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LABORATORY PRACTICE-III – LABORATORY MANUAL
Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s

NUTAN MAHARASHTRA INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Computer Engineering
LABORATORY MANUAL
SUBJECT: Laboratory Practice-III

[SUBJECT CODE: 410246]
CLASS: B.E. COMP
YEAR: 2023-24
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY:
(Prof. Sopan Kshirsagar) H.O.D. [COMP]
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Vision and Mission of the Institute

1. Vision of the Institute-To be a notable institution for providing quality technical education,
ensuring ethical, moral, and holistic development of students.
2. Mission of the Institute- To nurture engineering graduates with highest technical
competence, professionalism and problem solving skills to serve the needs of industry and
society.
Vision and Mission of the Department

Department Vision:
Imbibing Quality Technical Education and Overall Development by Endowing Students with Societal
and Ethical skills in Computer Engineers
Department Mission:
To impart engineering knowledge and skills by adopting effective teaching-learning processes.
To develop professional, entrepreneurial & research competencies encompassing continuous
intellectual growth
To produce educated students to exhibit societal and ethical responsibilities in the working
environment.

Program Outcomes
1. Engineering knowledge:
Graduates can apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals and an engineering
specialization to Civil Engineering related problems.
2. Problem analysis:
An ability to identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse Civil engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using principles of mathematics and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions:
An ability to plan, analyse, design, and implement engineering problems and design system components or processes
to meet the specified needs.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems:
An ability to use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage:
An ability to apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society:
An ability to apply contextual knowledge to assess societal, legal issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability:
An ability to understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics:
An ability to apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork:
An ability to function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary
settings to accomplish a common goal.
10. Communication:
An ability to communicate effectively on engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at
large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation and make effective
presentations.
11. Project management and finance:
Ability to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these
to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning:
An ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO1: To produce globally competent graduates having Excellent fundamentals, domain knowledge,
updated with modern technology to provide effective solutions for computer engineering problems.
PEO2: To prepare the graduates to work as a committed professional with professional ethics and
values, sense of responsibilities, understanding of legal, safety, health, societal, cultural and
environmental issues.
PEO3: To prepare committed and motivated graduates with research attitude, lifelong learning,
investigative approach, and multidisciplinary thinking.
PEO4: To produce the graduates with well-built managerial and communication skills to work
effectively as individual as well as in teams.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO 1 : Employ knowledge to write programs and design algorithms to integrate them with the
hardware/software products in the domains of embedded systems, data Science, networking and web
technology.
PSO 2 : Apply standard practices and strategies in project development using open-ended
programming environments to create innovative career paths to be an entrepreneur, and a zest for
higher studies.

Course Outcomes (CO)

Course Statement
Outcome At the end of the course, a student will be able to
CO1 Apply preprocessing techniques on datasets.
CO2 Implement and evaluate linear regression and random forest regression
models.
CO3 Apply and evaluate classification and clustering techniques.
CO4 Analyze performance of an algorithm.
Implement an algorithm that follows one of the following algorithm design
CO5 strategies: divide and conquer, greedy, dynamic programming, backtracking,
branch and bound.
CO6 Interpret the basic concepts in Blockchain technology and its applications.

List of Experiments with Mapping
Sr. No. Group Name of the Experiment CO PO
1. Write a program to calculate Fibonacci numbers and CO4,CO5PO1,PO2,P

