Introduction to Computer Networks and Protocols

What is a Computer Network? A computer network is a system that connects computers and
devices to share resources and communicate. This can include sharing files, printers, and
internet access.

Basic Concepts of Networking:

1. Nodes: These are devices in a network, like computers, servers, or printers.

2. Links: These are the connections between nodes, which can be wired (like Ethernet
cables) or wireless (like Wi-Fi).
3. Network Types:
o LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area, like a home or office.
o WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a larger area, like cities or countries (e.g., the
Internet).
4. Protocols: Rules that determine how data is transmitted over a network. They ensure
devices can communicate effectively.

Common Networking Protocols:

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The main protocol used

for internet communication. TCP ensures data is sent correctly, while IP addresses and
routes the data.
2. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring web
pages.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers.
4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.
5. DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names (like www.example.com)
into IP addresses.

Network Topologies

What is Network Topology?

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (nodes) in a network. It
describes how devices are connected and how data flows.

Common Types of Topologies:

1. Bus Topology:
All devices share a single communication line (the bus). It's simple but can be slow if
many devices are connected.
2. Star Topology:
All devices connect to a central hub or switch. This setup is easy to manage and
troubleshoot, but if the hub fails, the whole network goes down.
3. Ring Topology:
Devices are connected in a circular fashion. Data travels in one direction. If one device
fails, it can disrupt the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology:
Every device connects to multiple other devices. This provides high reliability, as data
can take multiple paths, but it's complex and costly to set up.
 5. Hybrid Topology:
A combination of different topologies, tailored to meet specific needs.

Layered Architecture

What is Layered Architecture?

Layered architecture divides networking functions into different layers, allowing for easier
design and troubleshooting.

Common Layers in the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer:
The hardware that transmits raw data (cables, switches).
2. Data Link Layer:
Ensures error-free transmission between directly connected devices. It handles framing
and addressing.
3. Network Layer:
Manages data routing and forwarding. It uses IP addresses to send data across
networks.
4. Transport Layer:
Provides reliable data transfer, ensuring data arrives in order and without errors (e.g.,
TCP).
5. Session Layer:
Manages sessions or connections between applications.
6. Presentation Layer:
Translates data formats for the application layer. It handles encryption and data
compression.
7. Application Layer:
The top layer where users interact with the network (e.g., web browsers, email clients).

Physical Layer Functionality

What It Does:
The physical layer is the first layer in the OSI model and is responsible for the physical
connection between devices. It deals with the transmission of raw bits over a communication
channel.

Key Functions:

1. Transmission Media:
Defines the physical medium used for communication (cables, fiber optics, wireless
signals).
2. Bit Representation:
Converts digital data into electrical, optical, or radio signals.
3. Data Rate Control:
Determines the speed at which data is transmitted (measured in bits per second).
4. Physical Topology:
Defines how devices are physically arranged and connected.
 5. Synchronization:
Ensures that the sender and receiver are synchronized in timing for accurate data
transmission.

Data Link Layer Functionality

What It Does:
The data link layer is the second layer in the OSI model. It provides reliable communication
between directly connected devices.

Key Functions:

1. Framing:
Groups raw bits from the physical layer into frames for easier handling.
2. Error Detection and Correction:
Identifies and corrects errors that may occur during data transmission using techniques
like checksums and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check).
3. Flow Control:
Manages data transmission speed between sender and receiver to prevent
overwhelming the receiver.
4. Addressing:
Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to identify devices on the same local
network.
5. Medium Access Control (MAC):
Regulates how multiple devices share the same communication medium (e.g.,
CSMA/CD for Ethernet).

Multiprocess Techniques

What They Are:

Multiprocess techniques involve using multiple processors or cores to perform tasks
concurrently, improving performance and efficiency.

