Chapter 1

1
 Text Book and Reference Books
Text Book
A. V. Oppenheim, A. S. Willsky, and S. H. Nawab, “Signals and
Systems”, Prentice-Hall, 2nd Ed., 1997.
Reference Books
1. S. Haykin and B. Van Veen, “Signals and Systems”, 2nd Ed., John Wiley
& Sons, 1999.
2. Benoit Boulet, “Fundamentals of Signals and Systems”, Da Vinci
Engineering Press, 2006.
3. C. L. Phillips, J. M. Parr, E. A. Riskin, “Signals, Systems & Transforms”,
Prentice Hall, 4th Edition, 2008.
4. M. J. Roberts, “Signals & Systems”, McGraw Hill, 2004.
5. S. S. Soliman, M. D. Srinath, “Continuous & Discrete Signals &
Systems”, Prentice Hall, 1998.

2
 Introduction
§ This first lecture is intended to broadly introduce the scope and direction
of the course.
§ We are concerned with signals and with systems that process signals.
§ Signals can be categorized as either continuous-time signals, for which
the independent variable is a continuous variable, or discrete-time
signals, for which the independent variable is an integer.
§ Examples of continuous-time signals include the sound pressure at a
microphone as a function of time or image brightness as a function of
two spatial variables.
§ In the first case the signal is a one-dimensional signal, in the second a
two-dimensional signal. Common examples of discrete-time signals are
economic time series, such as the daily or weekly stock market index,
antenna arrays, etc.
§ While these examples include both one-dimensional and two-
dimensional signals, our detailed discussions in this course focus only
on one-dimensional signals.

3
 Introduction
§ Many of the general concepts and results, however, will be illustrated with
two-dimensional signals, specifically images.
§ There are some very strong similarities and also some very important dif-
ferences between discrete-time signals and systems and continuous-time
signals and systems.
§ Discussing both classes together provides an opportunity to share intuition
and to use both the similarities and the differences as a further emphasis
of important concepts.
§ For the most part, our discussion of systems throughout is restricted to a
specific class, namely linear, time-invariant systems. Extremely powerful
tools and techniques exist for both analysis and design of this class of
systems.
§ In particular, in discussing this class of systems we develop signal and
system representations in both the time domain and the frequency
domain. These two domains of representation are tied together through
the Fourier transform, which we discuss and exploit in considerable detail.

4
 Signal and Systems
§ EE 301 is about introducing mathematical techniques to
analyse signals and synthesize systems which process
signals.
§ Signals are something that vary with “time” OR Signal is a
time varying physical phenomenon which is intended to
convey information.
§ Systems process input signals to produce output signals.

5
 Signal and Systems

Examples of Signal are

§ Electrical signals --- voltages and currents in a circuit

§ Acoustic signals --- audio or speech signals (analog or

digital)

§ Video signals --- intensity variations in an image

§ Biological signals --- sequence of bases in a gene

§ In this course, we will treat noise as unwanted signals

6
 Signal and Systems

§ Signal: a set of information or data.

– It can be function of any variable/variables. (time; space etc)

§ System: An entity that processes a set of Signals (input) to produce

another set of Signals (output)

§ Signals can be classified as follows

– Continous & Discrete
– Analog & Digital
– Periodic & Aperiodic
– Energy (E∞< ∞) & Power (P∞< ∞)
– Deterministic (math equations) & Probabilistic (random, mean,
etc)
– Even & Odd

7
 Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals

§ Continuous Time: The signal is defined at all values of times t , where t is

continuous variable, this is known as continuous time signal.

8
 Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals

§ Discrete Time: When signal is specified at certain time instants, (not

for every time instant), it is termed as discrete-time signal.

Continuous Time Discrete Time

Independent Variable t n
() []
Signal Representation x(t) x[n]

9
Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals

10
 Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals

§ Discrete-Time Signal/Sequence (x[n]) is defined only for integer

values of independent variable.

§ Discrete-time signals may be created from the ‘sampling’ of the

continuous –time signals.

§ Modern digital processors are being used to implement many

practical systems, because of their speed, computational power, and
flexibility.
– Processor-based systems work on discrete-time signals.
– A continuous-time signals can be converted to discrete-time
through the process of Sampling.

11
Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals

12
Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals

13
 Continuous and Discreet-Time Signals
§ Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time
This classification is determined by whether or
not the time axis is discrete (countable) or
continuous.

§ Analog vs. Digital

The difference between analog and digital is
similar to the difference between continuous-time
and discrete-time. However, in this case the
difference involves the values of the function.
Analog corresponds to a continuous set of
possible function values, while digital
corresponds to a discrete set of possible function
values. An common example of a digital signal is
a binary sequence, where the values of the
function can only be one or zero.