find its step count. O3,PO5,PO
8,PO9,PO1
1,PO12
2. Implement job sequencing with deadlines using a CO4,CO5 PO1,PO2,PO3,
greedy method. PO5,PO8,PO9,
PO11,PO12
3. Write a program to solve a fractional Knapsack CO4,CO5 PO1,PO2,PO3,
problem using a greedy method. PO5,PO8,PO9,
PO11,PO12
4. Write a program to solve a 0-1 Knapsack problem
A using dynamic programming or branch and bound CO4,CO5 PO1,PO2,PO3,
strategy. PO5,PO8,PO9,
PO11,PO12
5. Write a program to generate binomial coefficients PO1,PO2,PO3,
using dynamic programming. CO4,CO5 PO5,PO8,PO9,
PO11,PO12
6. Design 8-Queens matrix having first Queen placed.
Use backtracking to place remaining Queens to CO4,CO5 PO1,PO2,PO3,
generate the final 8-queen’s matrix. PO5,PO8,PO9,
PO11,PO12
7. Write a program to implement matrix PO1,PO2,PO3,
multiplication. Also implement multithreaded PO5,PO8,PO9,
matrix multiplication with either one thread per CO4,CO5
PO11,PO12
row or one thread per cell. Analyze and compare
their performance.
OR
Implement merge sort and multithreaded merge
sort. Compare time required by both the algorithms.
Also analyze the performance of each algorithm for
the best case and the worst case.
OR
Implement the Naive string matching algorithm and
Rabin-Karp algorithm for string matching. Observe
difference in working of both the algorithms for the
same input.
8. Predict the price of the Uber ride from a given PO1,PO2,
pickup point to the agreed drop-off location. PO3,PO4,
Perform following tasks:
PO5,PO6,
1. Pre-process the dataset.
2. Identify outliers. PO8,PO9,
CO1,CO2,CO3 PO11,PO1
3. Check the correlation.
4. Implement linear regression and random forest 2
regression models.
5. Evaluate the models and compare their respective
scores like R2, RMSE, etc.

Dataset link:
https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/yasserh/uber-
fares-dataset
9 Classify the email using the binary classification PO1,PO2,PO3,
method. Email Spam detection has two states: a) PO4,PO5,PO6,
Normal State – Not Spam, b) Abnormal State – Spam. PO8,PO9,PO11
Use K-Nearest Neighbors and Support Vector
Machine for classification. Analyze their CO1,CO2,CO3 ,PO12
performance.
Dataset link: The emails.csv dataset on the Kaggle
https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/balaka18/email-
spam-classification-dataset-csv
10 Given a bank customer, build a neural network- PO1,PO2,PO3,
based classifier that can determine whether they PO4,PO5,PO6,
will leave or not in the next 6 months. PO8,PO9,PO11
Dataset Description: The case study is from an open-
source dataset from Kaggle. ,PO12
The dataset contains 10,000 sample points with 14
distinct features such as
CustomerId, CreditScore, Geography, Gender, Age,
Tenure, Balance, etc.
Link to the Kaggle project:
https://www.kaggle.com/barelydedicated/bank-
customer-churn-modeling CO1,CO2,CO3
Perform following steps:
1. Read the dataset.
2. Distinguish the feature and target set and divide
the data set into training and test sets.
3. Normalize the train and test data.
4. Initialize and build the model. Identify the points
of improvement and implement the same.
5. Print the accuracy score and confusion matrix (5
B points).
11 Implement Gradient Descent Algorithm to find the PO1,PO2,PO3,
local minima of a function. PO4,PO5,PO6,
For example, find the local minima of the function CO1,CO2,CO3 PO8,PO9,PO11
y=(x+3)² starting from the point x=2.
,PO12
12 Implement K-Nearest Neighbors algorithm on PO1,PO2,PO3,
diabetes.csv dataset. Compute confusion matrix, PO4,PO5,PO6,
accuracy, error rate, precision and recall on the
CO1,CO2,CO3
PO8,PO9,PO11
given dataset.
Dataset link : ,PO12
https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/abdallamahgoub/
diabetes
13 Implement K-Means clustering/ hierarchical PO1,PO2,PO3,
clustering on sales_data_sample.csv dataset. PO4,PO5,PO6,
Determine the number of clusters using the elbow PO8,PO9,PO11
method. CO1,CO2,CO3
Dataset link : ,PO12
https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kyanyoga/sample-
sales-data

14 Mini Project PO1,PO2,PO3,

Use the following dataset to analyze ups and downs PO4,PO5,PO6,
in the market and predict future stock price returns CO1,CO2,CO3 PO8,PO9,PO11
based on Indian Market data from 2000 to 2020.
Dataset Link: ,PO12
https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/sagara9595/sto
ck-data
OR
Build a machine learning model that predicts the
type of people who survived the Titanic shipwreck
using passenger data (i.e. name, age, gender, socio-
economic class, etc.).
Dataset Link:
https://www.kaggle.com/competitions/titanic/data
15 Installation of Metamask and study spending Ether CO6 PO1,PO2,P
per transaction. O3,PO4,PO
5,PO8,PO9,
,PO12
16 Create your own wallet using Metamask for crypto CO6 PO1,PO2,P
transactions. O3,PO4,PO
5,PO8,PO9,
,PO12
17 Write a smart contract on a test network, for Bank PO1,PO2,P
C account of a customer for following operations: O3,PO4,PO
Deposit money 5,PO8,PO9,
Withdraw Money
Show balance ,PO12
18 Write a program in solidity to create Student data. CO6 PO1,PO2,P

