DEFINITIONS

Development: “Multidimensional undertaking to achieve a higher quality of life for all

people” according to the UN

Social development: Refers to the improvement in the quality of life, well-being, and
social conditions of individuals within a society.

Political development: The evolution and improvement of political institutions,

processes, governance systems, and citizen participation within a society.

Economic development: growth and improvement of a nation's economy, which

involves increasing the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Globalization (UN) : It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the

world, particularly through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders.

Sustainable development: The idea that development should meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Peace and conflict

Peace: absence of conflict and violence; state of harmonious relations; personal state
of non-conflict; ultimate goal of many organizations that monitor and regulate social
relationships
Conflict: the dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition (over positions,
interests or values) between individuals or groups; non-violent conflict can be useful
mechanism for social change and transformation; violent conflict is harmful and requires
conflict resolution
Violence: physical or psychological force afflicted upon another being; anything
someone does that prevents others from reaching their full potential; encompasses
unequal distribution of power that excludes entire groups from accessing resources
essential for improved living standards or well-being, and discriminatory practices that
exclude entire groups of people from accessing certain resources
Non-violence: the practice of advocating one’s own or others’ rights without physically
harming the opponent; involves actively opposing the system that is deemed to be
unjust, through for example boycotts, demonstrations and civil disobedience; can often
draw attention to a conflict situation and could provide a fertile basis for post-conflict
transformation
Peace-making = bringing hostile parties to agreement, through peaceful means
(Chapter VI of the UN Charter)
Peace-keeping = deployment of a UN presence, with the consent of all parties
concerned, involving UN military and/or police personnel
Peace-building- the building of sustainable, positive peace and long-term conflict
resolution. Usually involves significant development assistance to improve health and
education, address inequality and rebuild destroyed infrastructure.
Direct Violence: represents behaviors that serve to threaten life itself and/or to diminish
one’s capacity to meet basic human needs.

Cultural Violence: represents the existence of prevailing or prominent social norms

that make direct and structural violence seem “natural” or “right” or at least acceptable.

Structural Violence: represents the systematic ways in which some groups are
hindered from equal access to opportunities, goods, and services that enable the
fulfillment of basic human needs.

Terrorism: The use of illegitimate violence by groups or individuals to inspire fear,

attacking civilians or symbolic targets

Human rights: The indivisible rights to which all human beings are entitled by virtue of
their humanity without discrimination. They are universal, interdependent, indivisible and
inalienable.

Cultural relativism can be defined as the view that human rights should be created to
reflect the cultural context that they were derived from.. This cultural relativism is often
used to argue that human rights in particular are essentially a western ideal and
therefore have no place in non-western cultures.

Universalism Universality means that human beings are endowed with equal human
rights simply by virtue of being human, wherever they live and whoever they are,
regardless of their status or any particular characteristics.

Legitimacy Recognized right to govern/rule

Questions
Power, sovereignty and international relations

1. Examine the claim that increased interactions and interconnectedness in global politics have
fundamentally changed the nature of state sovereignty.
2. Power is often assumed to be linked to the possession of, or access to, resources. Discuss the
validity of this view.
3. Examine the claim that the significance of military power is diminishing in contemporary global
politics.
4. Discuss the impact of NGOs, MNCs, and international organizations on state sovereignty.
5. Discuss the claim that power in global politics is mostly exercised through the use of force and
threats.
6. Evaluate the claim that state sovereignty creates obstacles for the realization of justice for
individuals and communities.
7. To what extent is state sovereignty an outdated concept in the 21st century?
8. “Global politics is characterized more by cooperation than by conflict.” Discuss.
9. Discuss reasons why the legitimacy of a state may need to be questioned.
10. Examine the claim that economically powerful states are able to manipulate global governance
institutions to their advantage.
11. Examine the claim that state sovereignty is challenged by non-governmental organisations,
intergovernmental organisations and other non-state actors.
12. Evaluate the function and impact of one of the following in dealing with global challenges:
● Political parties
● IGOs
● MNCs
● Informal forums.
1. Discuss the impact of resistance movements and social movements on global politics.
2. To what extent do you agree that conflicts within states are more of a threat to peace and stability
than conflicts between states?
3. Evaluate the claim that sovereign states become less powerful when they join IGOs.
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of collective security in responding to threats from state and non-state
actors.
5. Evaluate the claim that power in global politics is about possession of resources.
6. Discuss the claim that intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) reduce conflicts.
7. “Non-state actors have a significant impact on the power of state.” Evaluate this claim using TWO of
the following types of non-state actors:
● NGOs
● MNCs
● Trade unions
1. Using two examples evaluate how environmental factors influence state sovereignty.
2. To what extent do you agree with the claim that economic cooperation hinders state sovereignty?
3. “Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have a limited impact on global politics.” Discuss this
view.
4. Discuss the effectiveness of two types of power and their impact on global politics.
5. Justify the statement that “the sovereign state is the most significant protector as well as the
biggest threat to human rights”.
6. Discuss the claim that state sovereignty is an outdated concept in a globalized world.
7. Examine the influence of terrorism on a state’s ability to pursue development.
8. Discuss the view that cooperation is more effective than a state’s use of force in global politics.
9. To what extent do you agree with the claim that the legitimacy of a state is challenged if it fails to
protect the human rights of its citizens?
10. Justify the claim that the structure of the UN limits its ability to preserve peace and security.
 11. “Strikes and demonstrations undermine the legitimacy of a state.” Discuss the view.
12. “State sovereignty remains the key concept in understanding global politics.” Discuss the view.
13. “The contribution of states to sustainable development is greater than that of non-governmental
organization (NGOs).” Evaluate this view.

Human rights

1. “Human rights covenants and treaties can limit development in newly industrializing economies.” To
what extent do you agree with this claim?
2. Discuss the extent to which cultural relativism can be used to justify different concepts of human
rights.
3. Compare and contrast an institutional approach to the ratification and enforcement of human rights
(for example, through the Hague Courts) with non-institutional approaches (for example, through
human rights NGOs, such as Amnesty International).
4. To what extent do the complex realities and relationships of power in global politics make the
concept of human rights an unachievable ideal?
5. “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is no longer relevant for dealing with human
rights issues in the 21st century.” To what extent do you agree with this claim?
6. Examine the effectiveness of non-state actors in advancing the protection of human rights.
7. “A national or regional approach to human rights enforcement is more effective than a global
approach.” Discuss.
8. “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) seeks to impose a Western view of human rights
on non-Western societies.” To what extent do you agree with this criticism?
9. Examine the claim that human rights as presented in treaties and covenants are not enforceable,
and are therefore of little use to vulnerable populations.
10. Discuss the claim that development in industrializing countries often violates universal rights to a
clean environment and to the humanitarian treatment of labour.
11. To what extent has the UDHR provided the basis for contemporary political movements for social
change?
12. “Universal rights should take precedence over cultural relativism in the formation of human rights
treaties and covenants.” Discuss the view.
13. Evaluate the means that can be used to protect and enforce human rights in countries that fall short
of international standards.
14. Discuss the claim that power is the main variable affecting human rights.
15. Discuss whether the politicization of human rights has hindered their universal application.
16. “For human rights laws and treaties to be effective, states must give up some sovereignty.” Evaluate
this statement.
17. The central problem with international human rights laws and treaties is that they are open to
different interpretations. Discuss this view.
18. Evaluate the view that human rights limit state power in global politics.
19. Justify the claim that the debate between universal human rights and cultural relativism is useful for
codifying and protecting human rights.
20. “Human rights must be prioritised for successful development to occur in developing countries.”
Discuss this view.
21. Discuss whether subsequent human rights laws and treaties have strengthened The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
22. Discuss the claim that negotiations are effective in promoting human rights.
23. “People who are forced to move from their homes due to circumstances beyond their control remain
vulnerable, despite developments in human rights laws and treaties.” Examine this view.
24. To what extent is the effective enforcement of human rights tied to the level of development in a
state?
25. “The evolution of human rights since 1948 has undermined the effectiveness of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.” To what extent do you agree with this claim?
 26. Discuss whether environmental factors pose the greatest threat to human rights at both the national
and international level.
27. To what extent does cultural relativism always hinder the protection and enforcement of universal
human rights?
28. “Only the most powerful states can shape the role played by human rights in global politics.”
Discuss this view.
29. To what extent is the protection and enforcement of human rights in developing countries best
pursued at the national level?
30. “The most significant cause of human rights violations in global politics is structural violence.”
Discuss this view.
31. “It is evident that international human rights laws and treaties have failed given the persistence of
clear human rights violations.” Discuss this view.
32. To what extent does the protection and enforcement of universal human rights depend on the
achievement of a positive peace?

