduced stress levels. These findings suggest that mental
fitness programs can play a crucial role in enhancing both the psychological and physical
well-being of students. Based on the theoretical reasoning above, it can be argued that
the concept of mental fitness encompasses a mental state and strength characterized by
positive emotions, good mood, laughter, and emotional authenticity, which can enhance
performance, improve mood and physical condition, and reduce stress.

2.6. The Importance of Physical Exercise, Socialization, and Laughter for Mental Fitness
A review of the research spanning from the early 1980s to 2016 shows that the three
most consistent cognitive and behavioral effects of an “ad hoc” training session are en-
hanced executive functions (e.g., task-solving and attention), improved mood, and reduced
stress levels (Basso and Suzuki 2017). This positive effect can be attributed, among other
factors, to the increased production of dopamine (Winter et al. 2007). Additionally, low-
intensity exercise has been documented to reduce cortisol levels, which are produced in
response to stress (Hill et al. 2008). Several studies have identified various sources of work
stress, such as long working hours, overtime, time pressure, and role ambiguity (Crawford
et al. 2010; Kamarck et al. 2005). Cortisol weakens the immune system (Nakata 2012) and
excessive amounts can inhibit learning (Dinse et al. 2017) and impair memory (Wolf 2009).
According to Howrigan and MacDonald (2008), humor is pervasive in human social
interactions. Laughter leads to the increased production of endorphins (Gray et al. 2015).
Machin and Dunbar (2011) also link endorphins to the positive development of social
relationships. With socialization often comes humor and laughter, which lead to the
production of endorphins (Gray et al. 2015), thereby contributing to the development of
social relationships (Machin and Dunbar 2011). Wilkins and Eisenbraun (2009) suggest
that humor is used to create close relationships and serves as a form of communication
that can strengthen cooperative behavior. The opioid effect of endorphins makes people
more relaxed in their communication, leading them to share more intimate information.
The empirical study by Kashive and Raina (2024) revealed that self-enhancing leadership
humor is linked to self-disclosure, which was found to contribute to social intimacy and
thriving at work.
The conceptual model in Figure 1 shows that health-promoting self-leadership consists
of value- and behavior-oriented, energy-oriented, and self-efficacy-oriented self-leadership.
These three orientations of self-leadership drive the self-development process. Each orien-
tation involves sub-objectives, strategies, and processes to achieve these objectives through
 pirical study by Kashive and Raina (2024) revealed that self-enhancing leadership humor
is linked to self-disclosure, which was found to contribute to social intimacy and thriving
at work.
The conceptual model in Figure 1 shows that health-promoting self-leadership con-
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211
sists of value- and behavior-oriented, energy-oriented, and self-efficacy-oriented self-lead-
6 of 21
ership. These three orientations of self-leadership drive the self-development process.
Each orientation involves sub-objectives, strategies, and processes to achieve these objec-
tives through exercises and training. These processes should strengthen mental fitness,
exercises and training. These processes should strengthen mental fitness, ultimately leading
ultimately leading to well-being, self-efficacy beliefs, and enhanced performance.
to well-being, self-efficacy beliefs, and enhanced performance.

Value –and behaviour oriented self-leadership

Self evaluation : Self consciousness of values/hierarchy?
Objective: Become aware of own values
Turn values into behavior
Strategies: Cognitive
Behavioral
Incentive
Process: Training and results

Self-efficacy oriented self-leadership

Self evaluation : Satisfactory self-efficacy beliefs? Mental fitness Well functioning as
Objective: Improve self-efficacy beliefs - Content a fellow human
Health-promoting Strategies: Cognitive - Positive
self-leadership Behavioral - Satisfied Self-efficacy beliefs
Incentive - Laughing in
Process : Training and results social settings
and performance

Energy oriented self-leadership

Self evaluation: Satisfactory everyday energy?
Objective: Improve everyday energy
Strategies: Cognitive
Behavioral
Incentive
Process: Training and results

Figure 1. Health-promoting self-leadership.