Use the following constructs: O3,PO4,PO
Structures 5,PO8,PO9,
Arrays
Fallback ,PO12
Deploy this as smart contract on Ethereum and

Observe the transaction fee and Gas values.
19 Write a survey report on types of Blockchains and CO6 PO1,PO2,P
its real time use cases. O3,PO4,PO
5,PO8,PO9,
,PO12
20 Mini Project: Create a dApp (de-centralized app) CO6 PO1,PO2,P
for e-voting system. O3,PO4,PO
5,PO8,PO9,
,PO12

Rubrics for Evaluation

Sr. Evaluation Marks for Rubrics
Criteria each
No
Criteria
1 Timely 5 or 10 Punctuality reflects the work ethics. Students should

submission reflect that work ethics by completing the lab
assignments and reports in a timely manner .
2 Journal 5 or 10 Students are expected to prepare the journal.

Presentation The journal presentation of the course should be
complete, clear, and understandable.
3 Performance 5 or 10 After performance, the students should have good

knowledge of the experiment.
4 Understanding 5 or 10 The student should be able to explain methodology

used for designing and developing the
program/solution. Student should clearly understand
the purpose of the assignment and its outcome.
5 Oral 5 or 10 The student should be able to answer the questions

related to the lab assignments.

Group A: Design and Analysis of Algorithms
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
Title: Write a program non-recursive and recursive program to calculate Fibonacci numbers and
analyzetheir time and space complexity.
Objective: Students should be able to perform non-recursive and recursive programs to

calculate Fibonacci numbers and analyze time and space complexity of non-recursive and
recursive program.
Theory:
Introduction to Fibonacci numbers
● The Fibonacci series, named after Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano Bogollo, later known
as
Fibonacci sequence are given as: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 38, . . .

● In a Fibonacci series, every term is the sum of the preceding two terms, starting from 0
and 1 asfirst and second terms. In some old references, the term '0' might be omitted.
What is the Fibonacci Series?
● The Fibonacci series is obtained by taking the sum of the previous two numbers in the
series,given that the first and second terms are 0 and 1, respectively.
● In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the recurrence
relation
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2
with seed values F0 = 0 and F1 = 1.
The following are different methods to get the nth Fibonacci number.
Method 1: Iterative Algorithm (Use Non-recursion)
A simple method that is a direct recursive implementation of mathematical recurrence relation is

givenabove. First, we’ll store 0 and 1 in F[0] and F[1], respectively.
Next, we’ll iterate through array positions 2 to n-1. At each position i, we store the sum of the two
preceding array values in F[i].
Finally, we return the value of F[n-1], giving us the number at position n in the sequence.
Here’s a visual representation of this process:

# Pseudocode to display the Fibonacci sequence up to n-th term
Time and Space Complexity of Space Optimized Method

● The time complexity of the Fibonacci series is T (N) i.e, linear. We have to find the sum of
twoterms and it is repeated n times depending on the value of n.
● The space complexity of the Fibonacci series using dynamic programming is O (1).
Method 2: Recursive Algorithm:

In recursion, the function calls itself until the base condition is met. To evaluate F(n) for n > 1, we can
reduce our problem into two smaller problems of the same kind: F(n-1) and F(n-2).
Here’s a visual representation of this algorithm:

Here, the function rec_Fibonacci( ) makes a call to itself. This can be easily understood by the below
illustration:
Algorithm rec_Fibonacci(n)
if (n <= 1)
return n;
else
return rFibonacci(n - 1) + rFibonacci(n - 2);
Analysis
T(n) = T(n-1) + T(n-2) + c

= 2T(n-1) + c //from the approximation T(n-1) ~ T(n-2)
= 2*(2T(n-2) + c) + c
= 4T(n-2) + 3c
= 8T(n-3) + 7c
= 2k * T(n - k) + (2k - 1)*c
Let's find the value of k for which: n - k =
0k = n
T(n) = 2n * T(0) + (2n - 1)*c = 2n * (1 + c) – c = 2n
Time and Space Complexity
● The time complexity of the above code is T(2^N), i.e., exponential.

