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Reasoning – giving logical explanation of the

Arguments in Manifestoes argument.
Evidence- presenting statistics, facts, and studies
Appeal – stimulate the reader's emotions
Terms to REMEMBER

MANIFESTO – a published declaration of the PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT

intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an
individual, group, political party or government. 1. A claim or a statement that summarizes the
(Merriam Webster) idea.
2. 2. Reason why that claim is true, and/or
● It advances a set of ideas, opinions, or views evidence that supports that claim.
but it can also lay out a plan of action. While it
can address any topic, it most often concerns Example: If you want to have a better future, you should
art, literature or politics. study hard because more knowledge will bring more
opportunities for you to achieve better possibilities in
● Manifestos are diverse and can cover a wide profession and even in your personal growth
range of topics, from political ideologies and art
movements to social reform and philosophical
principles. They serve to articulate and Types of Arguments
propagate specific beliefs, objectives, or
agendas to a broader audience ● DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS- PROCEEDS
FROM GENERAL IDEAS/FACTS TO
SPECIFIC INFERENCES.
Analyzing an ARGUMENT
EXAMPLE:
● Analyzing an argument means breaking it down PREMISE1: All men are mortal. (major premise/very
into its components in order to determine general statement)
whether, or not, it is strong or weak, effective or PREMISE 2: Railey is a man. (minor premise/ more
not. specific)
● A writer’s argument is a group of statements or CONCLUSION: Railey is a mortal. (very specific
reasons used to persuade the readers that statement)
what he/she believes is true. It may cause the
audience to act differently or change mind ● INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS- DERIVES FROM
completely SPECIFIC OBSERVATIONS LEADING TO A
● A writer's argument is the central point or claim GENERAL CONCLUSION
that the writer is trying to establish in their
writing. It is the main idea that the writer wants EXAMPLE:
the reader to believe or accept. To effectively PREMISE: The past Marvel movies have been
convey their argument, the writer employs a incredibly successful at the box office.
combination of persuasive strategies, logical CONCLUSION: Therefore, the next Marvel movies will
reasoning, and supporting evidence. probably be successful.
● As for the audience, it is essential to develop
the skill to evaluate whether an argument used
by the author is good or bad; whether it
supports the assertion sensibly or it is DEFENDING STAND ON AN ISSUE
presented in a confusing and illogical way.

TODAY’S WORDS

STAND - an attitude toward a particular issue; a

position taken in an argument: point of view

CLAIMS - statements that support the author’s stand.

ARGUMENTS.

EVIDENCE proofs or facts to support the claim

APPEAL – the power of arousing a sympathetic

response. ATTRACTION

THREE MAJOR WAYS TO PRESENT AN

Defending Stand on an Issue
ARGUMENT
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A claim without evidence is merely an opinion. In order ● testimony of those involved first-hand on the
to defend a stand on a particular issue or topic, your issue
claim must be embedded with adequate evidences.

Emotional appeals

Authors using emotion to support their claims again

have a deep well of options to do so. These include the
following:
● personal anecdotes
● narratives
● impact studies
● testimony of those involved first-hand on the
issue

TIPS TO DEFEND ONE’S STAND ON AN ISSUE

Kinds of Support Author Use
● Argue the point, not the person. Discuss why
Writers are generally most successful with their
their point is wrong and your point is right.
audiences when they can skillfully and appropriately
balance the three core types of appeals.
● Use data and research as much as you can.
● These appea ls are referred to by their
Attack the idea with data, statistics and
Greek names:
research. Your opinion should be supported by
❖ logos (the appeal to logic),
using data that has been confirmed as valid
❖ pathos (the appeal to emotion),
❖ ethos (the appeal to authority). ● Don’t put words in your opponent’s mouth.
When you are quoting your opponent, use the
statement as it was intended to be used. Do not
try to fabricate what the meaning of a sentence
was or add/subtract words to suit your needs.

● Don't go on a tangent. Present organized and

on-point arguments. Make sure not to confuse
your audience after reading your post. If you
want to persuade people, stay focused on your
topic and continue to make valid points.

● Stay positive, polite, and professional.

Everyone who is reading your debate is judging
you and your opponent. The audience quickly
loses interest when people rant and go off
tangent or attack other persons. Don’t be rude,
LOGICAL APPEALS or meanspirited. They want to follow the
professional, because they are professional.
Authors using logic to support their claims will include a
combination of different types of evidence. These
include the following:
● established facts
● case studies
● statistics
● experiments
● analogies and logical reasoning
● citation of recognized experts on the issue

AUTHORITATIVE APPEALS

Authors using authority to support their claims can also

draw from a variety of techniques. These include the
following:
● personal anecdotes
● illustration of deep knowledge on the issue
● citation of recognized experts on the issue
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POSITION PAPER intentions were in the paper then support your thesis
with a summary of the points in the body paragraphs.

CONSIDERATIONS IN WRITING A POSITION THE REFERENCES

● THE THESIS List the reference material used in your research just in
● THE INTRODUCTION case the reader needs to confirm something from your
● THE BODY point.
● THE CONCLUSION
● THE REFERENCES
WRITING EFFECTIVE POSITION PAPERS

THE THESIS ● Think in debate mode.

