Introduction to Sociology

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the
divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of
study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and consciousness both
shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures.

Sociology is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and explains important
matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the world. At the personal level,
sociology investigates the social causes and consequences of such things as romantic love,
racial and gender identity, family conflict, deviant behavior, aging, and religious faith. At the
societal level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty and
wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and education, business firms, urban
community, and social movements. At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as
population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development.

Sociologists emphasize the careful gathering and analysis of evidence about social life to
develop and enrich our understanding of key social processes. The research methods
sociologists use are varied. Sociologists observe the everyday life of groups, conduct large-
scale surveys, interpret historical documents, analyze census data, study video-taped
interactions, interview participants of groups, and conduct laboratory experiments. The
research methods and theories of sociology yield powerful insights into the social processes
shaping human lives and social problems and prospects in the contemporary world. By better
understanding those social processes, we also come to understand more clearly the forces
shaping the personal experiences and outcomes of our own lives. The ability to see and
understand this connection between broad social forces and personal experiences — what C.
Wright Mills called “the sociological imagination” — is extremely valuable academic
preparation for living effective and rewarding personal and professional lives in a changing
and complex society.

Origin of Sociology
“August Comte”, a French thinker, also known as the “father of sociology” laid the
foundation of the discipline sociology. He believed that society should be understood and
studied as it was, rather than what it ought to be. He was the first to recognize that the
path to understanding the world and society was based in science.
He observed the rapid social change in European society, post French and industrial
revolution. However, there was no discipline at the time; to identify and resolve the social
issues which exist within a society. Issues such as, inequality, social change in relationships,
conflict, power and power struggle amongst social strata’s. August Comte observed that
people in France progressed in material culture but lagged behind in non-material culture.
Which had created chaos and unrest in a society. During this social and emotional unrest in
the society. Additionally, Marx, Spencer, Durkheim, and Weber further helped define and
develop sociology as a science and discipline, each contributing important theories and
concepts still used and understood in the field today.
Sociology for Engineers
Course Code: SOC104
Credit Units: 01

Module I
Sociological perspective; Sociology as a science; Sociology and other
social Sciences, Society, Community, Institution, Association, Social
Structure, Social Function, Status and Role and its Elements.
Weightage : 50%
 What is Sociology?
 (noun) The systematic study of society and social interactions to
understand individuals, groups, and institutions through data
collection and analysis.
 Sociology, in the broadest sense, is the study of society. Sociology is
a very broad discipline that examines how humans interact with
each other and how human behavior is shaped by social structures
(groups, communities, organizations), social categories (age, sex,
class, race, etc.), and social institutions (politics, religion, education,
etc.). The basic foundation of sociology is the belief that a person's
attitudes, actions, and opportunities are shaped by all of these
aspects of society.
 Origins

 Sociology originated from and was influenced by the industrial

revolution during the early nineteenth century.
 There are five major founders of sociology: August Comte, Herbert
Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber.
 August Comte is thought of as the "Father of Sociology" as he
coined the term sociology. He believed that society should be
understood and studied as it was, rather than what it ought to be.
He was the first to recognize that the path to understanding the
world and society was based in science.
 Marx, Spencer, Durkheim, and Weber further helped define and
develop sociology as a science and discipline, each contributing
important theories and concepts still used and understood in the
field today.
 Sociological Perspective
 At the heart of sociology is the sociological perspective, the view that our social
backgrounds influence our attitudes, behavior, and life chances.
 Social backgrounds influence but do not totally determine attitudes and behavior.
 The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by
placing it within its broader social context. C. Wright Mills referred to the sociological
perspective as the intersection of biography (the individual) and history (social factors
that influence the individual).
 Sociology is the systematic study of human society; its point of view is
 Seeing the general in the particular
• Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behaviour of particular individuals.
• Individuals are unique, but
• Society acts differently on various categories of people (Cont’d)
 Seeing the strange in the familiar
• Giving up the idea that human behaviour is simply a matter of what
people decide to do.
• Understanding that society shapes our lives.
 Seeing individuality in social context
• Emile Durkheim’s research on suicide showed that some categories
are more likely to commit suicide than others. Society affects even
our most personal choices.
• More likely to commit suicide: males, Protestants, wealthy, and
unmarried.
• Less likely to commit suicide: females, Jews, Catholics, the poor, and
married.
 Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

 Helps us assess the truth of “common sense”

 Helps us assess both opportunities and constraints in our lives
 Empowers us to be active participants in our society
 Helps us to recognize diversity and live in a diverse world
 Sociology and Common Sense
 Common sense differs from person to person and is influenced by
the customs and beliefs of the family one is born into. It, therefore,
calls for no social changes and wants the status quo. Sociology, on
the other hand, studies the intricate details of evidence as well as
the beliefs and decides upon what can be applied and what
cannot. It questions the present situation when the opinions and
evidence conflict and then supports changes in society.

 Common sense of a person just an assumption. In this case, one has

no evidence to back what one believes. Unlike common sense,
sociological theories are not mere assumptions but
a sociologist concludes upon the theories by collecting evidences
and studying them in-depth. Given this research, the points put
forward by these theories are reliable and truly applicable to real
life.
 Common sense is based on personal experiences. But Sociology looks at
the society not with respect to individuals but as a whole. While common
sense develops as one experiences various situations but Sociology
demands thoughts that are not merely individual experiences.

 Sociology is a scientific study of society. But common sense is not. Since

Sociology is an elaborate study of the society (and includes research), it is a
science. But since common sense doesn’t require the same it isn’t.

 In Sociology, while one is researching, one comes across the patterns that
can be found everywhere in the world. But common sense is subjective
since it differs from one individual to another based on the society one
comes from.

 Common sense is very limited since the person’s horizon is nowhere beyond
the environment in one’s vicinity. But Sociological findings are applicable to
a huge number of people who come from varying backgrounds.
 Sociology as a Science
 Positivist sociologists believe that it is possible to establish objective facts
through scientific research methods and the thorough collection and
analysis of empirical evidence. They argue that their research follows the
scientific method shown below:
Pose a Question

Conduct Background Research

Create a Hypothesis

Test with Experiments

Analyse data and draw Conclusions

Results reviewed by peers and then published

 Sociology and other Social Sciences
 History is the record of the life of societies of men, of the changes
which the societies have gone through, of the ideas which have
determined the actions of these societies and of the material
conditions which have helped or hindered their development.
 Sociology is concerned with the study of the historical development
of the societies. It studies the various stages of life, modes of living,
customs, manners and their expression in the form of social
institutions. Sociology has thus to depend upon history for its
material.
 History supplies facts which are interpreted and co-ordinated by the
sociologists. In the same way sociology gives the social background
for the study of history.
 Political science is a branch of social science dealing with the
principles of organization and government of human society. In
other words, Political Science deals with the social groups organized
under the sovereign of the state.
 Political science is a branch of social science dealing with the
principles of organization and government of human society. In
other words, Political Science deals with the social groups organized
under the sovereign of the state.