3. The Cases and Research Questions

3. The Cases and Research Questions
Two different classes comprising 59 and 53 executive MBA students at a Norwegian
Two different
university classes
(see Section comprising
4.2 The 59 and 53
MBA program, executive
sample, and MBA students atparticipated
demographics) a Norwegian in
university (see Section 4.2 The MBA program, sample, and demographics)
two similar self-leadership courses in the spring of 2020 and 2021, spanning over 12 weeks. participated in
two similar
The first self-leadership
course coursesthe
took place during in winter
the spring
andof 2020 and
spring 2021,atspanning
of 2020, the onsetoverof the12COVID-
weeks.
The first course took place during the winter and spring of 2020,
19 pandemic. The second course occurred during the pandemic when remote work practices at the onset of the
COVID-19
had been firmly pandemic. The second
established. Both course
coursesoccurred
consistedduring
of fivethe pandemic teaching
Zoom-based when remotedays,
work practices had been firmly established. Both courses
each lasting six hours, divided into three sessions for both courses (two daysconsisted of five Zoom-based
in January,
teaching days,and
two in March, eachonelasting
day in sixApril,
hours, divided
with intoexam
the home threedeadline
sessions in formid-May).
both courses (two
days The
in January,
curriculum for both courses included one Norwegian textbook exam
two in March, and one day in April, with the home deadline in
on self-leadership
mid-May).
(“Til meg selv”, Karp, T.), nine international research articles (the articles/topics: Managing
Theand
oneself curriculum
What makesfor both courses included
an effective executive,oneDrucker,
Norwegian textbook
P.; Work onand
stress self-leadership
leadership
(“Til meg selv”,
development, Karp, T.),
Lovelace, nine
K.J., international
Manz, research
C.C., and Alves, articles
J.C.; The four(theways
articles/topics:
of being that Manag-
create
ing oneself andfor
the foundation What makes
great an effective
leadership, a greatexecutive, Drucker,
organization, and aP.; Work
great stress and
personal leader-
life, Erhard,
shipManage
W.; development, Lovelace,
your energy, notK.J.,
yourManz,
time, C.C., and Alves,
Schwartz, J.C.; The four
T.; Transcendent ways of being
leadership, that
Crossan,
create the foundation for great leadership, a great organization,
M., Vera, D., and Nanjad, L.; Organizational culture and transformational leadership,and a great personal life,
Erhard, W.;
Xenikou, Manage
A. and your
Simosi, M.;energy, not youroftime,
The influences Schwartz,
participative T.; Transcendent
organizational leadership,
climate and self-
Crossan,
leadership,M., Vera,S.B.;
Tastan, D.,andandLinking
Nanjad, L.; Organizational
empowering leadershipculture and transformational
to job satisfaction, work effort,
and creativity, Amundsen, S. and Martinsen, Oe.), and two Norwegian book chapters—one
on self-leadership (Drake, I.) and one on health promotion at work (Bjerke, R.).
Overall, the syllabus represented an interdisciplinary collection of literature from the
fields of self-leadership, management, organizational culture, and healthcare management.
No changes were made to the literature over the two years. As part of their semester project
and home exam, the students were instructed to practice self-leadership over a period of 8–
10 weeks, attend lectures, and study the course literature. They were directed to follow and
report on a five-step self-development process consisting of (1) the individual selection of
self-evaluation areas; (2) prioritized development areas; (3) objectives for self-development;
(4) self-selected methods/tools/exercises; and (5) results and reflections. Their reports
(home exams) were to include descriptions of all the stages of the process, culminating in
the results and reflections. The managers were given the option to choose their workspace,
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 7 of 21

home space, or both as their arena(s) for their self-leadership practices and potential self-
development outcomes. The essence of the instructions for the leaders’/students’ home
exam was as follows:
The purpose of the assignment is to apply the literature and meta-cognition about
how you should think and carry out a self-development process to “become” a
better fellow human being and leader. Choose your arena(s) and situation (orga-
nization/company, business area, position, and/or your private life) and begin by
writing your own “case” that describes your everyday life and experienced chal-
lenges. Follow this with a section on theoretical reflections, linking them to your
challenges by highlighting their theoretical relevance. Then, define four to six self-
selected development areas, connect them to relevant theoretical concepts, and
evaluate yourself in these areas. The self-evaluation may include self-observation,
results from questionnaires related to the theoretical concepts, and opinions from
external sources such as colleagues, partners, and friends. Summarize the self-
evaluation section by listing the challenges and strengths of each area/concept.
Conclude by defining the challenges you will prioritize as your self-development
areas, including objectives for the self-development process. In the section where
you report on your self-development process, it is important to describe the
methods/tools/exercises you use to achieve your objectives. It is recommended
to maintain a training program and a diary with notes and reflections throughout
the process. Conclude the report with a results section that includes reflections
summarizing and concluding the self-development process.
The overarching research aim for this study was to examine the managers’ self-
leadership practices, focusing on their self-development processes, and at an aggregate
level, possibly gain support for the health-promoting self-leadership conceptual model.
The specific research questions (RQ) were as follows:
Research question 1 (RQ1): What areas for individual self-evaluation and prioritized development
areas are most often chosen?
Research question 2 (RQ2): What types of self-selected methods/tools/exercises are preferred to
achieve their objectives?
Research question 3 (RQ3): What objectives for self-development are selected and what results
are achieved?

4. Methodology
4.1. Method
It is beneficial to have a theoretical framework even when using an exploratory
design and qualitative methods, as applied in this study (Rocco and Plakhotnik 2009).
The exploratory design (Creswell and Creswell 2017) with theorizing and qualitative
methods used in this study is like the approaches in the research by Bjerke and Kirkesaether
(2020) and Bjerke and Elvekrok (2021). The theoretical and interdisciplinary perspective is
important to legitimize and provide insight into theoretical contexts (Glaser and Strauss
2017). The qualitative data were collected to support and strengthen the credibility of
the proposed theoretical framework (Creswell et al. 2003; Bjerke and Kirkesaether 2020).
Comparable data were collected through the content analyses of the reports from the
executive MBA students in the 2020 and 2021 samples, which allows the approach to be
seen as a multiple-case design (Creswell et al. 2003). The reports were the outcomes of
the semester projects, with a maximum length of 15 pages, plus an unlimited number
of attachments, such as training programs, diaries, observations, reflection notes, and
self-leadership models.
A comparison approach is beneficial because it facilitates the discovery of differences
and similarities between the responses (cases), leading to better insight into the data
material (Yin 2017). Content analysis (Golafshani 2003; Morrow 2005) was used to compare
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 8 of 21