● Consider the opposing side.
The THESIS STATEMENTS is the one that will dictate ● Include evidence.
the direction of your paper. ● Use vivid verbs, concrete nouns

THE INTRODUCTION WRITING EFFECTIVE POSITION PAPERS

This part will attract the reader to read your paper or THINK IN DEBATE MODE. You have to choose a side
dismiss them if it does not look appealing. A good and argue in favor of your point of view
introduction will make the reader to read the entire
position paper. CONSIDER THE OPPOSING SIDE You must consider
the other viewpoint and dismantle it in your paper, using
enough details to show that you understand both sides
THE BODY
INCLUDE EVIDENCE Although you are expressing
In the body, you should be able to give both sides of the your personal opinion, it must be upheld by references
argument but center more points on the position that to specific details – supporting facts, arguments, and
you are interested in as writer. You can give a few point quotations – in order to achieve validity.
concerning the counter argument then finish up with
ample points and support for your desired position in USE VIVID VERBS, CONCRETE NOUNS In a position
the argument. paper, avoid using the passive voice and words such as
“maybe, perhaps, possibly, etc. ” that weaken your
You should be able to understand your position formula. argument. Phrases like “in my opinion” are also
Get to know how you will let the reader know that you needless and sound apologetic instead of certain; if
are for a certain stand and against the other creatively. you’re writing the paper, it’s obviously your opinion.
You can even achieve this by giving the pros and cons .
in favor of your position I in the argument.

In designing of the body, you should start your

paragraph with good topic sentences - the topic REPORT PAPER
sentence is a small sentence that introduces an idea to
be discussed in that paragraph. Since you will have
given each paragraph its idea, then the topic sentences WORDS OF TREASURES
should be unique for each paragraph.
● REPORT - specific subject
In designing your paragraph, start with the idea then ● INTRODUCTION - what research is about
back it up with evidence. The evidence is key as it METHODOLOGY - methods used
helps the reader understand your points. After every ● FINDINGS - results
claim, you should accompany evidence and make them ● DISCUSSION - interpretation
as many as you can because they give strength to your ● CONCLUSIONS - summary
ideas. At this point that you can refer to different ● REFERENCES sources
statistics and quotes just to validate your ideas and be
persuasive.
REPORT

THE CONCLUSION Report writing

● is a structured style of writing that focuses on a
Summarize all your points and give your view on specific subject in depth
the argument. At the start of the conclusion, restate ● tone of a report, as well as the style in which it
your thesis just to remind the reader of what your is written, is often formal
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● target group is a critical section to concentrate TECHNICAL REPORT

on
● document written by a researcher detailing the
results of a project and submitted to the
TYPES OF REPORT sponsor of that project
● not peer-reviewed unless they are
subsequently published in a peer-review journal
SURVEY REPORT

● is a document to present the information

gathered during the survey in an objective STRUCTURE OF A REPORT
manner
● presents a summary of all the responses that ● A key feature of reports is that they are
were collected in a simple and visually formally structured in sections. The use of
appealing manner sections makes it easy for the reader to jump
● Purpose study a research topic thoroughly, straight to the information they need.
and to summarize the existing studies in an ● Unlike an essay, which is written in a single
organized manner It is an important step in any narrative style from beginning to end, each
section of a report serves a distinct purpose
and must be written in a style that is suitable for
FIELD REPORT that purpose - for example, the methodology
and results sections are primarily descriptive,
● documentation of observations and analysis while the discussion section must be analytical
of particular phenomena, behaviors,
processes, and more
● based on theories and researchers' analysis,
which are used to identify solutions for a INTRODUCTION, INCLUDING AIMS AND
specific project or case study OBJECTIVES
● Purpose - in the social sciences is to describe
the observation of people, places, and/or ● State what your research/project/enquiry is
events and to analyze that observation data in about
order to identify and categorize common ● What are you writing about, why and for whom?
themes in relation to the research problem ● What are your objectives?
underpinning the study. ● What are you trying to show or prove (your
hypothesis)?

LABORATORY REPORT
METHODOLOGY
● provides a formal record of an experiment
● discussion of objectives, procedures, and ● State how you did your research/enquiry and
results should be specific enough that the methods you used.
interested readers could replicate the ● How did you collect your data?
experiment. ● For example, if you conducted a survey, say
● Purpose - document the results of an how many people were included and how you
experiment and to communicate the findings in selected them.
a way which is scientifically acceptable as well ● Say whether you used interviews or
as understandable. questionnaires and how you analyzed the
● Just like other assignments related to science,
it has to be organized, objective and
methodical; factual and evidence-based. FINDINGS / RESULTS

● Give the results of your research.

SCIENTIFIC REPORT ● Do not, at this stage, try to interpret the results
simply report them.
● document that describes the process, progress, ● This section may include graphs, charts,
and or results of technical or scientific research diagrams etc. (clearly labelled).
or the state of a technical or scientific research ● Be very careful about copyright if you are using
problem
published charts, tables, illustrations etc.
● might also include recommendations and
conclusion of the research
● Aim of your science experiment is the reason
you're doing it in the first place. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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● These should follow on logically from the

Findings and Discussion sections.
● Summarize the key points of your findings and
show whether they prove or disprove your
hypothesis.
● If you have been asked to, you can make
recommendations arising from research. your

REFERENCES

● List all your sources in alphabetical order.