Development

1. Evaluate the view that globalization harms rather than benefits the poorest people in countries with
the lowest incomes.
2. Discuss the view that sustainable development will never be achieved until state and non-state
actors can be persuaded or forced to act in the common interest.
3. Evaluate the claim that development through aid relies heavily on a stable government and a lack of
corruption.
4. The fundamental weakness of development goals (such as the Millennium Development Goals) is
their lack of focus on how targets are actually to be achieved. To what extent do you agree with this
claim?
5. Discuss the view that social factors such as gender relations or migration can both help and hinder
development.
6. Examine the view that successful development cannot be achieved without addressing political
inequality.
7. Evaluate the claim that development is impossible to measure.
8. Discuss the view that the biggest obstacles to development in today’s world are political.
9. Evaluate the claim that inequality encourages, rather than prevents, development.
10. To what extent is the achievement of political and social stability essential for development?
11. “Definitions of development that stress meeting basic needs should be replaced with definitions that
focus on well-being.” Discuss the statement.
12. Discuss the view that harmful environmental factors represent the greatest threat to successful
development.
13. To what extent does successful development rely on interdependence?
14. “Environment and sustainability are now more critical considerations for development than
economic and political factors”. Evaluate this view.
15. Discuss the view that development damages well-being.
16. Evaluate the claim that NGOs have a limited effect on development.
17. Evaluate the claim that the challenges of sustainability mean that development may no longer be
possible.
18. Discuss the view that social factors inhibit development.
19. Evaluate the view that the development depends mostly on economic factors.
20. Evaluate the view that development weakens state sovereignty.
21. Discuss the view that there have been more losers than winners from globalization.
22. To what extent does development depend on the presence of institutional factors?
23. Discuss the limitations of measuring development with reference to one method you have studied.
24. Discuss the view that successful development depends on full participation at the international
level.
25. Discuss the view that development always results in inequalities.
 26. Evaluate the view that development does more to damage than to enhance human rights.
27. Examine the view that the meaning of development is contested because of the difficulties of
measuring it.
28. Discuss the view that the role of state and non-state actors in achieving sustainable development is
positive.
29. With reference to political and institutional factors, discuss the view that development is more likely
to be promoted at the global, rather than local, level.
30. Evaluate the view that development will reduce the likelihood of violent conflict.
31. “The lack of a universally accepted model of development has hindered development.” Discuss the
view.
32. Examine the view that development is the strongest motivation for cooperation between states.

Peace and conflict

1. “Transforming armed conflict towards peace relies on an interrelationship of peacemaking, peace

keeping and peace building.” Discuss.
2. “If a person died from tuberculosis in the 18th century it would be hard to conceive of this as violence
since it might have been quite unavoidable, but if he dies from it today, despite all the medical
resources in the world, then violence is present” (Galtung). To what extent do you agree with the
view that those in power have an obligation to identify and prevent structural violence?
3. Peacebuilding is arguably more important than peacemaking, yet it is given much less funding and
attention. To what extent do you agree with this claim?
4. Discuss why non-violent protest is sometimes able to achieve success against even the most
powerful of opponents.
5. Evaluate the success of third-party involvement in transforming one intra-state conflict away from
violence and towards positive peace.
6. “The use of violence can never be legitimate.” Discuss the validity of this claim, with reference to at
least one violent conflict you have studied.
7. Examine the view that peace can be defined as the absence of physical violence.
8. Evaluate the claim that humanitarian intervention is a justifiable intrusion into the sovereignty of a
state.
9. Compare and contrast two different approaches to peacemaking in one armed conflict you have
studied.
10. Discuss the view that peace is more than simply the absence of war.
11. Examine the claim that contrasting material interests are main cause of conflicts.
12. Discuss the view that non-violent methods are the only way to achieve lasting change in conflicts
between the state and non-state actors.
13. Discuss which type of conflict is most threatening to efforts to build a lasting peace in the world.
14. Evaluate the claim that third-party intervention in a conflict is a valuable tool for peacemaking.
15. To what extent do you agree with the claim that addressing structural violence is increasingly
important to achieving lasting peace?
16. Evaluate the claim that conflict resolution is not always possible through negotiations and treaties.
17. Evaluate the claim that positive peace can never be fully achieved.
18. Examine the claim that humanitarian intervention is a violation of state sovereignty.
19. “Reconciliation is a necessary element of a post-conflict transformation.” Discuss this view.
20. “Conflict always violates human rights.” Evaluate this statement.
21. With reference to just war theory, evaluate the decision of a government to go to war in one conflict.
22. “In order to be able to solve a conflict it is necessary to understand its conflict dynamics.” Discuss
this claim with reference to either an interstate or intrastate war you have studied.
23. Compare and contrast the causes of two conflicts you have studied.
24. To what extent do you agree with the claim that positive peace requires sustainable development?
25. Evaluate the claim that third-party involvement lengthens the duration of conflict within states.
26. “Lasting peace requires strong global governance.” Discuss this view.
27. Examine the claim that non-violent methods are likely to promote justice for communities.
 28. “Lasting peace is unlikely to be achieved without development.” Discuss this view.
29. Discuss whether just war theory is a valid justification for military intervention using one conflict
you have studied.
30. Evaluate the view that strategic alliances greatly reduce the likelihood of violent conflict between
states.
31. Evaluate the view that contemporary conflicts are more about power than achieving justice.
32. “The most important cause of conflict in the 21st century is globalization.” To what extent do you
agree with this claim?

UNIT 1
1. Examine the claim that increased interactions and interconnectedness in
global politics have fundamentally changed the nature of state sovereignty.

On one hand increased interactions and interconnectedness in

global politics have fundamentally changed the nature of state sovereignty
due to the rise of IGO’s. IGO’s such as the European Union have changed
the nature of state sovereignty as they have introduced the idea of pooled
sovereignty. In the case of the EU, member states delegate authority to
common institutions in areas such as trade, currency, competition policy,
and immigration. These institutions make decisions that affect the member
states, which means that sovereignty is shared rather than absolute.

On the other hand despite the increase in international treaties,

agreements, and organizations, state sovereignty remains a fundamental
principle of international law. The United Nations, for example, is built on
the notion of state sovereignty, where each member state is recognized as
a sovereign entity with equal rights. The UN Charter emphasizes the
principle of non-interference in the domestic affairs of member states,
underscoring the continued importance of state sovereignty. States
continue to make crucial decisions on issues of national importance, such
as defense, immigration, and taxation. They have the option to join these
IGO’s. The termination of the $3 billion U.S. funding ultimately impacted
climate change research and decreased society's chance of reaching the
Paris Agreement goals, as well as omitted U.S. contributions to the future
IPCC reports. Trump's decision also affected the carbon emission space
as well as the carbon price.
2. Power is often assumed to be linked to the possession of, or access to,
resources. Discuss the validity of this view.