the managers’ reports. Hopkins and King (2010) argue that within the social sciences,
content analysis is well suited for analyzing unstructured texts such as blogs, speeches,
government documents, newspapers, and similar sources. A challenge with content
analysis can be comparability (Lacy et al. 2015), but comparison was enabled by the case
design, with individual, separate responses from 59 and 53 managers. The sample can be
described as a convenience sample because it was defined by availability (Riffe et al. 2014).
The content analysis of the 112 cases was conducted through a rigorous coding process,
combining the elements of both pre-coding and axial coding to identify patterns and
themes across the data. This approach allowed for a detailed and structured analysis,
ensuring that the findings were both comprehensive and nuanced (Braun and Clarke
2006; Hsieh and Shannon 2005; Saldaña 2015). The coding process began with a pre-
coding phase, where the data were carefully reviewed, and significant words and phrases
were highlighted. The broad themes (categories) were provided in the home exam text
and instructions. Therefore, while reading through the managers’ reports, words and
phrases were marked and coded as belonging to the following categories (see examples in
Table 1): arenas/context, challenges/problems, prioritized development areas, objectives,
methods/tools/exercises, self-leadership model, results/achievements, and reflections.
Specific codes were then identified and related to the various categories (see Table 1) (Braun
and Clarke 2006; Hsieh and Shannon 2005; Saldaña 2015). To reveal the findings, a base
table was first created at the individual level for the two samples, which included the
themes/categories mentioned above.

Table 1. Examples of codes.

Code Category Description Example Quote

Description of the physical “The transition to remote work has
Work Home Arenas/Context and social work altered my daily routines
environment significantly.”
“Balancing work and personal life
Challenges related to
Time Management Issues Challenges/Problems have been more difficult during the
managing time effectively.
pandemic.”
Prioritized Development Specific goals set for “My main objective is to enhance
Leadership Goals
Areas improving leadership skills. my decision-making abilities.”
“Incorporating daily mindfulness
Techniques used for stress
Mindfulness Practices Methods/Tools/Exercises exercises has helped me stay calm
reduction and focus.
under pressure.”
Reflections on leadership “Through this process, I’ve become
Leadership Reflection Results/Achievements
growth and development. more self-aware and empathetic.”

Following pre-coding, the data were subjected to axial coding. In this phase, the
initially identified categories and codes were analyzed in relation to each other. Axial
coding was particularly useful in identifying relationships between the different aspects of
the managers’ self-leadership practices, such as how specific challenges were followed up
by the choice of development areas or how certain methods/tools were linked to specific
results. This step enabled grouping similar codes together, organized in categories, creating
a structured framework that reflected the underlying themes and patterns in the data. To
illustrate the coding process, examples of codes, categories, descriptions, and example
quotes are displayed in Table 1.
A summary content analysis was then performed at the aggregate level, where the
frequency of certain prioritized self-development areas, objectives, and results was tallied.
This approach allowed for comparisons across different themes (Hsieh and Shannon 2005),
enabling a deeper interpretation of the underlying context and supporting the study’s
conceptual model (see Figure 1). By analyzing the data at both individual and group
levels, the coding process, combining pre-coding and axial coding, provided the base for a
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 9 of 21

systematic analysis of the qualitative data, resulting in a robust and insightful interpretation
of the managers’ self-leadership practices.
To limit bias during data collection and analysis using a convenience sample, a few
strategies, also describing the sample in more detail, were implemented. First, the stu-
dents represented a great variety of sectors, businesses, and management positions (see
Section 4.2). Second, even though the reports varied a little in length and additional mate-
rials, the standardization of data collection was strengthened by clear guidelines for the
structure and content of the reports. This strategy enabled comparable types of data, reduc-
ing variability that might bias the analysis. Third, a certain aspect of quantitative measures
was undertaken as categories of focus areas for the students’ self-evaluation, priorities,
and results were counted and placed in tables. Fourth, a combination of pre-coding and
axial coding was applied. A second researcher assisted in the coding process. The findings
reported below are organized according to the research questions (RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3).

4.2. The MBA Program, Sample, and Demographics

To qualify for the MBA program at this well-known Norwegian university (similar re-
quirements apply to other master’s programs in Norway), applicants must have completed
a bachelor’s degree or equivalent education with at least 180 ECTS credits. Additionally,
they are required to have a minimum of two years of relevant full-time work experience.
Regarding the workload, the MBA program is structured as a part-time study over three
years, with a total of 90 ECTS credits. This program is specifically designed for working
professionals, with teaching conducted in three sessions per semester, allowing students to
combine work and study.
The two samples consisted of executive students aged between 28 and 58 years who
participated in the MBA program. Most of the students were older than 40 years, indicating
that the length of their work experience varied between about 5 to 20 years. The students
came from all regions of Norway, including the south, southeast, mid-Norway, west coast,
and the northern part, during both years and semesters when the course in self-leadership
was held. Furthermore, the executive students were managers from both the public and
private sectors (approximately sixty percent and forty percent, respectively). The classes
consisted of approximately 55 percent female and 45 percent male students. The age and
gender distributions were similar across both years/semesters when the self-leadership
course took place and when the data were collected. The executive students from the public
sector represented various fields, including the health sector, public security, and emergency
services, the judicial sector, environmental management, transport and infrastructure, social
services, education, county authorities, municipalities, and institutions under the central
government. Most of the students from private businesses worked for IT companies, food
and retail firms, transportation services, telecom, and media companies.