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 Signal Energy and Power
§ In many, but not all, applications, signals are directly related to
physical quantities capturing power and energy in a physical system

§ In a single ‘Resistor’ electric circuit

– Instantaneous power
p(t) = v(t) . i(t) = i2(t).R = v2 (t) / R

– The total Energy expanded over the time interval, t1 <= t <= t2
t2 t2

E= ò p(t) dt = 1 / R ò v(t) 2dt

t1 t1

– The average power for this interval is given by

E/ (t2 – t1)
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 Signal Energy and Power
§ The total Energy expanded over the time interval, t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 , for a
continuous-time complex signal is given by
t2

E =ò x(t) 2 dt
t1

§ The total Energy expanded over the time interval, n1 ≤ n ≤ n2 , for a

discrete-time complex signal is given by
n2

E = å | x[n] |2
n = n1

§ The average power for this interval is given by

E
(n2 - n1 + 1)

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 Signal Energy and Power

§ In many systems, it is very useful to examine the energy and power

of the signal over an infinite time interval, i.e., for -∞ < t < + ∞ OR for
-∞ < n < + ∞
T 2 +¥

E = Lim ò x(t) dt , E = ò x(t) 2 dt

T ®¥ -T
¥
-¥

§ Similarly, for discrete-time Signal

+¥
E¥ = å | x[n] |2
n = -¥
§ A signal is said to have infinite energy if

E¥ ® ¥
§ And finite energy if
E¥ < ¥
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 Signal Energy and Power
§ Time-averaged Power over infinite interval.
T 2 +N

P¥ =
Lim 1
ò x(t) dt
Lt 1
P¥ = N ® ¥ 2 N + 1 å | x[n] | 2

T ® ¥ 2T -T n=- N

§ Signal with finite total energy have zero average power,

LtE¥
P¥ = =0
T ® ¥ 2T
§ Example: a finite-energy signal , x(t) = 1 for 0 £ t £1 and 0
otherwise.
E¥ = 1 P¥ = 0
§ Signal with finite total power , if P¥ > 0 , then, of necessity, E ¥ = ¥

§ Example: x[n] = 4 has infinite energy, but average power P¥ = 16

§ For Some signals: neither P¥ nor E ¥ are finite. x(t) = t.

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 Signals Basic Operations

There are two variable parameters in general:

§ Amplitude
§ Time
The following operation can be performed with amplitude:
Amplitude Scaling
C x(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose amplitude is
scaled by a factor C.

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 Signals Basic Operations
Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by using the following example:

As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

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 Signals Basic Operations
Subtraction
subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2= -2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) =1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) + x2(t) =0 - 2 = -2

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 Signals Basic Operations
Multiplication
Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their
corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained by the following
example:

As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 ×2 = 0
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 1 ×2 = 2
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0

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 Transformation of Independent Variable

§ Modifications in Independent Variable, i.e. ‘time-axis’.

– Time shifting

– Time reversal

– Time scaling

– Periodic signals

– Even-Odd signals

23
 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Time Shifting: Time delayed/advanced version of the original signal with
same shape and characteristics.

§ x(t ± t0) is time shifted version of the signal x(t).

x (t + t0) →→ negative shift
x (t - t0) →→ positive shift

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Time Reversal: flipping the original signal around t=0 (or n=0) axis

x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Time Scaling: time-compression/expansion the original signal
§ x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t), where A is
always positive.
|A| > 1 → Compression of the signal
|A| < 1 → Expansion of the signal

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ It is often of interest to determine the effect of transforming the
independent variable of a given signal ‘x(t)’ to obtain a signal of the
form ‘x(α.t + β)’ , where ‘α’ and ‘β’ are given numbers.

§ Such transformation of the independent variable preserves the

shape of ‘x(t)’ except that the resulting signal may be

– linearly stretched if ‘|α|’ < 1

– Linearly compressed if ‘|α|’ >1
– reversed in time if ‘α < 0’
– Shifted in time if ‘β ≠ 0’
• β > 0 => time-advanced version of the original signal
• β < 0 => time-delayed version of the original signal

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 !
Example 1.1: For the give signal x(t), Draw x("t + 1)

(a) The continuous-time signal x(t); (b) the time-shifted signal x(t + 1 ); (c) the signal x(-t + 1) obtained
! !
by a time shift and a time reversal; (d) the time-scaled signal x( t ); and (e) the signal x( t + 1) obtained
" "
by time-shifting and scaling.