 Anthropology thus devotes its attention entirely to the study of man

and his culture as they developed in times long past. Sociology, on
the other hand, studies the same phenomena as they exist at
present. According to Kluckhon, “The sociological attitude has
tended towards the practical and present, the anthropological
towards pure understanding and the past.”
 Sociology has to depend upon Anthropology to understand the
present day social phenomena from our knowledge of the past.
 Economics is concerned with material welfare of the human beings.
 But economic welfare is only a part of human welfare and it can be
sought only with the proper knowledge of social laws.
 The fact that society is influenced by economic factors while
economic processes are largely determined by the social
environments clearly proves that the relation between Sociology
and Economics is very intimate. Economics is defined as a study of
mankind in ordinary business of life or to be more exact, it is the
science of wealth in its three phases of production, distribution and
consumption.
 It is thus concerned with that part of individual and social action
which is most closely connected with the attainment and with use
of material requisites of well being.
Psychology is an applied and academic study of perception, behavior, and mechanisms. It
works on human analysis and can be used on animals and intelligent systems. It is a scientific
study of the mind, thinking, behavior and personality. The aim is to seek to understand the
individual's behavior and interpretation and work to solve its problems.
Sociology studies human interaction primarily, it may affect the interpersonal relationships in
the social environment, it influences trends, feelings or actions, as well as studying the social
system in which all forms of human relations exist, In addition to understanding and studying
the social phenomena in human society and all social patterns, and the relationship of man to
society and culture.
Here, we see Social psychology which is a branch of general psychology. It is concerned with
studying the social behavior of individuals in their social situations, i.e. the scope and social
system, in which the individual lives, and the extent of his influence on thinking, behavior,
feelings, and patterns of interaction with all external stimuli. Social psychology is concerned
with the study to understand the psychological processes, psychological ways in which they
interact with social influences and variables, and psychological extent in which they
contribute to the development and formation of the individual personality. Social psychology
also examines the situations of individuals and their social and behavioral patterns through
experience and observation in the personality and social framework.
The importance of social psychology appears in all the interactive aspects of the individual's
social life and all the environments in which he coexists. It can affect the individual's
interactions and character-building and highlight the importance of social psychology directly
in everyday life situations; national and international issues experienced by people in the form
of war, slavery, freedom, and security.
Society

 (noun) A large group of interacting people in a defined territory, sharing

a common culture.
 In sociological terms, society refers to a group of people who live in a
definable community and share the same cultural components. On a
broad scale, society consists of the people and institutions around us, our
shared beliefs and our cultural ideas.
 Anthony Giddens (2000) states; “A society is a group of people who live in
a particular territory, are subject to a common system of political
authority, and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups
around them.”
 Although humans have established many types of societies throughout
history, sociologists and anthropologists (experts who study early and
tribal cultures) usually refer to six basic types of societies, each defined
by its level of technology.
 1. The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting animals,
fishing, and gathering plants. The vast majority of these societies existed in the past, with
only a few (perhaps a million people total) living today on the verge of extinction.
These were typically small, were quite mobile. In some cases, where resources in a
locale were extraordinarily plentiful, small villages might form. But most hunting and
gathering societies were nomadic, moving constantly in search of food and water.
Labor in hunting and gathering societies was divided equally among members. Hunting
and gathering societies were also tribal. Members shared an ancestral heritage and a
common set of traditions and rituals.
 2. Members of pastoral societies, which first emerged 12,000 years ago, pasture animals
for food and transportation. Pastoral societies still exist today, primarily in the desert
lands of North Africa where horticulture and manufacturing are not possible.
Domesticating animals allows for a more manageable food supply than do hunting
and gathering. Hence, pastoral societies are able to produce a surplus of goods, which
makes storing food for future use a possibility. With storage comes the desire to develop
settlements that permit the society to remain in a single place for longer periods of
time. And with stability comes the trade of surplus goods between neighboring pastoral
communities. Pastoral societies allow certain of its members (those who are not
domesticating animals) to engage in nonsurvival activities. Traders, healers, spiritual
leaders, craftspeople, and people with other specialty professions appear.
 3. Horticultural societies rely on cultivating fruits, vegetables, and plants. These societies
first appeared in different parts of the planet about the same time as pastoral societies.
Like hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies had to be mobile. Depletion
of the land's resources or dwindling water supplies, for example, forced the people to
leave. Horticultural societies occasionally produced a surplus, which permitted storage
as well as the emergence of other professions not related to the survival of the society.
 4. Agricultural societies use technological advances to cultivate crops (especially
grains like wheat, rice, corn, and barley) over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase
Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as
8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food
supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater
surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers,
educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry
about locating nourishment. Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in
agricultural societies.
 5. Feudal societies - From the 9th to 15th centuries, feudalism was a form of society
based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals under feudalism were
bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords
exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services
to the owner of the land. The caste system of feudalism was often multigenerational;
the families of peasants may have cultivated their lord's land for generations.
 6. Industrial societies are based on using machines (particularly fuel‐driven ones) to
produce goods. Sociologists refer to the period during the 18th century when the
production of goods in mechanized factories began as the Industrial Revolution. The
Industrial Revolution appeared first in Britain, and then quickly spread to the rest of the
world. As productivity increased, means of transportation improved to better facilitate
the transfer of products from place to place. Great wealth was attained by the few
who owned factories, and the “masses” found jobs working in the factories.
Industrialization brought about changes in almost every aspect of society. As factories
became the center of work, “home cottages” as the usual workplace became less
prevalent, as did the family's role in providing vocational training and education. The
Industrial Revolution also saw to the development of bureaucratic forms of
organization, complete with written rules, job descriptions, impersonal positions, and
hierarchical methods of management.
 7. Sociologists note that with the advent of the computer microchip, the world is
witnessing a technological revolution. This revolution is creating a postindustrial society
based on information, knowledge, and the selling of services. Sociologists speculate
about the characteristics of postindustrial society in the near future. They predict
increased levels of education and training, consumerism, availability of goods, and
social mobility.
What is Community? A Sociological Perspective