On one hand it can be argued that hard power can be linked to the
possession of military resources. The conflict between Ukraine and Russia
highlights the significance of military power as a crucial element of hard
power. Russia's extensive military capabilities have allowed it to exert
significant influence and control over geopolitical dynamics in the region.
Despite international sanctions and diplomatic efforts, Russia's military
strength remains a key factor in its power projection.

On the other hand it can be argued that access to natural resources

does not always enhance a country's economic and hard power. For
instance, countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and
Venezuela are rich in natural resources, yet they struggle with political
instability, corruption, and economic mismanagement, which undermine
their overall power on the global stage.

3. Examine the claim that the significance of military power is diminishing in

contemporary global politics.

Military power (link to hard power)- On one hand military power is still
significant for countries with poor relationships with other states such as
Russia that would not be able to build their soft power. Additionally hard
power is still significant and used for when countries need an immediate
and short term option.

Counter military power is diminishing due to increased soft power- As

using military power often can damage relationships with other states
(when Russia used military power on Ukraine the US and EU enforced
sanctions and their soft power decreased) also hard power is often times
effective only for short term goals (after two years Russia still hasn’t been
able to fully take over Ukraine). As soft power can be used to build
relationships with other countries while achieving common goals it is
increasing in popularity while the usage of hard power is decreasing.
 4. Discuss the impact of NGOs, MNCs, and international organizations on
state sovereignty.

Impacts of Non-State actors on sovereignty

MNC’s:
Apple: Chinese Labor Watch (2019)
- Accused of violating human rights of workers by exposing them to chemicals
without protection, unsafe working conditions, not paying the minimum wage,
sexual harassment and child labor.
Nestle and Cargill (2021)
- Six men sued nestle claiming that they were trafficked as child slaves to a farm in
the Ivory Coast
NGO’s:
Green Peace (2013): Greenpeace activists aboard the Arctic Sunrise ship staged a
protest at a Russian offshore oil platform in the Arctic. Russian authorities responded by
seizing the ship and detaining the crew, leading to a diplomatic dispute between Russia
and several other countries whose citizens were aboard the vessel. The Russian
government accused Greenpeace of violating its territorial waters and engaging in
piracy, leading to legal proceedings and international condemnation.
Amnesty International (2015): Advocated and spread awareness, pressured the
government into banning the death penalty.
*However as NGO’s don’t have the ability to create reforms and pass laws this often
hinders their effectiveness for example Amnesty International advocated for aid for
Syria however as Russia has more power they were able to veto this idea

IGO’s:
EU Pooled sovereignty: Have evolved to possess supranational authority in certain
areas. These organizations create institutions and mechanisms with binding powers that
override national laws and policies. Member states agree to abide by these
supranational decisions, effectively transferring sovereignty to the organization in those
specific domains. This further blurs the lines between state sovereignty and
international governance.

States have more power when they join IGO’s: Can increase relations with other states
(build soft power) as well as can have access to better trade (EU)
States have less power when they join IGO’s: In the case of EU they are bound to certain
trade agreements and have less power over there borders
Discuss the claim that power in global politics is mostly exercised through the
use of force and threats.

Argument 1: Power is mostly exercised through the use of force and

threats (hard power) as it produces immediate and tangible results.

Case study: Russia and Ukraine 2021- Through Russia invading Ukraine
they were able to get immediate results, had they attempted to use soft
power it would have been unacceptable because of their international
reputation. Within one day Russia was able to capture multiple cities and
gain access to natural resources within Ukraine

Counter: Hard power is often not long lasting and causes the damaging of
relationships between states. In the example of Russia and Ukraine many
countries such as the United States, Canada and the EU have enforced
sanctions due to conflicting interest with Russia’s use of hard power. In
addition, Russia has still not been able to take over Ukraine.

Argument 2: Power in global politics is now exercised through soft power

(co-option) rather than hard power (the use of force and threats), soft
power allows for states to maintain good relationships with other states and
to be able to achieve more long lasting effects.

Case study: China Belt and Road Initiative (2013- onwards)- China has
invested over 900 billion USD a year to create a vast network of railways,
energy pipelines, highways, and streamlined border crossings, both
westward—through the mountainous former Soviet republics—and
southward, to Pakistan, India, and the rest of Southeast Asia. Through
investing in their soft power China has not only gained better relationships
with countries in the BRI but in addition a recent BBC poll shows that
opinions of China’s influence are positive in much of Africa and Latin
America

Counter: The perception of China for many western countries including the
US according to a 2021 BBC poll is going down to their treatment of the
Uyghur population.

5. Evaluate the claim that state sovereignty creates obstacles for the
realization of justice for individuals and communities.
 Argument 1: On one hand it can be argued that state sovereignty creates
obstacles for the realization of justice of individuals and communities. In
this essay justice will be defined as the process or result of using laws to
fairly judge and punish crimes and criminals. State sovereignty can be
defined as that the state has absolute authority over its territory. As the
state has absolute authority over its territory state sovereignty is often
invoked to shield individuals, including government officials, from
accountability for human rights violations. In some cases, states may resist
international efforts to investigate or prosecute individuals responsible for
atrocities on their territory. This can perpetuate impunity, denying justice to
victims. This can be seen in how Sudan resisted international efforts to
bring individuals responsible for atrocities in the Darfur conflict to justice. In
2009, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for
Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir and other officials for crimes against
humanity, war crimes, and genocide. However, Sudan refused to
cooperate with the ICC and did not extradite those indicted.

Counter argument: However oftentimes states still seek retributive justice

for their citizens as it makes them look better in the international system
and can create

Argument 2: On the other hand state sovereignty does not create

obstacles for the realization of justice as the state is in the best position to
seek justice for their citizens. This is because the state has the ability to
establish specialized institutions and agencies, such as the police, the
judiciary, and correctional facilities, to handle different aspects of the
justice process, including investigation, prosecution, and rehabilitation.
This can be seen in the example of the sentencing of the former President
of Liberia, through the legal system of Liberia in 2012.

6. To what extent is state sovereignty an outdated concept in the 21st

century?

On one hand it can be argued that state sovereignty is not an outdated concept
in the 21rst century as it can be argued that everything in global politics is based
on the sovereignty of states without sovereignty states wouldn’t even exist. State
sovereignty is how states choose to go to conflict, enact human rights laws and
protect their citizens. It is also how states choose to develop. While the concept
of sovereignty has changed in the 21rst century due to globalization and the
increase in IGO’s it still remains the key concept of understanding global politics
as a state needs to have sovereignty to join IGO’s and additionally while IGO’s
such as the EU are using pool sovereignty it still remains a key concept in
understanding global politics as the EU recognizes state sovereignty in their
constitution demonstrating the importance of it.

On the other hand state sovereignty is an outdated concept as now the pooled
concept of sovereignty has emerged.

7. Discuss reasons why the legitimacy of a state may need to be questioned.

One reason from a feminist perspective may be if the state perpetuates

gender equality through the implementation of unjust laws. Also if citizens are
unhappy with the regime or don’t have the ability to vote or free speech.

On the other hand from a realist perspective the legitimacy of a state

shouldn’t be questioned. Realists uphold the principle of state sovereignty, which
asserts that states have the right to govern themselves without external
interference. Questioning a state's legitimacy undermines this principle and could
lead to chaos in the international system. Sovereignty is seen as a cornerstone of
international order, and respecting it helps maintain stability.