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Periodic Signal
– Continuous-time periodic signal with period ‘T’

x(t) = x(t + mT )
• ‘m’ is any integer (+,-).
• Fundamental Period ‘T0’ is the smallest positive value of ‘T’
for which equation holds.
• For a constant /DC signal, T0 = undefined

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Periodic Signal
– Discrete-time periodic signal

x[n] = x[n + mN ]
• ‘m’ is any integer (+,-).
• N is a positive Integer value.
• Fundamental Period ‘N0’ is the smallest positive value of ‘N’
for which equation holds.

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Even Signal Vs Odd Signal

x(t) = x(-t) x(t) = - x(-t)

x[n] = x[-n] x[n] = - x[-n]

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 Transformation of Independent Variable
§ Any signal can be broken into a sum of two signals, even and odd.
1
Ev { x (t )} = [ x (t ) + x (- t )]
1
2 Ev { x[n ]} = [ x[ n ] + x[ - n ]]
2
1
Od { x (t )} = [ x (t ) - x ( - t )]
2 Od { x[n ]} = 1 [ x[ n ] - x[ - n ]]
2
Ev { x(t)} + Od {x(t)} = x (t)

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 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Complex Number review
Euler’s Number e = 2 .718

jq
z = re z = x + jy

r =| z | | z |= x + y
2 2
Relationship between
Polar and Cartesian
coordinates.
x = r cos q y = r sin q q = tan -1
( y / x)

Euler’s Formula e j q = cos q + j sin q | e j q |= 1

z= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
e jq
+ e - jq
sin q = e jq
- e - jq
cos q = z= 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 + 𝑖 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷
2 2j Z = 𝑟. (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷)
z= 𝑟𝑒 #$
33
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ The continuous-time Complex exponential signal

x (t ) = Ce at

– ‘C’ and ‘a’ are, in general, complex numbers. Depending upon the values these
parameters, the complex exponential can exhibit several different characteristics.
– Real Exponential: ‘C’ and ‘a’ are real. (see for a>0, a<0; a=0?)

(a) (b)
Figure: Continuous-time real exponential x(t) = Ceat , (a) a>0 (b) a<0

34
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Complex Exponential: ‘a’ = purely imaginary
§ Periodic Complex Exponential

x (t ) = e j w 0 t
– This is a periodic signal with fundamental period given by
T0 = 2 P | |

– e jw 0 t and e - j w 0 t have the same fundamental period.

§ Sinusoidal Signals
x (t ) = A cos( w 0 t + f )
x (t ) = A Â e{e j ( w 0 t + f ) }

35
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Constant (dc) signal is periodic for all values of ‘T’. So, the smallest
positive value of ‘ T’ , fundamental period, is undefined. And
fundamental frequency is zero.

§ Complex exponential and sinusoidal signals have infinite total

energy and finite average power.

T0 2
jw 0 t
E period = ò
0
|e | dt = T 0

Pperiod = E period / T 0 = 1

§ For a periodic signal T

2
Lim 1
E Total = Lt T 0 = ¥
T®¥
P¥ =
T ® ¥ 2T
òew j 0t
dt = 1
T

36
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials
– Set of periodic exponentials, all of which are periodic with a
common period T0.
– Condition for a complex exponential e jwt to be periodic with
period T0.
e jwT0 = 1
– Which means that ωT0 is a multiple of 2p, i.e.,

wT0 = 2pk, k = 0,±1,±2,...

w0 = 2p / T0 w = kw 0

37
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials
– a set of periodic exponentials with fundamental frequencies that
are all multiples of a single positive frequency w0

f k (t) = e jkw t 0 k = 0,±1,±2,...

– For k = 0, fk (t) is a constant (dc). For any k, fk (t) is periodic

with fundamental frequency k w 0 and fundamental period T0 / k
2p = T 0
k w0 k

– the kth harmonic, fk (t) is still periodic with fundamental period

T0 , as it goes through exactly ‘|k|’ of its fundamental periods
during any time interval of length T0
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 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
– Plot the magnitude of the signal

x(t) = e j 2t + e j3t

x(t) = e j 2.5t (e j 0.5t + e - j 0.5t )

x(t) = e j 2.5t {2 cos( 0.5t)}

For magnitude of x(t)

| x(t) |= | e j 2.5t | {| 2 cos( 0.5t) |}

| x(t) |= 2 | cos( 0.5t) |

39
General Complex Exponential Signals

x(t) = Ce at
– Where ‘C’ and ‘a’ both are complex
C =| C | e jq , a = r + jw
∘

– Then
x(t) = Ce at = {| C | e jq }{e ( r + jw 0 )t }

j ( w t +q )
Ce at = {| C | e rt }{e 0 }

Ce at = {| C | e rt }{cos( w t + q ) + j sin( w t + q )}
0 0

40
 General Complex Exponential Signals
§ for (r =0) ?

41
 DT: Complex Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Complex exponential sequence
x[n] = C a n
– ‘C’ and ‘α’ are complex numbers