• According to Talcott Parsons, “A • According to Ferdinand

community may be defined as a Tonnies, “A community is an
group or collection of groups organic, natural kind of social
that inhabit a delimited group whose members are
geographical area and whose bound together by a sense of
members live together in such belonging, created out of
away they share the basic everyday contacts covering
conditions of common life” the whole range of human
• According to Kingsley Davis, activities”.
Community is the smallest • For Karl Mannheim, “community
territorial group that can is any circle of people who live
embrace all aspects of social together and belong together
life” in a way that they do not share
this or that particular interest but
a whole set of interests”.
Community: Common features

There is a common group of features which sociologist recognize should be

present for a group of people to be called a community, namely:
• It is a group of people who interact with each other.
• The interaction is happening within a bounded geographical territory. All
daily activities (work and non-work) occur within a geographical area
which is self-contained.
• The community’s members share common values, beliefs and behaviors.
• The community has a particular social structure. There are also
collections of people who might not be termed communities because
of a lack of social structure.
• The members have a sense of belonging.
Community: Basis of formation/Characterisitcs

• Locality- It is the physical basis of community. A community is more or less

locally limited. Locality continues to be a basic factor of community.
• Community sentiment- People in the community feel more or less the
same sentiments and act upon the same attitude.
• Common way of life - People in the community share the basic
conditions of common life and reside in a definite locality. It is the total
organization of social life in the area.
• Common interest- Life in communities facilitates people to develop social
contacts, gives protection, safety and security.
• Feeling of oneness- Created as a result of collective participation in the
affair and prevalent mode of life in the community.
Community: Basis of formation/Characteristics…….

• Stability- Communities are relatively stable. It includes a permanent

group life in a definite place.
• Size of the community- though there are large metropolitan
communities, there are smaller communities too.
• System of rules and regulations - each community has a system of
tradition, customs, morals, practices, to regulate the relations of it
members and also it creates a feeling of identity and solidarity
among the people in the community.
Community: Nature

• Community does not fit into a nice neat package.

• “Community" is a construct, a model.
• A community is not just the people who are in it.
• A "community" in some senses may not even have a physical
location, but be demarcated by being a group of people with a
common interest.
Types of Communities

• Folk Community: - The folk community is small in size, isolated from the
other communities, consists of non-literate and socially homogeneous
people with a strong sense of group solidarity.
• Tribal Community: - The tribal community is a society based upon kinship,
united in the language, dialect, recognizing social distance from tribes,
following the tribal traditions, beliefs and customs and having territorial
affinity and geographic isolation.
• Rural Community: - The rural community is a human settlement which is
relatively small, less densely populated and more homogenous with
reference to social, economic, linguistic and cultural characteristics.
• Urban Community: - The urban community is a human settlement which
is relatively large and socially heterogeneous and having its
occupational and economic structure as predominantly non-
agricultural. Use of machinery in production of goods is the common
feature of the urban community.
Community……

Communities can also be classified based on the purpose that brings

them together. These can be:

• Interest– communities of people who share a common passion.

• Action– communities of people trying to bring some kind of
change.
• Place– communities of people brought together by the mere
coincidence of common geographical habitation.
• Practice– communities of people who have the same profession or
undertake the same activities.
• Circumstance– communities of people brought together by
external event/situation.
 Comparison between Society and Community

Community
Society
• Population is one of the most essential • Population is important but here the population
characteristics of a community irrespective of is conditioned by a feeling of oneness. Thus
the consideration whether people have or do conscious relations are more important than
not have conscious relations. the mere population for a society.

• A community by nature is discrete as • By nature and character society is abstract.

compared with society.
• For community area or locality is very essential • Society is area less and shapeless and for a
and that perhaps is the reason that the society area is no consideration.
community had a definite shape.
• A community has comparatively narrow scope • A society has heterogeneity and because of its
of community sentiments and as such it cannot wide scope and field can embrace people
have wide heterogeneity. having different conflicts.
• The scope of community is narrow than that of • The society has much wider scope as
society because community came much later compared with the community.
than the society. Though the primitive people
might not have understood the importance of
community but they realized that of the society
and lived in it.
• In a community every effort is made to avoid • In a society likeness and conflict can exist side
differences or conflicts and to bring likeness as by side and in fact the scope of society is so
nearly as possible because cooperation and vast that there is every possibility of adjustment.
conflicts cannot exist in a community.
Community as a Sociological Construct

• The concept of a community is not only a "construct" (model), it is a

"sociological construct." It is a set of interactions, human behaviors
that have meaning and expectations between its members. Not just
action, but actions based on shared expectations, values, beliefs
and meanings between individuals.
• We can not see a whole community, we can not touch it, and we
can not directly experience it.
Institution: definition

• An institution is a procedure, an established way of doing things, a

pattern of behavior, a deeply ingrained societal custom that becomes
part of the social structure. Institutions are not groups of people.
• One cannot join an institution; one can merely do things in an
institutionalized way.
• Sociologists agree that institutions arise and persist because of a definite
felt need of the members of the society.
• Kingsley Davis defined institution as a set of interwoven folkways, mores
and laws built around one or more functions.
• A social institution satisfies a basic human need; and thus is necessary for
the survival of the society.
Institution: definition……

• Jonathan Turner (1997: 6) defined social institution as : “a complex of

positions, roles, norms and values lodged in particular types of social
structures and organizing relatively stable patterns of human activity with
respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources,
in reproducing individuals, and in sustaining viable societal structures
within a given environment.”
• Anthony Giddens (1984: 24) says: “Institutions by definition are the more
enduring features of social life.” He (Giddens 1984: 31) goes on to list as
institutional orders, modes of discourse, political institutions, economic
institutions and legal institutions.
Characteristics Of Institution

• Institutions are social in nature.