● The Space complexity of the above code is O(N) for a recursive series.
Using dynamic programming

In dynamic programming, we will store all the previously calculated values of the Fibonacci numbersin
an array. We know that the array is zero-indexed. Therefore the Fibonacci numbers are stored in the
n-1 array index. For example, the 2nd Fibonacci number is stored in the 1st index of the array.
Time Complexity and Space Complexity of Dynamic Programming

Space Optimized Method

In the previous method, we created an array to store the Fibonacci numbers but, as we need only the
last two numbers to find the next one, it is space-consuming to store all the previously calculated
numbers. Therefore we will use the space-optimized method, where just the previous two numbers
are stored and using which the next number is found.
Time Complexity and Space Complexity of Space Optimized Method
● The time complexity of the Fibonacci series is T(N) i.e., linear. We have to find the sum of two
terms, and it is repeated n times depending on the value of n.
● The space complexity of the Fibonacci series using dynamic programming is O(1).
Method Time complexity Space complexity

Using recursion T(n) = T(n-1) + T(n-2) O(n)
Using DP O(n) O(1)
Space optimization of DP O(n) O(1)
Using the power of matrix method O(n) O(1)
Optimized matrix method O(log n) O(log n)
Recursive method in O(log n) time O(log n) O(n)
Using direct formula O(log n) O(1)
DP using memoization O(n) O(1)
Applications of Fibonacci Series
The Fibonacci series finds application in different fields in our day-to-day lives. The different
patterns found in a varied number of fields from nature, to music, and to the human body
follow the Fibonacci series.
Some of the applications of the series are given as,
● It is used in the grouping of numbers and used to study different other special
mathematical sequences.
● It finds application in Coding (computer algorithms, distributed systems, etc). For
example, Fibonacci series are important in the computational run-time analysis of
Euclid's algorithm, used for determining the GCF of two integers.
● It is applied in numerous fields of science like quantum mechanics, cryptography, etc.
● In finance market trading, Fibonacci retracement levels are widely used in technical analysis.
● Conclusion:
In this way Concept of Fibonacci series is explored using recursive and non recursive method and
alsolearn time and space complexity.

EXPERIMENT NO. 02
Title: Write a program to implement Huffman Encoding using a greedy strategy.
Objective: Students should be able to understand and solve Huffman Encoding and analyze
time andspace complexity using a greedy strategy.
Theory:
What is a Greedy Method?
● A greedy algorithm is an approach for solving a problem by selecting the best option
available atthe moment. It doesn't worry whether the current best result will bring the overall
optimal result.
● The algorithm never reverses the earlier decision even if the choice is wrong. It works in
a top-down approach.
● This algorithm may not produce the best result for all the problems. It's because it always
goes forthe local best choice to produce the global best result.
Advantages of Greedy Approach

● The algorithm is easier to describe.
● This algorithm can perform better than other algorithms (but, not in all cases).
Disadvantages of Greedy Approach

● As mentioned earlier, the greedy algorithm doesn't always produce the optimal solution.
This isthe major disadvantage of the algorithm
● For example, suppose we want to find the longest path in the graph below from root to leaf.
Greedy Algorithm
1. To begin with, the solution set (containing answers) is empty.

2. At each step, an item is added to the solution set until a solution is reached.
3. If the solution set is feasible, the current item is kept.
4. Else, the item is rejected and never considered again.
Huffman Encoding
Huffman coding is a lossless data compression algorithm. The idea is to assign variable-length
codes to input characters, lengths of the assigned codes are based on the frequencies of
correspondingcharacters.
The most frequent character gets the smallest code and the least frequent character gets the
largest code. The variable-length codes assigned to input characters are Prefix Codes means the
codes (bit sequences) are assigned in such a way that the code assigned to one character is not
prefix of code assigned to any other character. This is how Huffman Coding makes sure that there
is no ambiguity when decoding the generated bit stream.