§ Alternative representation
x[n] = Ce b n
– ‘C’ and ‘β’ are complex numbers
– And
a = eb
§ DT- real exponential signals
§ ‘C’ and ‘α’ are purely real numbers

42
 DT: Complex Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ e.g. (a) x[n] =C(2)n (b) x[n] =C(1/2)n (c) x[n] =C(- 1/2)n (d) x[n] =C(- 2)n
§ |α| > 1 => expanding; |α| < 1 => damping; α = -ive => Oscillation

40
 DT: Complex Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
x[n] = C a n = Ce b n

§ If ‘β’ is purely imaginary

x[n] = e jw 0 n
– infinite total energy and finite average power.

§ Sinusoidal signals

x[ n ] = A cos( w 0 n + f )
x[ n ] = A Â e{e j ( w 0 n + f ) }

– If ‘n’ is dimensionless then w0 & f have units of ‘radians’

44
32

45
General Complex Exponential Signals
x[n] = C a n = Ce b n

C =| C | e jq a =| a | e jw 0

C a n =| C || a |n {e j (w 0 n+q ) }

C a n =| C || a |n {cos( w n + q ) + j sin( w n + q )}
0 0

46
 General DT-Complex Exponential Signals

§ |α| = 1, the real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential

sequence are sinusoidal

§ |α| > 1

§ |α| < 1

47
 Periodicity Properties of DT-Complex
Exponential Signals
§ Continuous time: e jw 0t
– ‘ω0’ = rad/sec
– The larger the value of ‘ω0’ , the higher is the rate of oscillation
– Periodic for any value of ‘ω0’
§ Discrete Time: e jw 0 n
– ‘ω0’ = radians
– There are only ‘2π’ unique frequencies. i.e. a frequency repeats
after every ‘2π’
– 0 ≤ ω0 < 2π
e j (w0 + 2p )n
– - π ≤ ω0 < π
– ω0 = 0, 2π (even multiples)
e j (2p )n e jw 0 n
• => no oscillations (low frequency)
– ω0 = -π, π (odd multiples) e jw 0 n
• => Max oscillations (high frequency)
48
 Periodicity DT-Complex Exponential Signals
§ Continuous time: e jw 0t
– Periodic for any value of ‘ω0’ OR time period: T 0 = 2 P | w 0 |

§ Discrete Time: e jw 0 n
– If this signal has to be periodic then

e jw 0 (n+ N ) = e jw n
0

e jw 0 N = 1
w 0 N = 2p .m
w0 m
=
2p N
w0
– DT- signal is periodic only if is a rational number.
2p

49
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials
– a set of periodic exponentials with fundamental frequencies that
are all multiples of a single positive frequency w 0

fk [n] = e jk w n 0
k = 0,±1,±2,...

j ( k + N )w 0 n
f k+N [n] = e
jk w 0 n jN w 0 n
fk + N [n] = e e

fk + N [n] = e jkw n e j ( 2p ) n = e jkw n

0 0

f k + N [n] = f k [n]
50
 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signals
§ Harmonically Related Complex Exponentials
– In Continuous time signals:
• every new harmonic is a distinct signal
• All of the harmonically related complex exponentials are
distinct.

– But, in Discrete time signals:

• There are only ‘N’ distinct harmonics/periodic exponentials.
• e.g. if N=5, then signal at k=1 and k=6 are exactly same.
– carbon copy/replica of each other.