• Institutions are standardized norms.
• Institutions are relatively permanent.
• Institutions have their own symbols.
• Institutions are inter related and inter linked.
• Institutions are universal.
Classification and kinds of Institutions

There are five Basic Types of Social Institutions:

• Family
• Government
• Economy
• Education
• Religion.
Types of Institutions

• Crescive Institution- These include matters of property, religion, and marriage

and are unconsciously originated.
• Enacted Institutions- These include business and credit Institutions that are
related to profits and the economy and hence are consciously established.
• Basic Institutions- These are simply those that are regarded as important to
maintain social order in society. The Family Institutions, Political Institutions,
Educational Institutions, Religious Institutions etc.
• Subsidiary Institutions- These Institutions are a bit complex in the way that they
aren’t necessarily so much in order to maintain social order. Like recreational
activities and clubs come under these Institutions.
• Operative Institutions- are those whose function is to organize patterns which
are necessary to attain any objective. E.g. institution of Industrialism.
• Relative Institutions- are those which aren’t a part of the regulatory institution
themselves but help in controlling the custom and other types of behavior.
Functions of Institutions

• Institutions provide and prescribe the ways and mean of fulfilling the
human needs. Institutions organize and regulate the system of social
behavior
• Institution simplifies actions for the individuals.
• Institutions contribute to a system and order in society. Institutions
assign roles and statuses to the individual
• Institution serve as a means of regulating and controlling man’s
activities .
• Institutions play significant role in the society. Every important face of
life is institutionalised. No institution works in vacuum. The social
institutions are closely related to each other.
 Association

 An association is a group of people organized for a particular

purpose or a limited number of purposes. To constitute an
association there must be, firstly, a group of people; secondly, these
people must be organized one, i.e., there must be certain rules for
their conduct in the groups, and thirdly, they must have a common
purpose of a specific nature to pursue. Thus, family, church, trade
union, music club all are the instances of association.
 Difference between Institution and
Association
 Association refers to an organized group of people having definite aims. But
institutions are forms of procedures and way of doing things.
 State, Flood relief association, political party are examples of association
whereas college, family, marriage etc. are the example of institution.
 Association lacks stability and temporary in nature whereas institutions are
stable and permanent in nature.
 Association represents human aspects because it comprised of human beings.
When a group of people organize themselves to fulfill some specific aims
association is formed. But institutions refers to a social condition of conduct and
behavior. Because institutions consists of rules, regulations, laws and procedures.
 Association are formed to fulfill man’s needs and necessities whereas institutions
grows naturally and spontaneously.
 Association exercises control in a formal ways whereas institutions exercises
control in an informal ways.
 Association has legal status but institutions do not have any legal status. It can’t
sue or be sued.
 Social Structure

According to Talcott Parsons, the term social structure applies to the

particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and
social patterns as well as the statuses and roles which each person
assumes in the group.
 Social structure is an abstract which is composed of several groups
like family, church, class, caste, state or community etc.
 Social structure is the organized set of social institutions and patterns of
institutionalized relationships that together compose society. Social structure is both a
product of social interaction and directly determines it. Social structures are not
immediately visible to the untrained observer, however, they are always present and
affect all dimensions of human experience in society.
 When sociologists use the term "social structure" they are typically referring to macro-
level social forces including social institutions and patterns of institutionalized
relationships. The major social institutions recognized by sociologists include family,
religion, education, media, law, politics, and economy. These are understood as
distinct institutions that are interrelated and interdependent and together help
compose the overarching social structure of a society.
 Sociologists see social structure present at the "meso" level — between the macro
and the micro levels — in the social networks that are organized by the social
institutions and institutionalized social relationships. Our social networks are also a
manifestation of social stratification, whereby social relations between people are
structured by class differences, differences in educational attainment, and
differences in levels of wealth. In turn, social networks act as structuring forces by
shaping the kinds of opportunities that may or may not be available to us, and by
fostering particular behavioral and interactional norms that work to determine our life
course and outcomes.
 Social structure manifests at the micro level in the everyday
interactions we have with each other in the forms of norms and
customs. We can see it present in the way patterned
institutionalized relationships shape our interactions within
certain institutions like family and education, and it is present in
the way institutionalized ideas about race, gender, and sexuality
shape what we expect from others, how we expect to be seen
by them, and how we interact together.
 Social Function
 In social sciences, the term social function is seen as a relationship between an organism and its parts of
the organs. The notion also carries with it a reference to some activity and the product or the result of the
activity i.e. theological implication. The real impetus to the use of the term in sociology came in
19thcentury. Sociologists like Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer regarded group of societies or
individual societies as being very similar to biological organisms. According to Emile Durkheim any
sociological explanation should firstly consist of the discovery of phenomenon’s cause and secondly of its
function. It is used in preference to end or purpose.
 In 1920 Malinowski in his work, Among the Trobriand Islanders first elaborated about the social function as a
concept. He emphasized the importance of analyzing primitive societies as socio-cultural wholes
accounting for institutions in terms of their relations to other institutions in the same society and their
significance in satisfying and meeting the basic needs, the biological needs of the individuals.
 Radcliffe-Brown re established the organismic analogy of earlier functional trends. Emile Durkheim had
emphasized the fulfillment of the needs of an organism in his definition of the term social function.
Radcliffe- Brown replaced this need by the necessary conditions of the existence though he did not
explain as to what these conditions are. There is no equivalence of the vital parts of an organism in human
societies. In transferring the organismic analogy to the social field, Radcliffe Brown concedes that societies
do not die in the sense animals die. Radcliffe Brown extends it further to imply that the maintenance of the
life of organism amounts to the maintenance of its structure. A social structure can undergo change even
when there is no revolution.
 In sociology (1920-30) saw an increasing interest in abstract conception of social system. R.K Merton
differentiated between manifest function and latent function. Manifest functions are objective
consequences for the system that are intended and recognized by the relevant participants. Latent
functions are neither intended nor recognized. At times a set of activities may be of no particular
consequence for the state of the system, they were not recognized as social or cultural fossils. Sociologists
also talked about dysfunctions as the activities contributed to the survival of the social system and which
amounted to their disturbance.
 Status and Role
In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we
have a status and a role to fulfill. Status is our relative social position
within a group, while a role is the part our society expects us to play in
a given status. For example, a man may have the status of father in his
family. Because of this status, he is expected to fulfill a role for his
children that in most societies requires him to nurture, educate, guide,
and protect them. Of course, mothers usually have complementary
roles.
Social group membership gives us a set of statuses and role tags that
allow people to know what to expect from each other--they make us
more predictable. However, it is common for people to have multiple
overlapping statuses and roles. This potentially makes social
encounters more complex.
‘Status’ is the position that an individual is expected to hold in a group or a
community; and the behavior that we expect from the person holding such a
person is his ‘role’. Ralph Linton says that “status is the place in a particular system,
which a certain individual occupies at a particular time.”
 Sociologists find that status can be mainly of two types: ‘ascribed’ or inherited &
‘achieved’ or acquired.
 If an individual’s status is determined at his birth, it would be regarded as an
ascribed status. Birth determines the sex and age of the child finally and
conclusively, as also his ethnic and family background.
 An individual may be born into a status, as when he is born rich or poor, but he
may ‘achieve’ another status in his life time with the exercise of his ability, skill or
knowledge.
 Two things about achieved statuses should be kept in mind. First, our ascribed
statuses, and in particular our sex, race and ethnicity, and social class, often
affect our ability to acquire and maintain many achieved statuses (such as
college graduate). Second, achieved statuses can be viewed positively or
negatively. Our society usually views achieved statuses such as physician,
professor, or college student positively, but it certainly views achieved statuses
such as burglar, prostitute, and pimp negatively.
Master status is a status that is so important that it overrides other statuses you may
hold. In terms of people’s reactions, master statuses can be either positive or
negative for an individual depending on the particular master status they hold.
Positive = PM, negative= disability.
Any one individual often occupies several different statuses at the same time known
as status set.
 Whatever status we occupy, certain objects signify any particular status. These
objects are called status symbols. In popular terms, status symbol usually means
something like a Rolls-Royce or BMW that shows off someone’s wealth or success,
and many status symbols of this type exist. But sociologists use the term more
generally than that. For example, If someone is pushing a stroller, the stroller is a
status symbol that signifies that the person pushing it is a parent or caretaker of a
young child.