1. Discuss the impact of resistance movements and social movements on

global politics.

Resistance movement: Arab Spring advocated for countries to switch to

Democracy had a regional impact

Successes: The most notable success of the Arab Spring, Tunisia saw the
overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in January 2011. Tunisia
transitioned to a more democratic political system, with the adoption of a new
constitution in 2014 and the holding of free and fair elections.

Failures: After a brief period of democratic experimentation, Egypt saw a military

coup in 2013 that ousted the elected President Mohamed Morsi. This led to the
establishment of a government under Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, which has been
criticized for severe human rights abuses and a return to authoritarian rule. Also
the Arab Spring led to the Syrian Civil War.

Social movement: BLM

Successes: Social movements oftentimes rely on advocacy and spreading

awareness to create change. This can be seen in the example of Black Lives
Matter which through advocating, spreading awareness and peaceful protests
caused over half of the US police departments banned the chokehold grip and
also instituted race bias background checks leading BLM to be successful on a
national level

Failure: BLM failed to get justice for the death of Brianna Taylor which highlights
how social movements have limited power as they don’t have the ability to create
and enact reforms and governments don’t have to listen to what they say/

2. To what extent do you agree that conflicts within states are more of a threat
to peace and stability than conflicts between states?
3. Evaluate the claim that sovereign states become less powerful when they
join IGOs.
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of collective security in responding to threats
from state and non-state actors.

This essay will evaluate the effectiveness of collective security in responding to

threats from state and non-state actors. In order to evaluate this claim, case
studies will be analyzed of collective security responding to state actors (the use
of chemical weapons in Syria (2013) and the South China Sea dispute) and
non-state actors (CTW-151 in Gulf Aden and the Global Coalition at dealing with
ISIS).
Due to globalization, the interdependence of states has increased which
has led to the development of collective security. Collective security has allowed
states to be able to effectively manage and respond to both intrastate (within a
state) and interstate (between states) security threats. By pooling resources and
coordinating responses, states are able to respond to transnational threats better
than they would be able to on their own. Collective security can be used to
respond to threats from non-state actors such as terrorism, piracy and organized
crime, and state actors such as when states pose threats to international security
by possessing nuclear weapons, violating international treaties and violating the
human rights of citizens.
 On one hand, it can be argued that collective security is effective in responding to
threats from state and non-state actors because it allows states with limited resources
to respond to threats by promoting cooperation between states. Through the use of
pooling resources states are able to prevent threats effectively that they wouldn’t be
able to by themselves. In 2009 many piracy operations were carried out by Somalian
terrorist groups in the Gulf of Aden. This was a threat to states because the Gulf of
Aden is one of the busiest trade routes in the world, and many international ships were
hijacked, demanded ransom for and prevented from completing their routes, which
caused a threat to the safety of the people and the cargo on the ships. In order to
counter this threat CTF 151 (Counter Task Force 151) was established. It consists of 15
states which take turns leading the task force every three to six months. Through this
mission the task force has been able to prevent any successful piracy attacks from
occurring since 2012. However, as the cost of this operation was 1.2 billion dollars, it is
unlikely that small states apart of the task force would be able to afford this. Through the
use of pooling resources states are able to prevent threats effectively that they wouldn’t
be able to by themselves.
This is also seen in the response to the use of chemical weapons by the Syrian
government in 2013. On August 21, 2013, the nerve agent sarin was used on Syrian
civilians under the orders of Assad (president of Syria) in the Ghouta district of
Damascus, killing more than 1,400 people. In order to counter this threat the UNSC (UN
Security Council) resolution 2118 was created. It demanded Syria to complete a full
disarmament and destruction of all chemical weapons in their possession and declared
humanitarian aid for all wounded by the chemical weapons. However, it should be noted
that many resolutions proposed in the UNSC in order to reduce the threat of mass
displacement and deaths in Syria, have not been passed due to vetos from Russia.
Since 2011 Russia has vetoed 17 resolutions aimed at providing humanitarian aid and
conducting a humanitarian intervention in order to stop and prevent further violence in
Syria due to their support of the Assad regime in Syria. Because of ineffective collective
security resolutions it is estimated that over 500,000 people have lost their lives and
millions have been displaced during the Syrian Civil War.
Oftentimes collective security is not effective due to the conflicting interests
between states. During the Syrian civil war in 2011 ISIS, a terrorist group, began to rise
in power. In order to prevent this the Global Coalition was created consisting of member
states and institutions, which included Turkey and Iraq. Turkey and Iran had interests in
Syria and Iraq that often diverged from those of other coalition members. Turkey's
primary concern was preventing the creation of an autonomous Kurdish region in Syria,
while Iran sought to maintain its influence in Iraq and support Shia militias. In addition,
geopolitical rivalries and historical tensions between some coalition members, such as
Saudi Arabia and Iran, affected their willingness to cooperate effectively. These rivalries
contributed to broader regional instability. The conflicting interests between states led to
several obstacles related to divergent national priorities and objectives, and hindered
the effectiveness of the Global Coalition to deal with the threat of ISIS. This can also be
seen in the South China Sea dispute, a territorial conflict between multiple different
states. In order to attempt to resolve the conflict ASEAN (Association of Southeast
Nations) initiated negotiations between members of the ASEAN and China, leading
workshops and discussions between states and forums for discussion. However only
some members of ASEAN are claimants of the territories of South China Sea, and
among these members there remain border disputes. In addition, the Chinese economic
and political influence affects every ASEAN country, though this effect is not
homogeneous. Some members, especially non-claimants, put more emphasis on the
bilateral relationship with China, and are less interested in negotiating with Beijing as a
group. These conflicts of interests between states effectively prohibits the ASEAN
members from unifying their influence in a joint effort to solve territorial disputes
collectively.
In conclusion this essay has discussed that the realities of collective security at
responding to threats from state and non-state actors are complex. On one hand
collective security is effective at allowing states to pool resources in order for smaller
states to respond to threats from non-state and state actors as seen in the cases of the
CTW 151 mission on the Gulf of Aden and the UNSC response to the use of chemical
weapons in Syria. However, oftentimes the conflicting interests of states prevents
cooperation between states making the use of collective security ineffective as seen in
the cases of ASEAN and the South China Sea dispute and the Global Coalition at
dealing with ISIS.

5. Evaluate the claim that power in global politics is about possession of

resources.

Claim 1: Yes, as through possession of resources, states may be able to exert

influence on other states and achieve what they want.
Ev: China has control of majority “rare earth minerals” in the world. In 2010,
China banned export of these minerals to Japan over a fishing dispute. These
minerals are needed to make devts in technology. Hence through this China
gained economic leverage over Japan hence influenced Japan’s economy.
 Counter: However, soft power through cultural diplomacy may also play a huge role
in a country’s power.

Miss K said to use this: A country that has natural resources and no power vice
versa

6. Discuss the claim that intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) reduce

conflicts.

On one hand it can be argued that IGOs, like the United Nations reduce conflict
through peace agreements between conflicting groups
Colombia-Farc (2016). - a Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) was established

On the other hand, it can be argued that IGOs like the UN cause more harm than
reduce conflict.

7. “Non-state actors have a significant impact on the power of state.”