4.3. Research Ethics

Maintaining high ethical standards throughout the research process was critical to en-
sure the integrity and validity of this qualitative study, as well as to protect the participants’
rights. The following ethical considerations and strategies were implemented to uphold
these standards:
Informed consent: All the participants were informed about the nature, purpose, and
scope of the research before the data collection commenced. The study ensured that all the
participants provided informed consent, with a clear understanding that their participation
was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time without any negative conse-
quences.
Anonymity and confidentiality: To protect the participants’ identities, all the data
were anonymized during the content analysis process. The participants’ reports were
stripped of any identifying information, as the reports were assigned numbers by the exam
department, and most of the results were reported in an aggregate form to prevent the
identification of any individual participant. This approach ensured the confidentiality
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 10 of 21

of sensitive information, particularly given the personal and professional nature of the
self-leadership exercises and reflections described in the reports.
Transparency and participant involvement: Transparency was a key ethical consid-
eration, particularly regarding the use of the participants’ work in the research. Twelve
students consented to have their specific statements, remarks, and notes quoted in the
research. To further protect these participants’ rights and ensure the accurate representation
of their contributions, those who requested to review the draft of the paper were given the
opportunity to do so. A PDF version of the draft was provided, and the citations were used
only after receiving their approval. This process helped maintain trust and respect between
the researchers and participants.
Avoidance of coercion: Given the dual roles of the researcher as both educator and
researcher, there was a potential risk of perceived coercion. To mitigate this, it was made
clear to all the participants that their decision to participate in the study or to allow their
work to be quoted would not affect their academic standing, as the content analysis took
place after the grades had been released.
Data integrity and accuracy: Ethical research practice requires that data be collected,
analyzed, and reported accurately and honestly. In this study, rigorous data analysis
methods, including content analysis and thematic coding, were applied to ensure that the
findings were based on the data without distortion. A second researcher was involved in
the wording of the exam, instructions, and the coding process to enhance the reliability and
validity of the analysis, thereby reducing the risk of researcher bias.
Ethical approval: Prior to the data collection, ethical approval was obtained from
the institution and students. This approval mandated the students’ informed consent,
confidentiality, and the protection of participant welfare.

5. Findings
5.1. Areas for Self-Evaluation and Prioritized Self-Development (RQ1)
From the reports of the 2020 class (59 managers), it emerged that 20 executive MBA
students had chosen to test out the practice of self-leadership, starting with self-evaluation,
both in the workspace and the private arena. A total of 29 managers chose the work arena,
and 9 selected the private one. In the 2021 class, 33 (out of 53 managers) chose both arenas,
15 chose only the job arena, and 5 the private one only. Well into the COVID-19 pandemic
in spring 2021, with an established home office practice, we see that more managers wanted
to practice self-leadership in both spaces relative to 2020 (33 vs. 20). The reflections of a
manager about self-evaluation emphasize the importance of evaluation as a start of the
self-development process:
“Negative self-talk, or what I have called ‘my inner critical voice’, is a topic I have
consciously worked with as a manager but is a challenge that has become more
prominent in the past year. Feedback from friends, colleagues and manager also
illuminates this in that I am perceived as self-critical, sometimes have difficulty
accepting bragging, am frugal and at times make too high demands on myself. I
have experienced that this is often linked to feelings of inadequacy, inferiority,
and a lack of faith in myself—I especially experience this as reinforcing in a
context where one feels overwhelmed.”
And with respect to the students’ chosen self-evaluation areas, thought activity is
mentioned most times in the 2020 class (44), followed by physiology (33) (here: exer-
cise/training, nutrition/diet, and sleep), energy balance (31), efficiency/productivity (29),
and feelings (26). In 2021, thought activity was mentioned 31 times, followed by feelings
(30), physiology (28), energy balance (25), and willpower (24). One manager wrote the
following regarding feelings, thought activity, and self-evaluation: “I will accept posi-
tive feedback with gratitude, and not just say it is due to good employees. I will write
down every time this happens, what feelings the positive responses give me, and what
reflections I make about the situation.” And a few managers evaluate which values they
should use as guiding principles for their thought activity and behavior. One writes the
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 11 of 21

following: “What is fundamentally important to me, which gives meaning and direction to
choices and priorities, are the values of generosity, trust, honesty, professionalism, loyalty
and reliability”.
As a follow-up of the students’ choice of self-evaluation areas and their actual evalua-
tion process, they had been instructed in the exam test to prioritize areas prior to initiating
their self-development process. From Table 2, from one year to the other, we see that
there is a shift in the prioritized development areas. Physiology and energy balance were
ranked fourth and third in 2020, whereas in 2021, those areas were ranked first and second.
Feelings was ranked number 3 in 2021, but as low as 8 in 2020, and thought activity was
less important in 2021 (from 1 to 4 in ranking). A manager wrote the following about the
challenge of physiology as a development area: “The most basic thing I have to deal with is
exercise and diet.” Another linked mental fitness to the influence of thoughts, feelings, and
behavior and described a development area in this way: “For me, good mental fitness is
the power I have to influence my own thoughts, feelings and behavior in order to achieve
inner calm and security so that I handle everyday life in an emotionally satisfying way.” In
total, over the two years, physiology, thought activity, and energy balance were the most
mentioned prioritized development areas.

Table 2. Prioritized self-development areas.

2020 2021
Prioritized Development Areas
R* N ** R* N **
Physiology 4 24 1 29
Energy balance 3 26 2 24
Feelings 8 13 3 21
Thought activity 1 32 4 20
Efficiency, productivity, and priorities 2 31 5 12
Communication 7 13 6 11
Willpower 10 8 7 10
Stress 5 15 7 10
Boundary setting 12 4 8 9
Behavior 11 6 9 3
Management skills 6 14 9 3
Motivation 13 2 9 3
Self-esteem and self-confidence 9 8 10 2
* ranking, ** number of times mentioned.