 Whatever its type, every status is accompanied by a role, which is the behavior
expected of someone—and in fact everyone—with a certain status.
 Roles for given statuses existed long before we were born, and they will continue
long after we are no longer alive. A major dimension of socialization is learning
the roles our society has and then behaving in the way a particular role
demands.
 Because roles are the behavior expected of people in various statuses, they help us
interact because we are familiar with the roles in the first place.
 A role is a comprehensive pattern of socially recognized behaviour, providing a
means of identifying and placing an individual in a society. It also serves as a strategy
for coping with recurrent situations and dealing with others' roles (e.g., parent-child
roles).
 According to Ogburn and Nimkoff a role is “a set of socially expected and approved
behavior patterns consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular
position in a group”.
 Status and role are ‘two sides of the same coin’. Ralph Linton has said, ‘you occupy a
status, but you play a role’.
 A role is the behavioural aspect of status. Statuses are occupied and roles are played.
A role is how a given individual fulfills the obligations of status and enjoys its privileges
and prerogatives.
 An individual plays a role vis-a-vis another person’s role, attached to a ‘counter-
position’.
 Status is a sociological concept and sociological phenomena. On the other hand,
the role is a concept and a phenomenon of social psychology.
 Role changes with each new incumbent in a status. The status
changes as the norms attached to it are altered. New
obligations and new responsibilities may be added to status or
old ones may be removed over time. Sometimes more rigorous
role-playing may expand the functions of a status.
 Though status and role are co-related, it is possible to have one
without the other. A status without a role may simply denote an
unfulfilled position in an association. In the same way, roles are
often played without occupying a status.
 Chapter 1: The Sociological Perspective

Chapter Summary

Sociology offers a perspective, a view of the world. The sociological perspective opens a window into
unfamiliar worlds and offers a fresh look at familiar worlds. Sociologists study the broader social contexts that
underlie human behavior. These include the social groups that influence human behavior and the larger
society that organizes it.

The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader
social context. C. Wright Mills referred to the sociological perspective as the intersection of biography (the
individual) and history (social factors that influence the individual).

Sociology is one of several disciplines referred to as a “social science.” As the term implies, social sciences
address the social world. The natural sciences, on the other hand, are the intellectual and academic disciplines
designed to explain and predict the events in the natural environment. The other social sciences include
anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology.

As a scientific discipline, sociology seeks to explain why something happens, attempts to make generalizations
that can be applied to a broader group or situation, and predicts what will happen based on the knowledge
received. Sociology specifically seeks to explain the causes of human behavior and to recognize the patterns
of human behavior. It also seeks to predict the future behavior of people. Although sociologists usually do
not make decisions on how society should be changed or people treated, sociologists provide valuable
research data that can be used by authorities who do make such decisions.

Sociology grew out of the social, political, economic, and technological revolutions of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, in particular, eroded old traditions and necessitated new ways
of perceiving and examining the social world. With the success of the natural sciences serving as a model for
the social sciences, sociology emerged in Western Europe as a distinct discipline in the mid-1800s.

Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber were early thinkers in the
development of sociology. The idea of applying the scientific method to the social world, known as
positivism, was first proposed by Auguste Comte. Based on this innovation and Comte’s effort to apply the
scientific method to social life, he is credited as being the founder of sociology. Herbert Spencer, one of the
most dominant and influential English sociologists, is often called the “second founder of sociology.”
Spencer’s concept of Social Darwinism suggested that societies evolve from primitive to civilized and that the
“fittest” societies evolve and survive, while unfit societies become extinct.

Max Weber advocated Verstehen, the German term for “grasp by insight,” to understanding why people act as
they do. In contrast, Emile Durkheim believed that sociologists should focus primarily on uncovering social
facts—the objective social conditions that influence people’s behaviors. Verstehen and social facts are not
mutually exclusive types of social research. Contemporary sociologists often employ both approaches to
examine and understand the social contexts that underlie human behavior.

The early history of sociology in North America was characterized by a debate over whether sociology should
analyze or reform society. Early sociology programs were initiated at the University of Kansas in 1890, the
University of Chicago in 1892, and Atlanta University in 1897. Albion Small, George Herbert Mead, Robert
E. Park, and Ernest Burgess were among the first academicians to dedicate their professional careers to the

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development of sociological theory. W.E.B. DuBois, the first African American to earn a doctorate from
Harvard University, was a social critic and dedicated his life to analyzing and writing about social injustice.

During the 1940s, the emphasis in American sociology shifted from social reform to social theory. “Grand
theorists,” such as Talcott Parsons, developed detailed, abstract models of how the complex parts of society
harmoniously functioned together. Although this helped to legitimize sociology as a “science,” it did little to
critique, reform, and/or help to change the social injustices in society. C. Wright Mills’ influential analysis of
“the power elite”—a small group of business, political, and military leaders whose monopoly on power
threatens freedom—helped to shift sociology back toward social reform in the 1960s and 1970s.