Key Techniques:

1. Multiprogramming:
Allows multiple programs to run at the same time on a single processor by rapidly
switching between them.
2. Multithreading:
Enables a single program to perform multiple threads (smaller tasks) concurrently,
making better use of CPU resources.
3. Distributed Processing:
Spreads tasks across multiple machines or servers, allowing for greater scalability and
fault tolerance.
4. Parallel Processing:
Breaks down a task into smaller parts that can be processed simultaneously by different
processors, significantly speeding up computation.
 Circuit Switching

What It Is:
Circuit switching is a method of communication where a dedicated connection is established
for the entire duration of a call or data session.

Key Features:

• Dedicated Path: A fixed path is reserved between the sender and receiver.
• Consistent Quality: Offers consistent quality and speed since the entire circuit is dedicated.
• Inefficient Use: Resources are used even when no data is being transmitted (e.g., during
silence in a call).

Example:
Traditional telephone networks use circuit switching.

Packet Switching

What It Is:
Packet switching breaks data into small packets that are sent independently over the network.

Key Features:

• Flexible Routing: Packets can take different paths to reach the destination, making the network
more efficient.
• Efficient Use: Bandwidth is used more efficiently since multiple packets from different sources
can share the same network resources.
• Variable Quality: Delivery time and quality can vary, as packets may arrive out of order.

Example:
The Internet primarily uses packet switching.

LAN Technologies

What They Are:

LAN (Local Area Network) technologies connect computers and devices within a small area,
like a home or office.

Common LAN Technologies:

1. Ethernet:
The most common wired LAN technology, using cables to connect devices.
2. Wi-Fi:
A popular wireless LAN technology that allows devices to connect without cables.
3. Token Ring:
An older technology where devices take turns sending data in a ring formation.
 Wireless Networks

What They Are:

Wireless networks allow devices to connect and communicate without physical cables.

Key Features:

• Mobility: Users can move freely while staying connected.

• Convenience: Easy to set up and expand without needing to run cables.
• Common Technologies:
o Wi-Fi: Used for local area wireless connections.
o Cellular Networks: Used for mobile phones and data services.
o Bluetooth: Used for short-range communication between devices.

MAC Addressing

What is a MAC Address?

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces
for communication on a local network. It helps devices recognize each other on the same
network.

Key Features of MAC Addresses:

1. Format:
A MAC address is usually represented as six groups of two hexadecimal digits,
separated by colons or hyphens (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
2. Uniqueness:
Each MAC address is intended to be unique to the device, allowing it to be
distinguished from others on the same network.
3. Layer 2 Addressing:
MAC addresses operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, enabling
devices to communicate directly within the same local area network (LAN).
4. Manufacturer-Specific:
The first half of a MAC address identifies the manufacturer (Organizationally Unique
Identifier, or OUI), while the second half is unique to the device.

Functions of MAC Addressing:

1. Device Identification:
MAC addresses allow devices to identify and communicate with each other on a
network.
2. Data Frame Delivery:
When data is sent over a LAN, it includes the MAC addresses of the sender and
receiver to ensure it reaches the correct destination.
3. Network Management:
Network administrators can use MAC addresses for monitoring and managing devices
on the network.
 Networking Devices

What Are Networking Devices?

Networking devices are hardware components that facilitate communication and data transfer
between computers and other devices in a network.

Common Networking Devices:

1. Router:
o Connects multiple networks (like a home network to the Internet).
o Routes data packets between networks based on IP addresses.
2. Switch:
o Connects multiple devices within the same local area network (LAN).
o Uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct device.
3. Hub:
o A basic device that connects multiple Ethernet devices.
o Sends incoming data packets to all ports, not specific devices (less efficient than
switches).
4. Access Point (AP):
o Extends a wired network by adding wireless capability.
o Allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
5. Modem:
o Modulates and demodulates signals for Internet access.
o Connects your local network to your Internet Service Provider (ISP).
6. Firewall:
o Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic.
o Provides security by blocking unauthorized access.

Network Layer Protocols

What Are Network Layer Protocols?