Evaluate this claim using TWO of the following types of non-state actors:
● NGOs
● MNCs
● Trade unions
1. Using two examples evaluate how environmental factors influence state
sovereignty.
- Environmental factors such as geography, resource endowment,
consequences of climate change
- Consequences of climate change- people have to leave- increases
migration- state that
- Environmental factors: geography can help , sea, Resource endowment,
Flooding casues refuge crisis --- refugees cross borders --- violates the
 borders – states can’t say no due to international pressure and human
rights.
-
2. To what extent do you agree with the claim that economic cooperation
hinders state sovereignty?
3. “Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have a limited impact on global
politics.” Discuss this view.
4. Discuss the effectiveness of two types of power and their impact on global
politics.
5. Justify the statement that “the sovereign state is the most significant
protector as well as the biggest threat to human rights”.
6. Discuss the claim that state sovereignty is an outdated concept in a
globalized world.
7. Discuss the view that cooperation is more effective than a state’s use of
force in global politics.
8. To what extent do you agree with the claim that the legitimacy of a state is
challenged if it fails to protect the human rights of its citizens?
9. Justify the claim that the structure of the UN limits its ability to preserve
peace and security.
10. “Strikes and demonstrations undermine the legitimacy of a state.”
Discuss the view.
11.“State sovereignty remains the key concept in understanding global
politics.” Discuss the view.

12. Discuss why non-violent protest is sometimes able to achieve success

against even the most powerful of opponents. OR Discuss the view that
non-violent methods are the only way to achieve lasting change in conflicts
between the state and non-state actors.

Pro argument: Non-violence protests often achieve success through having

factors such as a strong social media presence, partnering up with corporations
and appealing to a wide audience.

Against argument: On the other hand, it can be argued that during war it can be
hard for non-violent protests to become successful, because of destruction of
infrastructure, complex regional dynamics and violent repression.
 OR

Since non violent protests cannot be sustained, the success of it can be

questioned due to the intervention of government actors.
Links to google docs with full essay:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1GsWdOq-vh7XXfGVcA24rF8fh2Jpu4j0X_0lb1kAp
wv8/edit
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1lVpC-7Jj4Swuc3j6hONnN5HXJOCQa7HRc4H0g
crTwwE/edit

13. Evaluate the success of third-party involvement in transforming one

intra-state conflict away from violence and towards positive peace.

Argument: The UNMISS was able to transform South Sudan towards

positive peace through peacebuilding (South Sudan Unity Government
2020). The UNMISS was able to transform conflict in South Sudan away
from violence through peacemaking (creation of peace agreement in 2018
ending the war)

Counter: The positive peace and non-violence was short lived (from the
years 2018-2023), in April 2023 conflict in South Sudan broke out again

2nd Argument: The UNMISS was unsuccessful at peacekeeping as

peacekeepers were unable to turn conflict away from violence (lack of
amount of peacekeepers and rape of women in 2014 while peacekeepers
stood and watched.)

Link to doc:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1m-TumW4FuRLILPQxittUZEdOCcbOkp_J
NZgLiNxwyPA/edit

14. “The use of violence can never be legitimate.” Discuss the validity of
this claim, with reference to at least one violent conflict you have studied.

Definition of terrorism: For the sake of this essay terrorism will be defined
as the the use of illegitimate violence by groups or individuals to inspire
fear, attacking civilians or symbolic targets

Ref: to afghanistan and how it is not considered a terrorist by the US

 Argument: The use of violence by terrorists can never be legitimate
because of the deaths of unarmed civilians (Peshawar school massacre, terrorist
attack, killing December 16, 2014, killing 150 people, of whom at least 134 were
students.)

Counterclaim: The Taliban could be considered legitimate as states have

negotiated with them. On February 29, 2020, the U.S. and the Taliban signed the
Doha Agreement in Qatar. It can be argued that since the US negotiated with the
Taliban and removed them from their foreign terrorist list they view them as
legitimate.

2nd Argument: Military violence can be seen as legitimate when it is authorized

by a relevant international body, such as the United Nations Security Council.
UN-authorized military actions are seen as a collective response to maintain or
restore international peace and security. UNMISS was authorized by South
Sudan and they have used force in Protection of Civilians Sites. Protection of
Civilian Sites in South Sudan provide shelter to civilians who were fleeing
violence during the country's civil conflict. In some instances, peacekeepers have
had to use force to protect the people inside these sites from armed groups or
other threats.

15. Examine the view that peace can be defined as the absence of physical
violence.

Incomplete Definition: Defining peace solely as the absence of physical violence

overlooks the presence of other forms of violence and structural injustices that can
persist even in the absence of overt physical aggression. Peace should encompass
more than just the absence of war or violent conflict.

Defining peace as the absence of physical violence provides a clear and measurable
benchmark for assessing a state of peace. Physical violence is often unambiguous and
quantifiable, making it a practical reference point for governments, organizations, and
individuals.

Evaluate the claim that humanitarian intervention is a justifiable intrusion into the
sovereignty of a state.
 (Link my essay here)

16. Compare and contrast two different approaches to peacemaking in one

armed conflict you have studied.

17. Discuss the view that peace is more than simply the absence of war.

According to Galtung to achieve peace positive peace must be acquired

Achieving negative peace can often be more practical and achievable in

the short term, especially in contexts marked by entrenched conflicts,
security threats, or political instability. Stopping violence and establishing
ceasefires or truces can be a necessary first step toward stability and
security.

18. Examine the claim that contrasting material interests are the main
cause of conflicts.

Argument: Inter-state conflicts are often about material interests such as

territory, resources, borders etc because states want to further the amount
of resources and land they have as it increases their power. Example of
the South China Sea of which states are fighting over borders.

Counterclaim: The conflict has been fueled by regional factors as well

2nd Argument: Most-postmodern intra-state conflicts are identity based. In

South Sudan multiple ethnic groups are fighting due to persecution and
discrimination that they have faced.

Counterclaim: Unequal distribution of resources has fueled this conflict

19. Discuss which type of conflict is most threatening to efforts to build a

lasting peace in the world.

Intra-state: According to Mary Kaldor's New War thesis identity conflicts

are the conflict that is most threatening to build lasting peace in the world.
Intra-state conflicts tend to be protracted, lasting for years or even decades
because of structural violence that is never addressed. These prolonged
conflicts can lead to a cycle of violence, displacement, and destruction that
 makes achieving a sustainable peace more difficult. The longer conflicts
persist, the more difficult it becomes to address their root causes and build
trust among warring parties.

Inter-state: Unlike intra-state conflicts, inter-state conflicts have fewer

established mechanisms for conflict resolution. International bodies like the
United Nations may have fewer tools at their disposal to mediate or intervene in
inter-state conflicts compared to civil wars.

20. Evaluate the claim that third-party intervention in a conflict is a valuable

tool for peacemaking.

Argument: UNMISS in South Sudan was a valuable tool for peacemaking

during the civil war from (2013-2018). UNMISS has supported the
implementation of peace agreements, including the Revitalized Agreement
on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS). UNMISS has
provided technical assistance, verification of ceasefire arrangements, and
logistical support for the peace process.

For: One one hand, it can be argued that the involvement of a third party allows a
step towards political stability in the region, hence progressing towards positive
peace. (Evidence: UNMISS in 2011 a new government, protect civilians,
monitor and investigate human rights violations, support humanitarian
assistance, and promote the implementation of the peace agreement.
Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan
(R-ARCSS))

Against: However, such involvemnt causes furthur violation of HR (Rape

of women and girls)
 21. To what extent do you agree with the claim that addressing structural
violence is increasingly important to achieving lasting peace?
22. Evaluate the claim that conflict resolution is not always possible through
negotiations and treaties.
23. Evaluate the claim that positive peace can never be fully achieved.
- Negative peace- absence of war and violence
- Positive peace- a more lasting peace, built on sustainable investments in
economic development and institutions as well as the societal attitudes
that foster peace.
- According to
-
24. Examine the claim that humanitarian intervention is a violation of state
sovereignty.
25. “Reconciliation is a necessary element of a post-conflict
transformation.” Discuss this view.