Many sociologists continue to disagree over the proper uses of social research. Some sociologists practice
basic (or pure) sociology, while others practice applied sociology. Whether one practices basic or applied
sociology, a primary goal of social research is to separate fact from fiction, while examining the links between
what people do and the social settings that help shape their behavior. The current state of sociology
encompasses social analysis and social reform, with a growing emphasis on applied sociology—a sort of
middle ground that, rather than focusing on large and/or radical social change, uses sociological analysis to
help solve problems in a specific setting.

Central to the study of any science is the development of theory. A theory is a general statement about how
parts of the world fit together, relate to one another, and affect each other. Sociologists use three major
theories—symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory—to observe and interpret social
contexts, relationships, and realities in distinct ways. Symbolic interactionism analyzes how people use
symbols to develop and share their view of the world. Focusing on the micro level, it studies the different
ways that individuals and small groups create, disseminate, and/or interpret “reality” through their everyday,
face-to-face interactions. Functional analysis examines how the various parts of society work together to
fulfill their respective functions and, consequently, create a harmonious society.

Focusing on the macro level, it also looks at how parts of society occasionally dysfunction, negatively
affecting other parts of society and, consequently, contributing to a more unstable society. Conflict theory
views the social world in terms of competing groups struggling over scarce resources. Also focusing on the
macro level, conflict theory examines how groups of people with power maintain and/or impose their power,
and how groups of people without power work to acquire power.
In an effort to pursue a social reform agenda, the American Sociological Association is now promoting
“public sociology” with the goal of influencing politicians, public officials, and policy makers.

As the world becomes more globally connected, American sociology is likely to expand its current horizons:
incorporating new perspectives and worldviews that include—and encompass—global issues and concerns.

Chapter Outline

I. The Sociological Perspective

A. This perspective is important because it provides a different way of looking at familiar worlds. It
allows us to gain a new vision of social life.
B. This perspective stresses the broader social context of behavior by looking at individuals’ social
location—employment, income, education, gender, age, and race—and by considering external
influences—people’s experiences—which are internalized and become part of a person’s thinking
and motivations. We are able to see the links between what people do and the social settings that
shape their behavior.
C. This perspective enables us to analyze and understand both the forces that contribute to the
emergence and growth of the global village and our unique experiences in our own smaller
corners of this village.

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II. Sociology and the Other Sciences
A. Science is the systematic methods used to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those
methods. It can be divided into the natural sciences and the social sciences. Sociology is defined
as “the scientific study of society and human behavior.”
B. The natural sciences attempt to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural
environment.
C. Social sciences attempt to objectively study the social world. Like the natural sciences, the social
sciences are divided into specialized fields based on their subject matter.
1. Anthropology is the sister discipline of sociology that attempts to understand culture (a
people’s total way of life) by focusing primarily on tribal people. This is giving way though
to study of groups in industrialized settings.
2. Economics analyzes the production, distribution, and allocation of the material goods and
services of a society.
3. Political science focuses on politics or government.
4. Psychology concentrates on processes that occur within the individual.
5. Sociology is similar to the other social sciences in some ways, but it is distinct because it
looks at all social institutions, focuses on industrialized societies, and looks at external
factors which influence people.
D. All sciences have certain goals.
1. The first goal is to explain why something happens.
2. The second goal is to make generalizations by looking for patterns, recurring characteristics,
or events.
3. The third goal is to predict what will happen in the future, given current knowledge.
E. To achieve these goals, scientists must move beyond common sense and rely on conclusions
based on systematic study.

III. The Origins of Sociology

A. Sociology developed in the middle of the nineteenth century when European social observers
began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. The following four factors led to its
development:
1. The social upheaval in Europe as a result of the Industrial Revolution, which led to changes
in the way people lived their lives;
2. The political revolutions in America and France, which encouraged people to rethink their
ideas about social life;
3. The development of imperialism—as the Europeans conquered other nations, they came in
contact with different cultures and began to ask why cultures varied;
4. The success of the natural sciences, which created a desire to apply scientific methods in
order to find answers for the questions being raised about the social world.
B. Auguste Comte coined the term “sociology” and suggested the use of positivism—applying the
scientific approach to the social world—but he did not utilize this approach himself. Comte
believed that this new science should not only discover sociological principles, but should then
apply those principles to social reform.
C. Herbert Spencer viewed societies as evolutionary, coined the term “the survival of the fittest,”
and became known for social Darwinism. Spencer was convinced that no one should intervene
in the evolution of society and that attempts at social reform were wrong.
D. Karl Marx, whose ideas about social classes and class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat was the foundation of the conflict perspective, believed that class conflict was the key
to human history. Marx believed that the conflict and struggle would end only with a revolution
by the working class.
E. Emile Durkheim played an important role in the development of sociology.
1. One of his primary goals was to get sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline.

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 2. He was interested in understanding the social factors that influence individual behavior; he
studied suicide rates among different groups and concluded that social integration—the
degree to which people are tied to their social group—was a key social factor in suicide.
3. Durkheim’s third concern was that social research be practical; sociologists should not only
diagnose the causes of social problems but should also develop solutions for them.
F. Max Weber was one of the most influential of all sociologists, raising issues that remain
controversial even today. Disagreeing with Karl Marx, Weber defined religion as a central force
in social change (i.e., Protestantism encourages greater economic development and was the
central factor in the rise of capitalism in some countries).
1. The Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change.
2. Protestants sought “signs” that they were in God’s will; financial success became a major
sign. The more money they made, the more secure they were about their religious standing.
3. Weber called this behavior the Protestant ethic; he called their readiness to invest capital in
order to make more money the spirit of capitalism.

IV. Values in Sociological Research

A. Weber advocated that sociological research should be value free (personal values or biases should
not influence social research) and objective (totally neutral).
1. Sociologists agree that objectivity is a proper goal, but acknowledge that no one can escape
values entirely.
2. Replication is when a study is repeated to see if the same results are found. It is one means
to avoid the distortions that values can cause.
B. Although sociologists may agree that research should be objective, the proper purposes and uses
of sociology are argued among sociologists, with some taking the position that the proper role of
sociology is to advance understanding of social life, while others believe that it is the responsibility
of sociologists to explore harmful social arrangements of society.
C. On the one side are those who say that understanding social behavior is sociology’s proper goal
and that the knowledge gained through research belongs to the scientific community and can be
used by anyone for any purpose. On the other side are those who say the goal of sociological
research should be to investigate harmful social conditions and that sociologists should lead the
way in reforming society.