Network layer protocols are rules and standards that manage how data is sent across a network.
They operate at Layer 3 of the OSI model.

Common Network Layer Protocols:

1. IP (Internet Protocol):
o Responsible for addressing and routing packets of data.
o Includes two main versions: IPv4 (most common) and IPv6 (newer, with more
addresses).
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
o Used for error messages and network diagnostics (e.g., ping command).
o Helps in troubleshooting network issues.
3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
o Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.
o Allows devices on a local network to discover each other's hardware addresses.
4. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):
o Used to find an IP address based on a known MAC address.
o Less common today, replaced by DHCP.
 IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

• Address Format: 32-bit, shown as four numbers (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

• Address Space: About 4.3 billion unique addresses.
• Common Use: Widely used in homes and businesses.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

• Address Format: 128-bit, shown as eight groups of hexadecimal digits (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).
• Address Space: Virtually unlimited addresses (340 undecillion).
• Improved Features: Easier configuration and better security.
• Common Use: Increasingly used for new devices and networks.

IP Addressing

What Is IP Addressing?
IP addressing gives each device a unique identifier on a network.

Key Concepts:

1. Public vs. Private Addresses:

o Public: Accessible over the Internet (assigned by ISPs).
o Private: Used within local networks (e.g., 192.168.x.x).
2. Static vs. Dynamic Addresses:
o Static: Fixed addresses that don’t change (good for servers).
o Dynamic: Changeable addresses assigned by DHCP (common for personal devices).
3. Subnet Mask:
o Helps divide an IP address into network and host parts (e.g., 255.255.255.0).

Subnetting

What Is Subnetting?
Subnetting is the practice of dividing a larger network into smaller, manageable sub-networks
(subnets). This helps organize networks and improves performance and security.

Key Features of Subnetting:

1. Network Segmentation:
o Splits a network into smaller parts to reduce congestion and enhance security.
2. Efficient IP Address Use:
o Allows better management of IP addresses, minimizing waste and making it easier to
allocate addresses.
3. Improved Performance:
o Reduces broadcast traffic since devices only communicate within their subnet.
4. Example:
o A network with the address 192.168.1.0/24 can be divided into smaller subnets like
192.168.1.0/26 and 192.168.1.64/26.
 CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

What Is CIDR?
CIDR is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol packets more
efficiently than the traditional class-based system.

Key Features of CIDR:

1. Flexible Addressing:
o Allows for variable-length subnet masking (VLSM), enabling more efficient use of IP
addresses.
2. Simplified Routing:
o Reduces the size of routing tables by aggregating multiple IP addresses into a single
entry (supernetting).
3. Notation:
o CIDR notation uses a slash followed by the number of bits in the subnet mask (e.g.,
192.168.1.0/24 means the first 24 bits are the network part).
4. Example:
o The CIDR range 10.0.0.0/8 covers all IP addresses from 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.

Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are rules that help routers communicate and determine the best paths for
sending data packets across networks.

Key Types of Routing Protocols:

1. Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):

o Used within a single organization’s network.
o Examples:
▪ RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Simple protocol using hop count.
▪ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Uses cost as a metric and supports larger
networks.
▪ EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): A fast hybrid
protocol.
2. Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):
o Used between different organizations or networks.
o Example:
▪ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The main protocol for routing on the
Internet.

Key Features:

• Dynamic Routing: Automatically updates routes based on network changes.

• Static Routing: Manually set routes that don’t change unless updated.
• Metrics: Methods (like hop count or bandwidth) used to find the best route.
 Transport Layer Protocols

Transport layer protocols are responsible for delivering data between devices over a
network, ensuring reliable communication and proper data flow.

Key Transport Layer Protocols:

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

o Connection-oriented: Establishes a connection before data transfer.
o Reliable: Ensures data is delivered accurately and in order.
o Error-checking: Uses acknowledgments and retransmissions for lost packets.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
o Connectionless: Sends data without establishing a connection.
o Faster but less reliable: No error-checking or guarantees for delivery.
o Used for: Applications where speed is crucial, like video streaming or online gaming.