Reconciliation can be defined as the process and outcome of answering

questions and seeking justice surrounding repression and violence, typically of a
previous regime and/or non-state actors after regime change or war. Reconciliation can
be carried out through the means of spreading awareness through the means of
education and training as well as truth and justice commission. This essay will evaluate
whether reconciliation is necessary in order for a successful transformation post a
conflict.

26. “Conflict always violates human rights.” Evaluate this statement.

27. With reference to just war theory, evaluate the decision of a government
to go to war in one conflict.
28. “In order to be able to solve a conflict it is necessary to understand its
conflict dynamics.” Discuss this claim with reference to either an interstate
or intrastate war you have studied.
29. Compare and contrast the causes of two conflicts you have studied.
30. Evaluate the claim that third-party involvement lengthens the duration of
conflict within states.
31. “Lasting peace requires strong global governance.” Discuss this view.
- Unpack global governance- Network of state and non-state actors on
a global level- no single body
- UN’s impact Agenda for peace 1992
- State’s have to get
 -

Human rights: The indivisible rights to which all human beings are entitled by
virtue of their humanity without discrimination. They are universal,
interdependent, indivisible and inalienable.

Cultural relativism can be defined as the view that human rights should be
created to reflect the cultural context that they were derived from.

1. Discuss the extent to which cultural relativism can be used to justify

different concepts of human rights.

. This cultural relativism is often used to argue that human rights in

particular are essentially a western ideal and therefore have no place in
non-western cultures.

- Radical cultural relativism would hold that culture is the sole source
of the validity of a moral right or rule

Strong cultural relativism: Culture is the principal source of the validity of a moral
right or rule. It states that rights and other moral rules are culturally determined,
but the universality of human nature and rights serves as a check on the potential
excess of relativism.

Weak cultural relativism: Culture may be an important source of the validity of a

moral right or rule. There is a weak presumption of universality but the relativity
of human nature, communities and rights serves as a check on potential
excesses of universalism.

So-called “sensitivities” and relativist arguments invoking culture do not absolve

States from their human rights obligations, the Special Rapporteur in the field of
cultural rights told the Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural) today,
as delegates sparred with experts over country-specific mandates for situations
in Myanmar and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.
 2. Compare and contrast an institutional approach to the ratification and
enforcement of human rights (for example, through the Hague Courts) with
non-institutional approaches (for example, through human rights NGOs,
such as Amnesty International).

Institutional Approaches (e.g., The Hague Courts):

● Legal Framework: Institutional approaches are often grounded in legal

frameworks and mechanisms. The Hague Courts, such as the International
Criminal Court (ICC), operate based on treaties and agreements that are
binding on member states. They have defined legal procedures and the
authority to prosecute individuals for human rights violations, particularly
for international crimes like genocide, war crimes, and crimes against
humanity.
● Formal Structure: Institutions like The Hague Courts have formal
structures, including judges, prosecutors, and a legal framework that
prescribes specific procedures. These structures provide a systematic and
impartial means for addressing human rights violations.
● Universal Jurisdiction: Some institutional bodies have the principle of
universal jurisdiction, which allows them to prosecute individuals from any
country for certain international crimes. This approach transcends national
boundaries and can hold perpetrators accountable even if their home
country is unwilling or unable to do so.
● Political and Diplomatic: While institutional approaches are primarily legal,
they are inherently political and diplomatic as well. The establishment and
operation of international courts involve negotiations among states, which
can sometimes hinder their effectiveness, as powerful states may resist
prosecution.

Non-Institutional Approaches (e.g., Human Rights NGOs like Amnesty

International):
 ● Civil Society Organizations: Non-institutional approaches often involve civil
society organizations, such as NGOs. These organizations are
non-governmental and operate independently of state authority. Amnesty
International, for instance, is an NGO focused on human rights advocacy,
awareness-raising, and monitoring.
● Advocacy and Awareness: Non-institutional approaches are often centered
on advocacy, awareness-raising, and public pressure. NGOs like Amnesty
International use media campaigns, lobbying, and grassroots activism to
influence public opinion, mobilize support, and pressure governments to
respect human rights.
● Flexible and Adaptable: NGOs have the flexibility to address a wide range
of human rights issues, from specific cases of abuse to broader systemic
problems. They can adapt quickly to emerging issues and challenges,
responding to human rights crises in real-time.
● Monitoring and Reporting: NGOs often engage in monitoring human rights
conditions and reporting on violations. They act as watchdogs, collecting
evidence and documenting abuses, which can be crucial for raising
awareness and pressuring governments.
● Accountability and Transparency: Non-institutional approaches often focus
on accountability and transparency. NGOs can expose human rights
violations and push for investigations, trials, and reparations, even when
formal institutions are slow to act.

Comparison:

● Both institutional and non-institutional approaches aim to protect and

promote human rights but do so through different means and methods.
● Both approaches play a role in raising awareness about human rights
issues. Institutions often draw international attention to high-profile cases,
while NGOs work to mobilize public support.
● Collaboration between institutions and NGOs is common. For example,
NGOs may provide evidence and expertise to support prosecutions in
international courts.

Contrast:
● Institutional approaches rely on legal frameworks, judicial processes, and
formal structures. They have the authority to issue binding decisions and
enforce consequences for violators.
● Non-institutional approaches, on the other hand, are not legal entities and
do not have the power to enforce judgments.
● Non-institutional approaches are often more flexible and nimble, able to
respond quickly to emerging issues and abuses. Institutions can be slower
in their responses due to formal legal procedures and diplomatic
negotiations.
● Institutions like The Hague Courts have the potential for universal
jurisdiction, allowing them to address violations committed anywhere in the
world. NGOs typically operate within their capacity and resources, focusing
on specific issues and regions.

Hague courts- Has the ICJ the principal UN organ not located in New York
city

3. To what extent do the complex realities and relationships of power in global

politics make the concept of human rights an unachievable ideal?

4. “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is no longer relevant

for dealing with human rights issues in the 21st century.” To what extent do
you agree with this claim?

Against: The UDHR continues to serve as a foundation for national and

international laws and standards. For organizations like Amnesty who are
committed to protecting and fighting for human rights, it acts as a guiding
inspiration for our mission and vision.

​ Legal and Moral Framework: The UDHR provides a universally recognized

legal and moral framework for NGOs to advocate for human rights. It offers
a set of fundamental principles and standards that NGOs can use to hold
governments and institutions accountable when these rights are violated.
​ Advocacy and Awareness: NGOs use the UDHR as a reference point to
advocate for human rights. They can refer to specific articles of the UDHR
 to highlight violations or shortcomings in their countries. This enables them
to raise awareness and mobilize public support for human rights issues.

Pro: It is no longer relevant as the regional systems of human rights often

have greater relevance than UN laws, as they recognize cultural
differences. For example, the Bangkok Declaration of 1993 proposes the
Asian interpretation of human rights, which puts greater emphasis on
economic and social rights, rather than civil rights. It has greater
importance in Asia than the UN declaration. It proves that the UDHR has
no relevance in many regions in the 21st century as states are developing
their own conceptions of human rights, according to the regional values.

Counter: The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, includes provisions

related to fundamental rights and freedoms that align with the principles of
the UDHR. These rights include freedom of speech, religion, and equality
before the law.

5. Examine the effectiveness of non-state actors in advancing the protection

of human rights.