5.2. Types of Methods, Tools, and Exercises (RQ2)

The existing theory cannot point to concrete methods, tools, and exercises, which
managers use to achieve self-development objectives. A manager commented on her/his
development plan as follows: “I will use the calendar more to sort and prioritize tasks. I
will set aside time to carry them out without delay, and I will ensure that I am not disturbed
unnecessarily when they are carried out.” Another wrote the following: “I will write down
every time I use Pomodoro if it helps or hinders my efficiency. I will evaluate after a
month whether I should continue with this method or consider other methods for focus
and efficiency.” Of a total of 47 types of methods/tools/exercises that the students reported
having used, physical training and exercise stood out as the most used method (84 out
of 112 students) in both classes (40 and 44, respectively). A quote exemplifies how the
students planned and carried out the physical training: “I will establish a training diary
that I sign according to the planned activity. In addition, I will have a column for “plus”
activities, where I give positive remarks to myself if I do more than planned.”
Physical activity was followed by meditation and relaxation exercises (“mindfulness”,
yoga, meditation, and breathing techniques), which were mentioned by 21 students in 2020
(out of 59) but increased to 26 the year after (out of 53). One manager noted the following:
“I honestly didn’t think this would be something for me with self-talk, mindfulness, and
so on. I feel that my self-leadership model has given me a better insight into who I am,
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 12 of 21

but most importantly the practice has given me more energy both mentally and physically,
and I am looking forward to the continuation, and I feel motivated.” The relative figures
(2020/2021) for the following important methods were as follows: fixed bedtimes and sleep
routines (10/20), self-talk (12/19), physical breaks (3/15), planning, structure and routines
(21/13), diet program (6/13), prioritization matrix (21/13), and time for reflection (23/11).
A manager described her/his method as follows: “In order to achieve the objective of
being able to run 5 km continuously, I had to acquire knowledge, and did this by starting
a 12-week running program from ‘Löplabbet’ intended for beginners.” Another noted
referring to the pandemic and its consequences: “All my challenges became clearer to me
overnight when Norway went into lockdown. It was not just a wish to improve anymore,
but what was totally necessary to get us through this with the health intact.”

5.3. Objectives and Achieved Results (RQ3)

From Table 3, we see that the four most important objective areas are energy balance,
efficiency/productivity/priorities, physiology, and thought activity. One example of a
manager’s formulation is as follows: “Exercise strength/fitness at least once a week and go
for a minimum 45-min walk on the other days. Cut sugary snacking during the weekdays.”
Another manager stated the following: “Increase fitness and endurance through more
physical activity, so that I have better mental strength for demanding tasks. Reduce sugar
in the diet so that I get more surplus and energy. At the same time, committing to the
goals to a greater extent, especially about the goal of physical fitness, could have helped to
create a stronger psychological contract.” Also, based on the number of objectives, we see
that there is a change from 2020 to 2021 with a much more emphasis on improving energy
balance, physiology, and aspects of emotions.
From Table 4, displaying in what areas the managers have achieved results, we see
that in total, strengthened self-awareness and self-insight are described most times in their
reports. In relative numbers, there is an increase in experienced results in the area of
energy balance and mental and physical fitness, which is ranked as number one in 2021.
Moreover, we see a substantial growth in sensed inner peace. Over the two years, the
feeling of self-efficacy is stable, and efficiency/productivity/priorities and thought activity
are reduced by almost fifty percent (based on different class sizes).

Table 3. Objectives.

2020 2021
Goals (Including Descriptive Words/Themes)
R* N ** R* N **
Strengthen energy balance (develop mental strength and capacity,
manageable workload, avoid too many challenges, avoid conflicts, avoid
2 25 1 34
bad decisions, stay calm, be patient, avoid energy thieves, have more free
time, more socialization, and avoid being burned out)
Improve efficiency, productivity, and priorities (better habits and routines,
effective meetings, better decisions, strengthen action, perform better, better
quality, avoid ineffective meetings, prioritize tasks, manage own calendar, 2 25 2 29
role clarification, find better solutions, action, implement plans, and find a
balance between freedom and work)
Physiology (exercise and get in better physical shape, better diet, and sleep,
9 9 3 21
and prevent injuries/pain)
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 13 of 21

Table 3. Cont.

2020 2021
Goals (Including Descriptive Words/Themes)
R* N ** R* N **
Emotions (strengthen self-esteem, self-confidence, and independence; avoid
conflicts; not too strict with oneself; let go of control; self-efficacy;
belonging; well-being; process hurt feelings; become less worried; cope
with adversity; regulate emotions; get rid of shame; strength relationship to 4 17 4 14
own feelings; avoid being negatively affected; accept compliments; proud
of own achievements; do not take the role of a victim; get inner peace; and
do not have a bad conscience)
Thought activity (think positive, think opportunities, think we and not I,
become more constructive, growth-oriented mindset, less self-critical, plan,
1 27 4 14
find and develop motivation, think before action, and regulate negative
thoughts)
Stress (managing hectic periods, avoiding periods of stress, and coping
6 15 5 13
with stress)
Strengthening relationships (emphasizing interpersonal consideration,
more presence, shorter working days to free up time for others, building 5 17 6 12
relationships, and available to employees)
Communication (say we and not I, reduce conflicts, be heard, influence
internal dialog, motivate others, strengthen listening skills, strengthen
11 6 7 11
communication skills, strengthen information flow, more open, better
dialogue with colleagues, and strengthen internal dialogue)
Willpower (go out of the comfort zone, stand up for one’s own opinions,
want to be independent, use willpower in the face of great opposition, 12 5 8 10
challenge oneself, cope with opposition, and say no)
Focus and concentration (avoid thoughts wandering and avoid
9 9 9 7
procrastination)
Boundary setting (limiting and managing work tasks and getting better at
12 5 10 6
saying no)
More time for family and friends (separation between work and private life
8 12 10 6
and less available for work in private time)
Values, attitude, and behavior (find your own values to understand
10 7 11 7
patterns of action, stand for attitudes and opinions, and strengthen identity)
Become a better manager (delegate more, gain more trust, and provide
3 18 12 4
guidance and support)
Take control of your own life 7 10 13 3
R * = ranking, N ** = number of times mentioned.