Ports and Sockets

Ports:

• What They Are: Virtual endpoints for communication on a device, identified by a number (0-
65535).
• Common Port Numbers:
o HTTP: Port 80
o HTTPS: Port 443
o FTP: Port 21
o SMTP: Port 25

Sockets:

• What They Are: A combination of an IP address and a port number, uniquely identifying a
connection between two devices.
• Example: An application using port 80 on IP address 192.168.1.1 would have the socket
192.168.1.1:80.

Connection Establishment

What It Is:
The process of setting up a connection between two devices before data transmission begins.

Steps in Connection Establishment (TCP):

1. Three-Way Handshake:
o SYN: The client sends a synchronization (SYN) request to the server to initiate a
connection.
o SYN-ACK: The server responds with a synchronization-acknowledgment (SYN-ACK)
to confirm receipt of the request.
o ACK: The client sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back to the server to complete the
connection.
 Flow and Congestion Control

Flow control and congestion control are techniques used to manage the data
transmission rate in a network, ensuring efficient communication and preventing
network overload.

Flow Control

What It Is:
Flow control manages the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver, ensuring that
the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with too much data at once.

Key Features:

1. Buffer Management:
Uses buffers to temporarily store data at the receiver, allowing it to process incoming
data at its own pace.
2. Techniques:
o Stop-and-Wait: The sender transmits one packet and waits for an acknowledgment
before sending the next.
o Sliding Window: Allows multiple packets to be sent before needing an
acknowledgment, increasing efficiency.

Congestion Control

What It Is:
Congestion control prevents network congestion by managing the amount of data being sent
into the network.

Key Features:

1. Network Monitoring:
Monitors network traffic and adjusts the data transmission rate based on current
conditions.
2. Techniques:
o TCP Congestion Control: Uses algorithms like AIMD (Additive
Increase/Multiplicative Decrease) to adjust the flow of data.
o Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN): Routers signal congestion to senders,
allowing them to reduce their transmission rate.
DIAGRAM

Application Layer Protocols

Application layer protocols are rules that define how applications communicate over a
network. They operate at the highest layer of the OSI model.

Key Application Layer Protocols:

1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

o Used for transferring web pages. Works with web browsers and servers.
2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure):
o A secure version of HTTP that encrypts data for safe transmission over the Internet.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o Used for transferring files between computers.
4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
o Used for sending emails.
5. DNS (Domain Name System):
o Translates domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses.

Latest Trends in Computer Networks

1. 5G Technology:
o Overview: Faster mobile networks with lower latency.
o Impact: Supports more devices and new applications like smart cities.
2. Internet of Things (IoT):
o Overview: More devices connected to the Internet.
o Impact: Increases data flow and connectivity needs.
3. Software-Defined Networking (SDN):
o Overview: Centralized control of network management.
o Impact: Increases flexibility and easier updates.
4. Network Function Virtualization (NFV):
o Overview: Virtualizes network services instead of using hardware.
o Impact: Reduces costs and speeds up service deployment.
5. Edge Computing:
o Overview: Processes data closer to where it’s generated.
o Impact: Reduces delay and bandwidth usage.
6. Artificial Intelligence (AI):
 o Overview: Uses AI for network management and security.
o Impact: Automates monitoring and improves security.
7. Zero Trust Security:
o Overview: Verifies every user trying to access the network.
o Impact: Enhances security by reducing access risks.
8. Wi-Fi 6:
o Overview: The latest Wi-Fi standard for improved speed and capacity.
o Impact: Better performance in crowded areas.
9. Quantum Networking:
o Overview: Uses quantum technology for secure communication.
o Impact: Promises ultra-secure data transmission.
10. Blockchain in Networking:
o Overview: Uses blockchain for secure data sharing.
o Impact: Provides a decentralized and secure communication method.