51
 Unit Impulse & Unit Step Function

§ First Difference

52
 Unit Impulse & Unit Step Function
§ Running sum: The discrete-time unit
step is the running sum of the unit
sample. That is

§ The running sum is 0 for n<0 and 1 for

n>=0.
§ By changing the variable of summation
from m to k=n-m, we find that discrete- Figure: Running Sum of
time unit step can be written in terms of (a) n<0; (b) n>0
the unit sample as

§ Or Equivalently
Figure: (a) n<0; (b) n>0

§ Unit steps as shifted unit impulses

53
 Unit Impulse & Unit Step Function
• Continuous Time

§ First Derivative and Running integral

§ Unit steps as shifted unit impulses

54
Examples

5
5
5
6
 CT and DT Systems
§ System
– an entity which processes a signal/signals (input signal) to
generate another signal/signals (output signal)
– a process in which input signals are transformed into output
signals.
• sound system (magnetic/electric waves => sound waves)
– Text Book: examples. 1.8 – 1.11

57
 CT and DT Systems
§ System Inter connections

Series (Cascade) Interconnection

Parallel Interconnections

58
 CT and DT Systems

Series-parallel Interconnections

Fig: System for calculation of y[n] = (2x[n]- x[n]2)2

59
CT and DT Systems

Figure: Feedback
Interconnection

60
 Basic System Properties
§ Memoryless
– If output of the system for each value of independent variable at
a given time is dependent only on the input at that same time
– Memory: retains info about input values other than the current
time
– Examples:

61
 Basic System Properties
§ Invertibility and Inverse Systems
– A system is invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs
– If a system is invertible, then an inverse system exists that, when
cascaded with the original system, yields an output equal to the
input to the first system.

– y(t) = 0 ?
– y(t)= x2(t)?

62
 Basic System Properties
§ Causal Systems
– A system is causal if the output at any time depends only on
values of the input at the present time and in the past.
– Non-anticipative
– Causal / Non-causal?

– All memoryless systems are causal, since the output responds

only to the current value of the input. vice versa?
– Example 1.12
– Causal?

63
 Basic System Properties
§ Stability
– A stable system is one in which small inputs lead to responses that do
not diverge.
– A bounded input signal should cause a bounded output signal
– Bounded signals: DC signals, cos(t), sin(t), and u(t)
– Example: 1.13.
– (a). y(t)=t.x(t) (unstable). b. y(t)=x(t)+5 (Stable)
§ Time Invariance
– A systems is Time Invariant if the behaviour and characteristics of the
system are fixed over time.
– A system is Time Invariant if a time shift in the input signal results
in an identical time shift in the output signal

– Examples: 1.14 – 1.16 x[n] ® y[n]

x[n - n 0 ] ® y[n - n 0 ]
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 § Time Invariance - Examples
§ Time variance (TV)
y(t) y(t − 𝑡% )
x(t) System Delay
§ Y(t)=x(2t)
§ Y(t)=x(cos(t)) x(t − 𝑡% )
§ y(t)=cos(t).x(t) Delay System 𝑦′(𝑡)
§ Y(t)=x(t^2)
§ Y(t)= 𝑒 !"# 𝑥 𝑡
§ Y(t)=2t+x(t) = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡% ), 𝑇𝐼𝑉
𝑦′(𝑡) 6
≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡% ), 𝑇𝑉
§ Time Invariance (TIV)
§ Y(t)=5+x(t)
§ Y(t)= 𝑒 !"$ 𝑥 𝑡

65
 Basic System Properties
§ Linearity
– A system is Linear if the system possesses Superposition
property
• (i) Additivity (ii) Homogeneity/Scaling

x1[n] ® y1[n] x1[n] ® y1[n]

x 2 [n] ® y 2 [n]
a.x1[n] ® a. y1[n]
x 3 [n] = x1 [n] + x 2 [n] a = Complex No

x 3 [n] ® y 3 [n]
x1 [n] + x 2 [n] ® y1 [n] + y 2 [n]

66
 Linearity
§ Linearity
– Superposition:
• If an input consists of weighted sum of the several signals
then the output is the weighted sum of the responses of the
system to each of these signal.

• (i) Additivity (ii) Homogeneity/Scaling

x1[n] ® y1[n]
x 2 [n] ® y 2 [n]

a.x1 [n] + b.x 2 [n] ® a.y1 [n] + b.y 2 [n]

– How to check if a system is linear or not.
• Examples: 1.17 – 1.20
67
 Linearity - examples
§ Linear systems

1. Y(t)=x(cos(t))
2. Y(t)=x(𝑡 " )
3. Y(t)=sin(t)x(t)
4. Y(t)=3x(t)
5. Y(t)=x(t-1)+x(t+2)

§ System linearity is independent on time scaling, coefficient, and time

shifting.

§ Non-linear systems

1. Y(t)=𝑥 " (𝑡)

• Law of add
• 𝑥&" (𝑡)+𝑥&" 𝑡 ≠ (𝑥& 𝑡 + 𝑥" (𝑡))"
2. Y(t)=2t+x(t)
68
System linearity is dependent on addition and subtraction
 END PROBLEMS CHAPTER 1

§ 1.1 – 1.31

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70