Argument 1: Non-state actors are advancing the protection of human rights

through advocacy and spreading awareness. NGOs like Amnesty
International use their global reach and resources to highlight cases of
abuse, monetize public opinion and advocate policy change. This can be
seen in 2012 when Amnesty International raised global awareness about
the use of the death penalty in Mongolia by publishing reports, organizing
events, and utilizing social media campaigns. They highlighted specific
cases of individuals on death row, focusing on their rights and the flaws in
Mongolia's legal system. This led to the moratorium on executions (2012)
and the abolishment of the law (2015).

In addition non-state actors are also effective at advancing the

protection of human rights through monitoring and reporting human rights
abuses.
 Argument 2: However, non-state actors oftentimes are not effective at
advancing the protection of human rights due to their lack of influence on
powerful states and corporations. Many powerful states and corporations have
the ability to exert significant influence over non-state actors; this can lead to the
ability and effectiveness of non-state actors at addressing these issues. This can
be seen during the Syrian Civil War in 2011, despite the extensive efforts by
Amnesty International and other human rights organizations, the conflict in Syria
has persisted, and the human rights situation has continued to deteriorate. This
is partially due to powerful state interests. Syria has been a complex conflict with
significant international implications. Powerful states, including Russia, which
supports the Syrian government, and the United States, which has supported
various opposition groups, have competing interests that have made it difficult to
reach a political solution.

6. “A national or regional approach to human rights enforcement is more

effective than a global approach.” Discuss.

Argument 1: From a cultural relativism perspective a national or regional

approach to human rights enforcement is better because they can be more
sensitive to the cultural, historical, and social contexts of the specific
region. National and regional mechanisms are better positioned to
consider and adapt human rights standards to local customs and
traditions. This approach recognizes that different cultures have unique
perspectives on human rights and allows for the incorporation of culturally
sensitive approaches to addressing human rights issues. In addition a
national or regional approach to human rights enforcements allows for
consensus building. Regional or national dialogues can facilitate
consensus building among various cultural, religious, and ethnic groups.
This process can help establish common ground and shared values while
respecting cultural diversity.

Augment 2: However oftentimes global approaches to human rights

enforcement through global mechanisms, such as the United Nations and
its various bodies and agencies, have the capacity to monitor, investigate,
and advocate for human rights worldwide. The presence of these
international bodies can exert significant influence and help hold
governments accountable for human rights abuses.
7. “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) seeks to impose a
Western view of human rights on non-Western societies.” To what extent
do you agree with this criticism?

Cultural relativism can be defined as the view that human rights

should be created to reflect the cultural context that they were derived
from. From a cultural relativism perspective the UDHR seeks to impose a
Western view of human rights on non-Western societies as it was created
with individual human rights in mind rather than collective rights. Even
though individual rights benefit Western rights, it isn’t always the case in
non-Western societies. Asian values is a theory that states that the social,
economic and political characteristics of certain Asian countries are based
upon a shared value system which is identifiable and distinct and which
transcends national, religious and ideological differences. Through
examining the production of knowledge on human rights through a cultural
relativism perspective the UDHR is impacted by culture because it was
created with the Western ideology of “individual rights” rather than
“collective rights.

On the other hand the UDHR is a product of global consensus and

cooperation. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly with
the support of nations from various regions, including non-Western
countries. This broad support suggests that the principles enshrined in the
UDHR are not limited to Western values but represent shared global
values. The UDHR recognizes the importance of cultural diversity and
states explicitly in its preamble that "recognition of the inherent dignity and
of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is
the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world." It
acknowledges that human rights are universal and rooted in the shared
dignity of all human beings, regardless of cultural, religious, or regional
differences.

8. Examine the claim that human rights as presented in treaties and

covenants are not enforceable, and are therefore of little use to vulnerable
populations

Argument 1: It can be argued that human rights are presented in treaties

and covenants because of state sovereignty. State sovereignty can be
defined as a state that has supreme authority over their territory. Because
 states have supreme authority over their territory this often causes them to
be reluctant to allow international intervention in their domestic affairs,
including their human rights practices. This can hinder enforcement efforts,
especially in cases where governments are responsible for human rights
abuses. This can be seen in the Genocide convention (1948) which was
violated by Myanmar (2016-present).

Argument 2: However, it can be argued that human rights as presented in

treaties and covenants are of use to vulnerable populations as they create
a normative framework and are often used for creating advocacy and
spreading awareness on human rights issues. This can be seen in the
example of CEDAW (Convention of Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women), adopted in 1979. It addresses issues such
as violence against women, discrimination in the workplace, and access to
education and healthcare.

9. To what extent has the UDHR provided the basis for contemporary political
movements for social change?

- Inspiration for Activists: The UDHR has served as a source of inspiration

for human rights activists and movements worldwide. Its principles, such
as the right to life, liberty, and security, have guided the actions and
advocacy of those working to address human rights abuses and social
injustices.

- Legal Framework for Activism: The UDHR and subsequent human rights
treaties have provided a legal framework that activists can use to challenge
governments and institutions engaged in human rights violations. Activists
often rely on international human rights law to support their demands for
justice and accountability.

The ‘but’ refers to the need for human rights movements to evolve and be
relevant to the evolving drivers of human rights abuse in our world. Yet,
companies are now some of the most powerful actors in our world. Our rapidly
globalising economy over the last thirty years has led to many transnational
corporations becoming larger economic entities than whole nation-States. Their
power and wealth have brought them increasingly to the centre of the human
 rights stage. Regarding human rights, these companies do not get to pick and
choose, from a smorgasbord, those issues with which they feel comfortable.

In many ways the State rightly remains the primary duty-bearer for human rights, but a
growing number of international and national companies know they are increasingly
being held to account for their human rights performance. Unfortunately this
accountability is still increasingly exercised through the court of public opinion, more
than the court of law.

Corporate legal accountability for human rights abuse has not been moving in the right
direction. In 2013, the opportunity for victims of abuse to demand extra-territorial
corporate accountability and remedy diminished significantly through the US decision in
Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co. (UNITED StateS, 2013), and in 2012, the removal
of legal aid to extra-territorial cases in the United Kingdom. But in the same year, we
had the apparel companies reacting collectively, if far too late, to begin to ensure
workers’ safety in their supply chain after the Rana Plaza factory collapse in
Bangladesh that killed over 1,100 people;

Coca-Cola announcing a “zero tolerance” to land grabs in its supply chains

(supplemented in March 2014 by PepsiCo

announcing a similar policy), and electronics giants continuing to lobby for action to
ensure “conflict-free minerals” in their supply chain.

10. “Universal rights should take precedence over cultural relativism in the
formation of human rights treaties and covenants.” Discuss the view.

Universal rights provide a critical safeguard for vulnerable populations, such as

women, children, and minorities, who may face discrimination and abuse based
on cultural or traditional practices. A universal approach can help protect these
groups from human rights violations.
 11.Discuss the claim that power is the main variable affecting human rights.

Responses should demonstrate a clear understanding of the twin concepts of

human rights and power. Candidates could use the concepts of both hard (use of
force or threat) and soft power (ability to attract and co-opt) and elaborate on how
each of these could affect the practice of human rights – rights inherent to all
human beings, which are interrelated, indivisible and interdependent. They could
also mention some of these rights. Candidates could state how states with power
could get away or not get away with violations of human rights. They could also
discuss how hard or soft power could potentially be used to influence human
rights situations in states.