There are mainly two major parts in Huffman Coding

1) Build a Huffman Tree from input characters.
2) Traverse the Huffman Tree and assign codes to characters.
Steps to build Huffman Tree

Input is array of unique characters along with their frequency of occurrences and output is
Huffman Tree.
1. Create a leaf node for each unique character and build a min heap of all leaf nodes (Min Heap is
used as a priority queue. The value of frequency field is used to compare two nodes in min
heap.
Initially, the least frequent character is at root)
2. Extract two nodes with the minimum frequency from the min heap.
3. Create a new internal node with frequency equal to the sum of the two nodes frequencies. Make
thefirst extracted node as its left child and the other extracted node as its right child. Add this
node to themin heap.
4. Repeat steps#2 and #3 until the heap contains only one node. The remaining node is the root
nodeand the tree is complete.
Example:
Let us understand the algorithm with an example:

character Frequency
a 5
b 9
c 12
d 13
e 16
f 45
Step 1: Build a min heap that contains 6 nodes where each node represents root of a tree with
singlenode.
Step 2 : Extract two minimum frequency nodes from min heap. Add a new internal node with
frequency 5 + 9 = 14.
Now min heap contains 5 nodes where 4 nodes are roots of trees with single element each, and
oneheap node is root of tree with 3 elements,
Character
Frequencyc 12
d 13
Internal Node 14
e 16
f 45
Step 3: Extract two minimum frequency nodes from heap. Add a new internal node with
frequency12 + 13 = 25

Now min heap contains 4 nodes where 2 nodes are roots of trees with single element each, and
twoheap nodes are root of tree with more than one nodes.
Character Frequency
Internal Node 14
e 16
Internal Node 25
f 45
Step 4: Extract two minimum frequency nodes. Add a new internal node with frequency 14 +
16 =30
Now min heap contains 3

nodes.Character Frequency
Internal Node 25
Internal Node 30
f 45
30 =55
Now min heap contains 2 nodes.

Character Frequency
f 45
Internal Node 55
55 =100
Now min heap contains only one

node.Character Frequency
Internal Node 100.
Since the heap contains only one node, the algorithm stops here.

Steps to print codes from Huffman Tree:

Traverse the tree formed starting from the root. Maintain an auxiliary array. While moving
to the left child, write 0 to the array. While moving to the right child, write 1 to the array. Print
the arraywhen a leaf node is encountered.
The codes are as follows:

Character code-word
f 0
c 100
d 101
a 1100
b 1101
e 111
Algorithm for Huffman code

Input:-Number of message with frequency
count.Output: - Huffman merge tree.
1. Begin
2. Let Q be the priority queue,
3. Q= {initialize priority queue with frequencies of all symbol or message}
4. Repeat n-1 times
5. Create a new node Z
6. X=extract_min(Q)
7. Y=extract_min(Q)
8. Frequency(Z) =Frequency(X) +Frequency(y);
9. Insert (Z, Q)
10. End repeat
11. Return (extract_min(Q))
12. End.
Time Complexity-
O(nlogn) where n is the number of unique characters. If there are n nodes, extractMin() is called 2*(n
– 1) times. extractMin() takes O(logn) time as it calles minHeapify(). So, overall complexity is
O(nlogn).
Thus, Overall time complexity of Huffman Coding becomes
O(nlogn).If the input array is sorted, there exists a linear time
algorithm.
Conclusion: In this way concept of Huffman Encoding is explored using greedy method.

EXPERIMENT NO. 03
Title: Write a program to solve a fractional Knapsack problem using a greedy method.
Objective: To analyze time and space complexity of fractional Knapsack problem using a
greedymethod.
Theory:
Knapsack Problem
You are given the following-
● A knapsack (kind of shoulder bag) with limited weight capacity.

● Few items each having some weight and value.
The problem states-
Which items should be placed into the knapsack such that-
● The value or profit obtained by putting the items into the knapsack is maximum.
● And the weight limit of the knapsack does not exceed.
Knapsack Problem Variants

Knapsack problem has the following two variants-
1. Fractional Knapsack Problem
2. 0/1 Knapsack Problem
Fractional Knapsack
Problem- In Fractional
Knapsack Problem,
● As the name suggests, items are divisible here.

● We can even put the fraction of any item into the knapsack if taking the complete item
is notpossible.
● It is solved using the Greedy Method.
Fractional Knapsack Problem Using Greedy Method-

Fractional knapsack problem is solved using greedy method in the following steps-
Step-01: For each item, compute its value / weight ratio.

Step-02: Arrange all the items in decreasing order of their value / weight ratio.
Step-03: Start putting the items into the knapsack beginning from the item with the highest
ratio. Putas many items as you can into the knapsack.
Example:

Algorithm- Fractional knapsack
Time Complexity-
• The main time taking step is the sorting of all items in decreasing order of their value /
weightratio.
• If the items are already arranged in the required order, then while loop takes O(n) time.
• The average time complexity of Quick Sort is O(nlogn).
• Therefore, total time taken including the sort is O(nlogn).
Viva Questions:
1. What is Greedy Approach?