V. Verstehen and Social Facts

A. Weber argued that sociologists should use Verstehen (“to grasp by insight”) in order to see beyond
the social facts to the subjective meanings that people attach to their own behavior.
B. Durkheim believed that social facts, patterns of behavior that characterize a social group, reflect
underlying conditions of society and should be used to interpret other social facts.
C. Social facts and Verstehen fit together because they reinforce each other; sociologists use Verstehen
in order to interpret social facts.

VI. Sexism in Early Sociology

A. In the early years of sociology, the field was dominated by men because rigidly defined social roles
prevented most women from pursuing an education.
1. Women were supposed to devote themselves to the four K’s: Kirche, Küchen, Kinder, und Kleider
(church, cooking, children, and clothes).
2. At the same time, a few women from wealthy families managed to get an education; a few
even studied sociology, although the sexism in the universities stopped them from earning
advanced degrees, becoming professors, or having their research recognized.
B. Harriet Martineau studied social life in both Great Britain and the United States, publishing Society
in America decades before Durkheim and Weber were even born. While her original research has
been largely ignored by the discipline, she is known for her translations of Comte’s ideas into
English.

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VII. Sociology in North America
A. The first departments of sociology in the United States were at the University of Kansas (1892),
Atlanta University (1897), and the University of Chicago (1899); the first in Canada was at McGill
University (1922).
1. Albion Small, founder of the department of sociology at the University of Chicago, also
established the American Journal of Sociology.
2. The department of sociology at the University of Chicago dominated North American
sociology; other early sociologists from the University of Chicago were Robert E. Park,
Ernest Burgess, and George Herbert Mead.
B. The situation of women in North America was similar to that of European women, and their
contributions to sociology met a similar fate. Denied a role in the universities, many turned to
social activism, working with the poor and regarded as social workers.
C. Jane Addams is an example of a sociologist who was able to combine the role of sociologist with
that of social reformer.
1. In 1889, she founded Hull House, a settlement house for the poor, and worked to bridge the
gap between the powerful and powerless.
2. Sociologists from nearby University of Chicago visited Hull House frequently.
3. She is the only sociologist to have won the Nobel Peace Prize; she was awarded this in 1931.
D. African American professionals also faced problems.
1. W. E. B. Du Bois was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard. He
conducted extensive research on race relations in the United States, publishing one book a
year on this subject between 1896 and 1914.
2. Despite his accomplishments, he encountered prejudice and discrimination in his
professional and personal life. When he attended professional sociologists’ meetings, he was
not permitted to eat or stay in the same hotels as the white sociologists.
3. Frustrated at the lack of improvements in race relations, he turned to social action, helping
to found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) along
with Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, and others from Hull House.
4. Until recently, his contributions to sociology were overlooked.
E. Many early North American sociologists combined the role of sociologist with that of social
reformer. For example, University of Chicago sociologists Park and Burgess, studied many urban
problems and offered suggestions on how to alleviate them. By the 1940s, as sociologists became
more concerned with establishing sociology as an academic discipline, the emphasis shifted from
social reform to social theory.
1. Talcott Parsons developed abstract models of society to show how the parts of society
harmoniously work together.
2. Countering this development was C. Wright Mills, who urged sociologists to get back to
social reform. He saw the emergency of the power elite as an imminent threat to freedom.
F. The debate over what should be the proper goals of sociological analysis—analyzing society vs.
reforming society—continues today.
1. Applied sociology exists between these two extremes. One of the first attempts at applied
sociology was the founding of the NAACP.
2. Today, applied sociologists work in a variety of settings, from business and hi-tech
organizations to government and not-for-profit agencies.
3. Applied sociology is the application of sociological knowledge in some specific setting,
rather than an attempt to rebuild society. Both sociologists who focus on social reform and
those who emphasize basic sociology reject applied sociology.

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VIII. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
A. Theory is a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work;
it is an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another. Sociologists use three
different theoretical perspectives to understand social behavior.
B. Symbolic interactionism views symbols, things to which we attach meaning, as the basis of social
life.
1. Through the use of symbols, people are able to define relationships to others; to coordinate
actions with others, thereby making social life possible; and to develop a sense of
themselves.
2. A symbolic interactionist studying divorce would focus on how the changing meanings of
marriage, family, and divorce have all contributed to the increase in the rate of divorce in
U.S. society.
C. The central idea of functional analysis is that society is a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts
that work together.
1. To understand society, we must look at both structure (how the parts of society fit together
to make up the whole) and function (how each part contributes to society).
2. Robert Merton used the term function to refer to the beneficial consequences of people’s
actions to keep society stable and dysfunction to refer to consequences that undermine
stability. Functions can be either manifest (actions that are intended) or latent (unintended
consequences).
3. In trying to explain divorce, a functionalist would look at how industrialization and
urbanization both contributed to the changing function of marriage and the family.
D. According to conflict theory, society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce
resources.
E. Karl Marx focused on struggles between the bourgeoisie, the small group of capitalists who own
the means of production, and the proletariat, the masses of workers exploited by the capitalists.
1. Contemporary conflict theorists have expanded this perspective to include conflict in all
relations of power and authority.
2. Just as Marx stressed conflict between capitalists and workers, many feminists stress a similar
conflict between men and women.
3. Divorce is seen as the outcome of the shifting balance of power within a family; as women
have gained power and try to address inequalities in their relationships, men resist.
4. The perspectives differ in their level of analysis. Functionalists and conflict theorists provide
macro-level analysis because they examine the large-scale patterns of society. Symbolic
interactionists carry out micro-level analysis because they focus on the small-scale patterns of
social life.
F. Each perspective provides a different and often sharply contrasting picture of the world.
However, sociologists often use all three perspectives because no one theory or level of analysis
encompasses all of reality.

IX. Trends Shaping the Future of Sociology

A. To understand the tension between social reform and social analysis, sociologists have found it
useful to divide sociology into three phases.
1. In the first phase the primary concern of sociologists was making the world a better place.
2. During the second phase, from the 1920s until World War II, sociologists sought to
establish sociology as a respected field of knowledge, emphasizing basic, or pure, sociology.
3. In the third (current) phase, there has been an attempt to merge sociological knowledge and
practical work with the development of applied sociology. This trend has gained
momentum in recent years.
4. The American Sociolgical Association (ASA) is promoting public sociology. The ASA wants
the public, especially politicians and policy makers, to make use of sociological data in order
to better understand how society works.