The following quote indicates the connections between self-insight, exercises and
training, energy balance, and mindset: “The biggest insight this process has given me is
that a good energy balance is crucial for me to be successful with my other challenges.
Self-observation has given me the insight that I often assume a victim role. In periods when
I have little energy and a poor energy balance, I more easily assume the role of victim in
my life than the role of actor. I am motivated to carry out physical activity, so this has gone
very well. I have mostly had at least one activity session every day.” It seems that the result
areas to some extent overlap and are connected. Three managers describe the results and
indicate links between the areas in the following way:
“By working on this assignment, I have come to the conclusion that choosing a
lifestyle that improves mental and physical surplus is in itself a self-leadership
strategy, as well as an important premise for getting the surplus needed to better
manage myself. At the same time, the concept of self-leadership can be seen as a
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 14 of 21

project of liberation, where it is about recognizing that you have opportunities

for influence in all contexts.”
“I have therefore set myself a new goal to become even better at focusing. Devel-
oping my inner dialogue and improving my physiology. I have set myself the
objective of losing the 10 kilos that I have put on since 2016. I will practice 15 min
of mindfulness to train my attention. I should aim to get a minimum of 7 h of
sleep each night.”
“What I am left with is not something I can show on paper or through any
statistics, but a feeling, a sense of ease when I go to work and know that I am
contributing to the positive.”

Table 4. Results.

2020 2021
Results
R* N ** R* N **
Strengthened energy balance and mental and physical fitness 3 19 1 20
Strengthened inner calm 9 1 2 19
Strengthened self-awareness and self-insight 1 37 3 17
Feeling of self-efficacy 4 11 4 13
Improved efficiency, productivity, and priorities 2 21 5 11
Improved motivation 8 12 5 11
Improved temporal focus (less mind-wandering) 7 11 6 8
Positive thought activity 3 19 6 8
Reduced feeling of stress 7 4 6 8
Improved structure, habits, and routines 5 8 7 7
Improved mood 6 7 8 6
Improved sleeping patterns 7 4 8 6
R * = ranking, N ** = number of times mentioned.

6. Discussion and Implications

6.1. Discussion
This study is based on two executive MBA self-leadership classes, a semester project,
and 112 managers’ reports on self-leadership practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. The
findings suggest that self-evaluation and the prioritization of development areas are crucial
initial stages in the self-development process. The increasing importance of physiology and
energy balance as priority areas over the two years indicates a growing emphasis on the
value of “health”, which Schwartz (1992) identifies as an instrumental value and a behav-
ioral guiding principle. Here, the managers’ intentions toward health-promoting behavior
appear to be driven by improved self-awareness, self-insight, and positive attitudes rooted
in healthy values (Homer and Kahle 1988; Schwartz 1992). Additionally, the attainment of
inner calm, which corresponds to Schwartz’s (1992) concept of inner harmony (peace with
oneself/free from inner conflicts), and detachment from worries are the outcomes of the
managers’ physical and mental activities. These findings support the concept of value- and
behavior-oriented self-leadership.
The connection between physical exercise, a healthy lifestyle, and a balanced energy
level, all highly prioritized by the managers, is explained by Lovelace et al. (2007). Fur-
thermore, the benefits of physical exercise extend to enhancing health span, longevity,
and overall resilience (Gable and Haidt 2005; Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015). Several factors
may explain the managers’ experiences of improved energy balance, mental and physical
surplus, and inner calm. One possible explanation is that physical activity increases the
production of serotonin, a neurotransmitter crucial for sleep, memory, mood, and various
cognitive functions (Chen and Nakagawa 2023; Strasser and Fuchs 2015). Strengthened
executive functions, improved mood, and reduced stress can also be attributed to increased
dopamine production (Winter et al. 2007) and decreased cortisol levels (Hill et al. 2008).
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 15 of 21