2. Explain concept of fractional knapsack
3. Difference between Fractional and 0/1 Knapsack.
Conclusion: In this way concept of Fractional Knapsack is explained using greedy method.

Assignment No: 4
Title: Write a program to solve a 0-1 Knapsack problem using dynamic programming strategy.
Objective: To analyze time and space complexity of 0-1 Knapsack problem using dynamic
programming.
Theory:
What is Dynamic Programming?
● Dynamic Programming is also used in optimization problems. Like divide-and-conquer

method, Dynamic Programming solves problems by combining the solutions of subproblems.
● Dynamic Programming algorithm solves each sub-problem just once and then saves its
answer in a table, thereby avoiding the work of re-computing the answer every time.
● Two main properties of a problem suggest that the given problem can be solved using Dynamic
Programming. These properties are overlapping sub-problems and optimal
substructure.
● Dynamic Programming also combines solutions to sub-problems. It is mainly used where

the solution of one sub-problem is needed repeatedly. The computed solutions are stored
in a table, so that these don’t have to be re-computed. Hence, this technique is needed
where overlapping sub- problem exists.
● For example, Binary Search does not have overlapping sub-problem. Whereas recursive
program of Fibonacci numbers have many overlapping sub-problems.
Steps of Dynamic Programming Approach
Dynamic Programming algorithm is designed using the following four steps −
● Characterize the structure of an optimal solution.
● Recursively define the value of an optimal solution.
● Compute the value of an optimal solution, typically in a bottom-up fashion.
● Construct an optimal solution from the computed information.
Applications of Dynamic Programming Approach
● Matrix Chain Multiplication

● Longest Common Subsequence
● Travelling Salesman Problem

0/1 Knapsack Problem-
In 0/1 Knapsack Problem,
● As the name suggests, items are indivisible here.

● We can not take a fraction of any item.
● We have to either take an item completely or leave it completely.
● It is solved using a dynamic programming approach.
0/1 Knapsack Problem Using Greedy Method-

Consider-
● Knapsack weight capacity = w

● Number of items each having some weight and value = n
0/1 knapsack problem is solved using dynamic programming in the following steps-
Step-01:
● Draw a table say ‘T’ with (n+1) number of rows and (w+1) number of columns.
● Fill all the boxes of 0th row and 0th column with zeroes as shown-
Step-02:
Start filling the table row wise top to bottom
from left to right. Use the following formula-
T (i , j) = max { T ( i-1 , j ) , valuei + T( i-1 , j – weighti ) }
Here, T(i , j) = maximum value of the selected items if we can take items 1 to i and have
weight restrictions of j.
● This step leads to completely filling the table.

● Then, value of the last box represents the maximum possible value that can be
put intothe knapsack.
Step-03:

● To identify the items that must be put into the knapsack to obtain that maximum
profit,
● Consider the last column of the table.
● Start scanning the entries from bottom to top.
● On encountering an entry whose value is not same as the value stored
in theentry immediately above it, mark the row label of that entry.
● After all the entries are scanned, the marked labels represent the
items thatmust be put into the knapsack
Problem-.
For the given set of items and knapsack capacity = 5 kg, find the optimal solution for
the0/1 knapsack problem making use of a dynamic programming approach.
Solution-
Given
● Knapsack capacity (w) = 5 kg

● Number of items (n) = 4
Step-01:
Draw a table say ‘T’ with (n+1) = 4 + 1 = 5 number of rows and (w+1) = 5 + 1 = 6 number of columns.Fill all
the boxes of 0th row and 0th column with 0.
Identifying Items To Be Put Into Knapsack

Following Step-04,
● We mark the rows labelled “1” and “2”.
● Thus, items that must be put into the knapsack to obtain the maximum value 7 are Item-1 and Item-2
Time Complexity-
● Each entry of the table requires constant time θ(1) for its computation.
● It takes θ(nw) time to fill (n+1)(w+1) table entries.
● It takes θ(n) time for tracing the solution since tracing process traces the n rows.

Conclusion: In this way we have explored Concept of 0/1 Knapsack using Dynamic approach.