PAST PAPERS

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

What Is ARP?
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to find the MAC address associated with an IP
address on a local network. It helps devices communicate by converting IP addresses into
MAC addresses.

How ARP Works:

1. ARP Request:
o When a device wants to communicate with another device but only knows its IP
address, it sends out an ARP request. This request is broadcast to all devices on the
local network.
o Example: "Who has IP address 192.168.1.2? Tell me your MAC address."
2. ARP Reply:
o The device with the matching IP address responds with an ARP reply, providing its
MAC address.
o Example: "I am 192.168.1.2, and my MAC address is 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E."
3. Caching:
o The requesting device stores the MAC address in its ARP cache for future use,
reducing the need to send ARP requests again.
ARP Diagram

Answers are

Part a: Three-Way Handshake in TCP Connection Establishment

The three-way handshake is a process used to establish a reliable connection between two TCP
hosts. It involves the exchange of three TCP segments:

1. SYN Segment:
o Sent by the initiating host (Computer A) to the responding host (Computer B).
o Contains the SYN flag set to 1, an initial sequence number (ISN), and a maximum
segment size (MSS).
o Indicates the desire to establish a connection.
2. SYN-ACK Segment:
o Sent by Computer B in response to the SYN segment.
 o Contains the SYN and ACK flags set to 1, an ISN, and the acknowledgment number
(ACK) of the received SYN segment.
o Indicates that Computer B has received the SYN segment and is willing to establish a
connection.
3. ACK Segment:
o Sent by Computer A in response to the SYN-ACK segment.
o Contains the ACK flag set to 1 and the acknowledgment number of the received SYN-
ACK segment.
o Confirms that Computer A has received the SYN-ACK segment and is ready to
establish the connection.

Example:

• Computer A sends a SYN segment with ISN = 14,137.

• Computer B responds with a SYN-ACK segment with ISN = 18,332 and ACK = 14,138.
• Computer A sends an ACK segment with ACK = 18,333.

Part b: UDP Header Analysis

The hexadecimal format of the UDP header is: CB84000D001C001C

Breakdown:

• CB84: Source port number (19,204)

• 000D: Destination port number (13)
• 001C: Length of the user datagram (28 bytes)
• 001C: Checksum

Therefore:

• The total length of the user datagram is 28 bytes.

• The destination port number is 13.

Answers are

Subnetting a Class C Network

Given:

• Class C network: 172.16.0.0

• Subnet mask: 255.255.255.192

Calculations:
 1. Number of networks:
o The subnet mask has 6 bits for the network portion.
o 2^6 = 64 networks
2. Number of hosts per network:
o The subnet mask has 2 bits for the host portion.
o 2^2 - 2 = 2 hosts per network (subtract 2 for the network and broadcast addresses)
3. Usable address range for the first two networks:
o Network 1: 172.16.0.0 - 172.16.0.3
o Network 2: 172.16.0.4 - 172.16.0.7
4. Broadcast addresses for the first two networks:
o Network 1: 172.16.0.3
o Network 2: 172.16.0.7

OSI Layer Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model has seven layers, each with specific functions.
Here’s a quick overview:

1. Layer 1: Physical Layer

o Function: Transmits raw bitstreams over a physical medium (cables, radio waves).
o Example: Cables, switches, and hubs.
2. Layer 2: Data Link Layer
o Function: Ensures error-free transmission between two connected devices and
manages data frames.
o Example: Ethernet, MAC addresses.
3. Layer 3: Network Layer
o Function: Determines the best path for data to travel across multiple networks; handles
IP addressing.
o Example: IP (Internet Protocol), routers.
4. Layer 4: Transport Layer
o Function: Provides reliable data transfer, error correction, and flow control.
o Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
5. Layer 5: Session Layer
o Function: Manages sessions (connections) between applications; establishes,
maintains, and terminates sessions.
o Example: APIs, session tokens.
6. Layer 6: Presentation Layer
o Function: Translates data formats, encrypts/decrypts, and ensures data is in a readable
format for the application layer.
o Example: Data compression, encryption.
7. Layer 7: Application Layer
o Function: Interfaces directly with user applications; provides services for file transfers,
email, and web browsing.
o Example: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.
 Transmission Impairments

What Are Transmission Impairments?