The peptide endorphin, produced during and after physical activity, provides a well-being
effect like that of morphine, which may explain the managers’ experience of inner calm as a
significant result of their self-development processes and focus on physiology, particularly
physical training (Nguyen et al. 2021).
The essence of health-promoting self-leadership among the managers lies in priori-
tizing physiology to strengthen energy balance and mental and physical fitness. Physical
training, exercises, and relaxation sessions were the commonly used methods in both classes,
addressing both physical and emotional aspects. Emotional regulation and self-leadership
through behavioral and cognitive strategies can foster positive emotions and coping beliefs
(Houghton et al. 2012). The generation of positive emotions and well-being can further
enhance workplace effectiveness (Manz et al. 2016). Strengthened self-awareness and self-
insight were among the most significant outcomes achieved by the managers (ranked first
and third). Tat and Zeitel-Bank (2013) suggested that developing additional self-leadership
skills, such as empathy, is crucial. A better understanding of one’s own needs, feelings, and
limitations can lead to a greater appreciation of these areas in others. Thus, managers who
engage in such self-leadership training programs are likely to develop the prerequisites for
empathy and respect for others.
The concrete methods, tools, and exercises most frequently used by the managers in
this study have not been identified in previous self-leadership research. Current research
shows that meditation training significantly improves work efficiency by enhancing atten-
tion and impulse control (Kozasa et al. 2012). Mindfulness interventions can help reduce
stress and burnout in the workplace and improve coping and well-being (Burton et al.
2017). Additionally, the positive effects of mindfulness practice include improved sleep
and lower cortisol levels, which contribute to a state of well-being (Brand et al. 2012). The
managers’ physical training likely improved their mood (an element of mental fitness),
reduced stress, and strengthened executive functions (Basso and Suzuki 2017). These
findings support the relevance of mental fitness in health-promoting self-leadership and
its connection to thought activity, emotions, and energy balance. Consequently, energy-
oriented self-leadership is sufficiently supported, particularly in relation to thought activity,
emotions, and mental fitness. Emotional regulation should, therefore, be considered an
essential component of health-promoting self-leadership, serving as both a source of energy
and an element of mental fitness, as theorized above.
Physical activity has also been documented to positively affect brain networks and
connections (Douw et al. 2014). Based on an extensive literature review of Festa et al. (2023),
physical activity was found to enhance attention, working memory, and executive function
across all age groups. The reported feelings of inner calm and self-efficacy of this study can
likely be explained by students’ focus on physiology and physical activity. According to a
study by Deng et al. (2023), engaging in physical activity not only directly improved the
life satisfaction of college students but also indirectly contributed to it by fostering higher
levels of self-efficacy and resilience. They suggest that physical activity promotes both
well-being and the personal resources needed to cope with challenges. Excessive cortisol
levels can temporarily impair learning (Dinse et al. 2017) and memory (Wolf 2009), which
could negatively impact coping beliefs. Human stress management, facilitated by the
“social nervous system”, can be enhanced through group relaxation sessions, mindfulness
exercises, physical sessions with Pilates and tai chi, and access to healthy food (Kozlowska
2013; Kozlowska et al. 2015; Porges 2001). Group exercises and training also promote
life-prolonging socialization (Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015) and can lead to healthy laughter
(Gray et al. 2015). The findings and related theory support the concept of self-efficacy-
oriented self-leadership as part of health-promoting self-leadership and its connection to
energy-oriented self-leadership, mental fitness, and performance.
The shifts in the prioritized development areas between 2020 and 2021 can be at-
tributed to several underlying factors related to the evolving context of the COVID-19
pandemic and its impact on work–life dynamics. The significant increase in managers
prioritizing self-leadership practices in both work and private arenas in 2021 suggests a
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 16 of 21

heightened awareness of the blurred boundaries between these spaces due to the estab-
lished home office practices. This shift indicates that the managers may have recognized
the need to balance their professional and personal lives more effectively, particularly as
prolonged remote work introduced new stressors and challenges. The implications of
these shifts for self-leadership practice are profound. The managers who actively integrate
self-leadership strategies across different life domains are likely better equipped to manage
the complexities of modern work environments, especially those characterized by remote
or hybrid work models. This comprehensive approach to self-leadership fosters resilience,
enabling managers to maintain high levels of performance and well-being despite external
pressures. Moreover, the increased focus on areas such as physiology and energy balance
reflect a broader understanding of the holistic nature of self-leadership, where physical
health and mental fitness are seen as critical components of effective leadership.
There is no similar longitudinal self-leadership research conducted over an extended
period in a COVID-19 context for comparison. However, research by Lovelace et al. (2007)
highlights the importance of physical fitness and energy management as vital components
of leadership development, particularly in high-stress environments. The increased em-
phasis on physiology and energy balance in the 2021 cohort aligns with these findings,
suggesting that managers are increasingly aware of the need to prioritize their physical
and mental health as a foundation for effective leadership. Additionally, the studies on
remote work and its effects on well-being (e.g., Wang et al. 2021) corroborate the observed
shift toward integrating self-leadership practices across work and private spaces. The
challenges of remote work, such as isolation and the blurring of work–life boundaries, have
led many professionals to adopt more holistic self-care strategies, as reflected in the 2021
cohort’s data.
The long-term impact of these shifts in prioritized development areas on managers’
overall effectiveness and well-being could be substantial. By focusing more on areas like
physiology and energy balance, managers are likely to experience sustained improvements
in their physical and mental health, which are critical for maintaining high performance
over time. As suggested by self-leadership theory, these improvements in personal well-
being can lead to enhanced self-efficacy, better decision making, and more effective leader-
ship. Moreover, the increased attention to emotional regulation and mental fitness in 2021
suggests that managers are developing adaptive coping mechanisms that will serve them
well in future crises or high-pressure situations. Over the long term, these practices can
contribute to a more resilient and adaptable leadership style, characterized by the ability to
navigate complex and unpredictable environments with confidence and composure.