Arguments why power is the main variable affecting human rights may include:

• powerful states often get away with human rights violations simply because
other states do not want to risk affecting their relationship with such states due to
political or economic stakes involved, eg tying trade relations with human rights,
fear of sanctions, etc

• powerful states can also accept or reject human rights, while those with less
power are largely unable to do so

• powerful states are capable of influencing human rights violations in other

states with their authority and capability (through use of military or economic
means). In extreme situations, they could intervene for humanitarian reasons
under (the concept of) responsibility to protect

• powerful states wield a strong position in international and regional

organizations such as the UN, and can initiate, support or push for action against
violators of human rights

• powerful states could use human rights as a tool or device to interfere in other

states on the basis of so-called violations of human rights

• powerful states often provide aid that helps countries strengthen and institute

human rights such as education, cultural transmission, more equal distribution of

resources; etc

• powerful states that distribute aid are often aligned with elites that do not
respect

human rights or take the money and/or direct aid that is being contributed.

Arguments why power may not have an impact on human rights may include:

• powerful states may not necessarily get away with human rights violations

themselves because in an increasingly interconnected and globalized world, they

are also open to scrutiny. They could possibly face diplomatic pressures or even
strong domestic and/or international public opinion

• threats of the use of power to improve human rights are often countered by

arguments that states are sovereign and free to function as they deem fit. Also,

cultural relativism is often put forth as a counter argument against the universality
of

human rights

• non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International, regional

organizations and other institutions such as the International Criminal Court could

curb gross violations or conduct trials of human rights violators

• spread of social media and internet has raised awareness amongst civil society,

which would resist and question human rights violations even against repressive

leaders and governments

• use of soft power and involvement in international institutions, rather than mere

hard power may be more effective and lead countries to be inclined to follow
human

rights treaties and covenants.

12. Discuss whether the politicization of human rights has hindered their
universal application.

Responses should demonstrate a clear understanding of human rights and

that human rights can be used as a political tool by states and non-state
actors. This should be tied then to the effect of politicization on the
universal application of human rights (eg, a country reacting negatively to
the use of their human rights record in this way by distancing themselves
from the international human rights regime; the credibility gap created by
the manipulation of human rights for political goals).

Argument 1: many countries see the existing human rights regime as a

Western construct and a tool for continued Western domination; therefore,
cultural differences are used as a weapon (eg, opposition to the ICC within
the African Union given the perception of neocolonialism)

ecounter : human rights are understood as being universal and, therefore, they
cannot be used as a political tool because they are not inherently biased (ie,
logically, universality excludes manipulation based on sub-groups)

13. “For human rights laws and treaties to be effective, states must give up
some sovereignty.” Evaluate this statement.

Counter: States are pressured into giving up sovereignty by international

community, otherwise marginalize

sovereignty characterizes a state’s independence, control over its

territory, and international recognition, while human rights laws and treaties
are created through the cooperation of sovereign states. Given this
cooperation, states are agreeing to abide by the collective agreement that
many see as a sacrifice of sovereign decision-making. The effectiveness of
human rights laws and treaties should be discussed with an emphasis on
whether and/or how much state sovereignty must be relinquished to make
such laws effective. For human rights laws and treaties to be effective
states must give up some sovereignty, in order to prevent human rights
abuses
 human rights are universal and inalienable and apply to the
individual, and therefore, individuals have recourse regardless of states
and state sovereignty (eg, the ability of individuals to take cases to
international venues, such as the US’s Torture Victim Suppression Act) •
human rights are embedded often into national constitutions and/or bills of
rights, and therefore states need not give up sovereignty for human rights
law to be effective (eg, the preamble of the French Constitution; the 14th
Amendment of the US) • states themselves are the signatories to human
rights laws and covenants and demonstrate their sovereignty by making
the decision to participate (eg, South Africa)

14. The central problem with international human rights laws and treaties is
that they are open to different interpretations. Discuss this view.
15. Evaluate the view that human rights limit state power in global politics

Legal Obligations: States that ratify international human rights treaties are
legally bound to adhere to the rights enshrined in these agreements.
Violating these rights can lead to international legal action, creating a
tangible constraint on state behavior.

Human rights violations can lead to diplomatic pressure and economic

sanctions by other states and international organizations. These measures
can limit a state's ability to engage in certain activities, trade, or access
international aid and assistance.

16. Justify the claim that the debate between universal human rights and
cultural relativism is useful for codifying and protecting human rights.
17. Discuss whether subsequent human rights laws and treaties have
strengthened The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
18. Discuss the claim that negotiations are effective in promoting human
rights.

Negotiations can help resolve conflicts and disputes that may be at

the root of human rights abuses. Peace agreements can include provisions
for human rights protections, such as the demobilization of armed groups,
 transitional justice mechanisms, and the return of displaced populations.
This can be seen in the example of the negotiations in South Sudan in
2018 which led to the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the
Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS).

However, oftentimes negotiations are not effective in promoting

human rights due to factors such as when there are significant power
imbalances between the parties involved. Stronger parties may exert
undue influence, making it challenging to secure meaningful human rights
commitments. This can be seen in failed negotiations between Palestine
and Israel: There is a significant power imbalance between Israel and the
Palestinians. Israel, with strong military, economic, and political support
from the United States, holds a dominant position in the region. This power
asymmetry has often hindered the Palestinians' ability to negotiate on
equal terms.

19. “The evolution of human rights since 1948 has undermined the
effectiveness of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” To what
extent do you agree with this claim
20. To what extent does cultural relativism always hinder the protection and
enforcement of universal human rights?

Argument 1:

Argument 2:

21. “Only the most powerful states can shape the role played by human
rights in global politics.” Discuss this view.

On one hand, powerful states hold more influence on international

organizations. Particularly those with permanent seats on the United
Nations Security Council (e.g., the United States, China, Russia), can
influence decisions and resolutions related to human rights within
international organizations. Their veto power can impede or promote
actions in response to human rights violations. Russia, as a permanent
member of the United Nations Security Council, has used its veto power 11
times to block or water down resolutions related to Syria, including those
 aimed at humanitarian access and accountability for human rights abuses.
This has limited the international community's ability to take robust action
on these issues.

On the other hand (NGOs) and civil society play a critical role in
advancing human rights. These organizations can advocate for human
rights independently of state power and push for change by mobilizing
public opinion and leveraging international norms.

22. “The most significant cause of human rights violations in global politics
is structural violence.” Discuss this view.

Structural violence can be defined as a form of violence where social

structures and or institutions harm people by preventing them from meeting
their basic needs.

Counter: Economic Issues; Venezuelan economic crisis

23. “It is evident that international human rights laws and treaties have
failed given the persistence of clear human rights violations.” Discuss this
view.

On one hand international human rights laws and treaties have failed
given many human rights violations due to factors such as the sovereignty
of states and lack of enforcement mechanisms. Many international human
rights treaties lack robust enforcement mechanisms. While there are global
and regional human rights bodies, their power to enforce decisions and
sanctions is limited. This can result in non-compliance by states without
consequences. An example of this is how the UDHR has been violated
many times, one of which is by Afghanistan of which, women are not
permitted to go to school and are forced to surmise to Islam. This violates
Article 26 right to education.

On the other hand,it can be argued that international human rights

laws and treaties have succeeded at

CEDAW- committee on the elimination of discrimination of women

 -
24. To what extent does the protection and enforcement of universal human
rights depend on the achievement of a positive peace?

Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law

in the form of treaties, customary international law, general principles and
other sources of international law. Human rights law lays down rights (and
sometimes duties) for individuals, and corresponding obligations - both
positive and negative (that is, things to do and things not to do) – for
governments in order to promote and protect the human rights and
fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups. The range of human rights
contained in international law cover almost every aspect of individual and
community life, from civil and political rights, to economic, social, cultural
and developmental rights. Some of these rights may be limited by states
on grounds such as public safety, order, health, morals and the rights and
freedoms of others, whilst other rights may not be limited under any
circumstances.