Transmission impairments are issues that affect the quality and reliability of signals as they
travel over a communication medium. They can lead to data loss, errors, or degraded
performance.

Key Types of Transmission Impairments:

1. Attenuation:
o Definition: The reduction in signal strength as it travels over a distance.
o Impact: Causes weaker signals, making it harder for the receiver to detect the data.
2. Distortion:
o Definition: Changes in the shape of the signal, often due to different frequencies
traveling at different speeds.
o Impact: Can lead to misinterpretation of the data, causing errors.
3. Noise:
o Definition: Unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the transmission of the main
signal.
o Types:
▪ Thermal Noise: Generated by the random motion of electrons.
▪ Interference: From other devices or signals (e.g., crosstalk).
o Impact: Reduces signal clarity and can introduce errors.
4. Jitter:
o Definition: Variability in signal timing, often seen in digital transmissions.
o Impact: Can cause packets to arrive out of order, leading to issues in real-time
applications (like video calls).
5. Latency:
o Definition: The delay before a transfer of data begins following an instruction.
o Impact: Affects the speed of communication, especially in interactive applications.

TCP and IP Headers

What Are Headers?

Headers are sections of data that provide essential information about the data being transmitted
over a network. TCP and IP headers are critical for ensuring that data packets are sent and
received correctly.

IP Header

Overview:
The IP header contains information required for routing the packet across networks. It’s part of
the Internet Protocol (IP).

Key Fields:

1. Version: Indicates the IP version (IPv4 or IPv6).

2. Header Length: The length of the header.
3. Type of Service (ToS): Specifies priority and quality of service.
4. Total Length: The entire packet size (header + data).
 5. Identification: A unique identifier for the packet.
6. Flags: Control fragmentation (e.g., whether the packet can be fragmented).
7. Fragment Offset: Indicates the position of the fragment in the original packet.
8. Time to Live (TTL): Limits the packet's lifetime to prevent looping.
9. Protocol: Indicates the upper-layer protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP).
10. Header Checksum: Error-checking value for the header.
11. Source IP Address: The sender’s IP address.
12. Destination IP Address: The receiver’s IP address.

TCP Header

Overview:
The TCP header contains information necessary for establishing a reliable connection and
ensuring accurate data delivery.

Key Fields:

1. Source Port: The sender’s port number.

2. Destination Port: The receiver’s port number.
3. Sequence Number: Indicates the order of packets.
4. Acknowledgment Number: Confirms receipt of packets.
5. Data Offset: Indicates the size of the TCP header.
6. Flags: Control bits for connection management (e.g., SYN, ACK, FIN).
7. Window Size: Indicates the amount of data the sender is willing to accept.
8. Checksum: Error-checking value for the header and data.
9. Urgent Pointer: Indicates urgent data in the packet.
10. Options: Additional options (e.g., maximum segment size).

Classful and Classless Addressing

Classful Addressing:

• Overview: Divides IP addresses into fixed classes.

• Classes:
o Class A: Large networks (0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255) – Default mask: 255.0.0.0.
o Class B: Medium networks (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255) – Default mask:
255.255.0.0.
o Class C: Small networks (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255) – Default mask:
255.255.255.0.
• Limitations: Wastes IP addresses due to fixed sizes.

Classless Addressing (CIDR):

• Overview: Allows flexible IP address allocation without fixed classes.

• Key Features:
o Variable-Length Subnet Mask (VLSM): Uses different subnet masks as needed.
o CIDR Notation: Expresses addresses like 192.168.1.0/24.
• Advantages: Better utilization of IP addresses and more efficient routing.