6.2. Theoretical Implications

The findings of this study offer significant contributions to the theoretical understand-
ing of self-leadership, particularly in the context of crisis management and remote work
environments. The observed shifts in the prioritized development areas, such as the in-
creased focus on physiology and energy balance, suggest that the self-leadership theory
must adapt to include a more integrated approach that encompasses both physical and
mental health as essential components of effective leadership. This study reinforces the
idea that self-leadership is not merely a cognitive or behavioral construct but also deeply
intertwined with physiological well-being, echoing the holistic perspectives suggested by
previous scholars (Lovelace et al. 2007).
Furthermore, the research highlights the dynamic nature of self-leadership, showing
that it evolves in response to external pressures, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This
finding suggests that the theoretical models of self-leadership should account for contextual
and environmental factors that may influence the prioritization of certain self-leadership
practices over others. By incorporating these factors, future research can develop more
robust models that better reflect the realities of modern leadership challenges.
Based on the conceptual framework depicted in the theoretical model and the study’s
findings, the theoretical implications strongly support a holistic approach to self-leadership
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 17 of 21

that integrates value- and behavior-oriented strategies, self-efficacy enhancement, and

energy-oriented self-leadership. The model proposes that self-leadership is most effective
when it encompasses these three dimensions, each contributing uniquely to an individual’s
mental fitness, performance, and overall, well-functioning. By aligning personal values
with behavior, enhancing self-efficacy, and maintaining energy balance, individuals can
cultivate a well-rounded form of self-leadership that not only promotes personal well-being
but also enhances professional performance.
This framework aligns with the existing research suggesting that self-leadership is not
a singular construct but a multifaceted process that requires the integration of cognitive,
behavioral, and emotional strategies (Manz 2015; Houghton et al. 2012). The inclusion of
mental fitness as a mediating factor in the model further underscores the importance of
emotional and psychological well-being in the practice of self-leadership, echoing findings
from the studies that link positive emotions and mental resilience to effective leadership
outcomes (Lovelace et al. 2007; Kozasa et al. 2012). The model also emphasizes the cycli-
cal nature of self-leadership, where continuous self-evaluation and adaptation lead to
sustained personal and professional growth, aligning with the dynamic and iterative na-
ture of leadership development described in contemporary leadership theories (Neck and
Houghton 2006).

6.3. Practical Implications

The practical implications of this study are equally significant, offering actionable
insights for managers, educators, and organizational leaders. The shift towards greater
emphasis on physiology and energy balance indicates that organizations should consider
integrating physical and mental health initiatives into leadership development programs.
Such initiatives could include structured exercise programs, mindfulness training, and
stress management workshops, all of which have been shown to enhance both personal well-
being and leadership effectiveness. For educational institutions, the findings suggest that
self-leadership interventions should be introduced early in academic programs, particularly
in courses or orientations for new students. By equipping students with self-leadership
skills that address both cognitive and physical aspects, institutions can help mitigate
stress and improve overall student well-being, potentially leading to higher retention and
success rates.
From an organizational perspective, the study underscores the importance of support-
ing managers in practicing self-leadership across different life domains, especially in hybrid
or remote work settings. Companies may consider offering flexible work arrangements that
allow employees to better balance their personal and professional responsibilities, thereby
reducing stress and enhancing productivity. Overall, the study highlights the need for
a more comprehensive approach to self-leadership that integrates physical, mental, and
emotional well-being, providing a framework that can be applied across various sectors
and disciplines to improve leadership outcomes and support personal development.

7. Conclusions
Practicing health-promoting self-leadership by implementing methods, tools, and
exercises to achieve short-term and long-term objectives is demanding and time-consuming.
One manager explained it this way: “Being aware of changing thought patterns little by
little, not rushing through the process, but learning from things takes time. In any case,
don’t stress yourself through the process, but do it gradually at a comfortable pace.”
Another manager summarized the self-development process as follows: “This journey has
been challenging, but also very exciting and rewarding. Self-leadership is something I will
continue to work on, as change does not happen overnight. I will continue to train both
consciously and unconsciously.”
The concrete findings of this research in the categories of self-development, prioritized
development areas, objectives, training (through self-selected methods, tools, and exer-
cises), and obtained results support the theoretical framework (see Figure 1). The explicit
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, 211 18 of 21

findings legitimize both energy- and self-efficacy-oriented self-leadership as two of the

three subcomponents (directions) of health-promoting self-leadership. The objectives and
results, particularly those linked to energy balance, mental and physical fitness, and inner
calm, are based on changes in routines, habits, and behavior. The process the managers
have undergone clearly indicates that it is rooted in healthy values. The managers’ shifts
toward healthier habits and routines from 2020 to 2021, with convincing health-promoting
effects, support value- and behavior-oriented self-leadership as the third component of
health-promoting self-leadership.
Goldsby et al. (2021) argue that the authors of the article “Self-leadership: A Four-
Decade Review of the Literature and Trainings” hold certifications in the professional
programs listed in their paper. They critique the weaknesses of these professional programs,
noting that multi-day workshops with short time spans often end with meaningless final
instructions, such as common wrap-up phrases like, “Now it’s up to you to use this”
(Goldsby et al. 2021, p. 10). Therefore, higher education has a significant opportunity to
better educate managers in self-leadership, as courses in higher education typically last
several weeks, providing the necessary time to practice and develop self-leadership skills.
This extended time frame allows managers to take full advantage of the multiple beneficial
outcomes documented in this study.
In conclusion, the findings from this study not only highlight important shifts in self-
leadership practices among managers during the COVID-19 pandemic but also underscore
the potential for these practices to yield significant long-term benefits. By comparing
these findings with the existing literature and considering their implications for future
leadership development, this study contributes valuable insights into the evolving nature
of self-leadership in the modern workplace.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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