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 5. Despite being able to identify three phases, each of which has been characterized by a
different position on reform vs. analysis, there has never been complete consensus on which
approach is better.
B. Globalization is a second major trend destined to leave its mark on sociology.
1. Globalization is the breaking down of national boundaries because of advances in
communications, trade, and travel.
2. Globalization is likely to broaden the scope of sociological analysis as sociologists look
beyond the boundaries of the United States in considering global issues.
C. Globalization is one of the most significant events in world history. This book stresses the
impact of globalization on our lives today.

Key Terms
After studying the chapter, review the definition for each of the following terms.

applied sociology: the use of sociology to solve problems—from the micro level of family relationships to
the macro level of crime and pollution (21)
bourgeoisie: Karl Marx’s term for capitalists, those who own the means to produce wealth (11)
class conflict: Marx’s term for the struggle between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (capitalist)
(11)
common sense: those things that “everyone knows” are true (8)
conflict theory: a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for
scarce resources (29)
functional analysis: a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each
with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium; also known as functionalism
and structural functionalism (26)
generalization: a statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or
situation (7)
globalization: the extensive interconnections among nations due to the expansion of capitalism (33)
globalization of capitalism: capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the
globe’s dominant economic system (33)
macro-level analysis: an examination of large-scale patterns of society (30)
micro-level analysis: an examination of small-scale patterns of society (30)
natural sciences: the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict
events in our natural environment (5)
nonverbal interaction: communication without words through gestures, space, silence, and so on (30)
objectivity: total neutrality (14)
patterns: recurring characteristics or events (7)
positivism: the application of the scientific approach to the social world (10)
proletariat: Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of
production (11)
pure or basic sociology: sociological research whose only purpose is to make discoveries about life in
human groups, not to make changes in those groups (21)
replication: repeating a study in order to check its findings (14)
science: the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those
methods (5)
scientific method: the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories (10)
social facts: Durkheim’s term for a group’s patterns of behavior (15)
social integration: the degree to which people feel a part of social groups (12)
social interaction: what people do when they are in one another’s presence (30)
social location: the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society (4)
social sciences: the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively
by means of controlled and repeated observations (6)

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society: a term used by sociologists to refer to a group of people who share a culture and a territory (4)
sociological perspective: understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context (4)
sociology: the scientific study of society and human behavior (10)
subjective meanings: the meanings that people give to their own behavior (15)
symbolic interactionism: a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that
people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one
another (23)
theory: a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an
explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another (23)
value free: the view that a sociologist’s personal values should not influence social research (14)
values: ideas about what is good or worthwhile in life; attitudes about the way the world ought to be (14)
Verstehen: a German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as “to have insight into
someone’s situation” (15)
Key People
Review the major theoretical contributions or findings of these people.

Jane Addams: Addams was the founder of Hull House—a settlement house in the immigrant community
of Chicago. She invited sociologists from the nearby University of Chicago to visit. In 1931 she was
a winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. (18)
Ernest Burgess and Harvey Locke: Research by these early sociologists documented a fundamental shift
that was occurring in the symbolic meaning of U.S. marriages. They found that marriage was
increasingly dependent on mutual affection, understanding, and compatibility. (18)
Auguste Comte: Comte is often credited with being the founder of sociology, because he was the first to
suggest that the scientific method be applied to the study of the social world. (10, 26)
Charles Horton Cooley: One of the founders of symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical perspective in
sociology. (23)
Lewis Coser: Coser pointed out that conflict is likely to develop among people in close relationships because
they are connected by a network of responsibilities, power and rewards. (29)
W. E. B. Du Bois: Du Bois was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard University. For
most of his career, he taught sociology at Atlanta University. He was concerned about social
injustice, wrote about race relations, and was one of the founders of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). (18-20)
Emile Durkheim: Durkheim was responsible for getting sociology recognized as a separate discipline. He
was interested in studying how individual behavior is shaped by social forces and in finding remedies
for social ills. He stressed that sociologists should use social facts—patterns of behavior that reflect
some underlying condition of society. (12-13, 15, 26)
Harriet Martineau: An Englishwoman who studied British and U.S. social life, Martineau published Society in
America decades before either Durkheim or Weber were born. She is known primarily for translating
Auguste Comte’s ideas into English. (17)
Karl Marx: Marx believed that social development grew out of conflict between social classes; under
capitalism, this conflict was between the bourgeoisie—those who own the means to produce
wealth—and the proletariat—the mass of workers. His work is associated with the conflict
perspective. (11, 29)
George Herbert Mead: Mead was one of the founders of symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical
perspective in sociology. (18, 23-24)
Robert Merton: Merton contributed the terms manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions to the functionalist
perspective. (26)
C. Wright Mills: Mills suggested that external influences (a person’s experiences) become part of his or her
thinking and motivations and explain social behavior. As the emphasis in sociology shifted from
social reform to social theory, Mills urged sociologists to get back to their roots. He saw the
emergence of the power elite composed of top leaders of business, politics and the military as an
imminent threat to freedom. (4, 20-21)

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William Ogburn: As early as 1933, Ogburn noted that personality was becoming more important in mate
selection; this supported the symbolic interactionists’ argument that there was a fundamental shift in
the symbolic meaning of U.S. marriages. (24)
Talcott Parsons: Parsons’ work dominated sociology in the 1940s and 1950s. He developed abstract models
of how the parts of society harmoniously work together. (20-21)
Albion Small: Small was the founder of the sociology department at the University of Chicago and the
American Journal of Sociology. (18)
Herbert Spencer: Another early sociologist, Spencer believed that societies evolve from barbarian to
civilized forms. He was the first to use the expression “the survival of the fittest” to reflect his belief
that social evolution depended on the survival of the most capable and intelligent and the extinction
of the less capable. His views became known as social Darwinism. (10, 26)
William I. Thomas: Along with Mead and Cooley, Thomas was important in establishing symbolic
interactionism as a major theoretical perspective in sociology. (23)
Max Weber: Weber’s most important contribution to sociology was his study of the relationship between the
emergence of Protestant belief system and the rise of capitalism. He believed that sociologists
should not allow their personal values to affect their social research; objectivity should become the
hallmark of sociology. He argued that sociologists should use Verstehen—those subjective meanings
that people give to their behavior. (13-15)

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