Assignment No: 5
Title: Write a program for analysis of quick sort by using deterministic and randomized variant.
Objective: To analyze time and space complexity of quick sort by using deterministic and
randomizedvariant.
Theory:
What is a Randomized Algorithm?
• An algorithm that uses random numbers to decide what to do next anywhere in its
logic iscalled Randomized Algorithm..
• For example, in Randomized Quick Sort, we use random number to pick the next pivot
(or werandomly shuffle the array).
• Typically, this randomness is used to reduce time complexity or space complexity in
otherstandard algorithms.
• Randomized algorithm for a problem is usually simpler and more efficient
than itsdeterministic counterpart.
• The output or the running time are functions of the input and random bits chosen .
Types of Randomized Algorithms
1. Las Vegas Algorithms

● These algorithms always produce correct or optimum result.
● Time complexity of these algorithms is based on a random value and time
complexity isevaluated as expected value.
● For example, Randomized QuickSort always sorts an input array and expected worst case
timecomplexity of QuickSort is O(nLogn).
● A Las Vegas algorithm fails with some probability, but we can tell when it fails. In
particular,we can run it again until it succeeds, which means that we can eventually
succeed with probability 1.
● Alternatively, we can think of a Las Vegas algorithm as an algorithm that runs
for anunpredictable amount of time but always succeeds
2. Monte Carlo Algorithms

● Produce correct or optimum result with some probability.
● These algorithms have deterministic running time and it is generally easier to find out
worstcase time complexity.
● For example Karger’s Algorithm produces minimum cut with probability greater than or
equal to1/n2 (n is number of vertices) and has worst case time complexity as O(E).
● A Monte Carlo algorithm fails with some probability, but we can’t tell when it fails.
● The polynomial equality-testing algorithm in an example of a Monte Carlo algorithm
Applications of Randomized Algorithms

● Randomized algorithms have huge applications in Cryptography.

● Load Balancing.
● Number-Theoretic Applications: Primality Testing
● Data Structures: Hashing, Sorting, Searching, Order Statistics and
ComputationalGeometry.
● Algebraic identities: Polynomial and matrix identity verification. Interactive proof
systems.
● Mathematical programming: Faster algorithms for linear programming, Rounding
linearprogram solutions to integer program solutions
Analysis of Randomized Quick sort
The running time of quicksort depends mostly on the number of comparisons performed in all
calls tothe Randomized-Partition routine. Let X denote the random variable counting the number
of comparisons in all calls to Randomized-Partition.
Let zi denote the i-th smallest element of A[1..n].

Thus A[1..n] sorted is <z1, z2, ... , zn >.
Let Zij = {zi, ..., zj} denote the set of elements between zi and zj, including these elements.
Xij = I{ zi is compared to zj}.
Thus, Xij is an indicator random variable for the event that the i-thv smallest and the j-th
smallestelements of A are compared in an execution of quicksort.
Number of Comparisons
Since each pair of elements is compared at most once by quicksort, the number X of
comparisons isgiven by
Therefore, the expected number of comparisons is
Expected Number of Comparisons

Conclusion: In this way we have explored Concept of quick sort by using deterministic and
randomized variant.

Assignment No: 6
Mini Project
Mini Project - Write a program to implement matrix multiplication. Also implement
multithreadedmatrix multiplication with either one thread per row or one thread per cell.
Analyze and compare their performance.
Mini Project - Implement merge sort and multithreaded merge sort. Compare time required by
boththe algorithms. Also analyze the performance of each algorithm for the best case and the
worst case.
Mini Project - Different exact and approximation algorithms for Travelling-Sales-Person Problem
Objective: To implement and analyze performance of algorithm.
Theory:
1. Introduction to problems
2. Approach used to solve problem (Introduction with example)
3. Algorithm/ Pseudo code of problems
4. Complexity Analyze for all cases
5. Implementation of project with output

Group B
Assignment no:1
Title of the Assignment: Predict the price of the Uber ride from a given pickup
point to theagreed drop-off location. Perform following tasks:
1. Pre-process the dataset.
2. Implement linear regression and random forest regression models.
3. Evaluate the models and compare their respective scores like R2, RMSE, etc.
Dataset Description:The project is about on world's largest taxi company Uber inc. In
this project, we're looking to predict the fare for their future transactional cases. Uber
delivers service to lakhs of customers daily. Now it becomes really important to manage
their data properly to come up with new business ideas to get best results. Eventually,
it becomes really important to estimate the fare prices accurately.
Link for Dataset:https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/yasserh/uber-fares-dataset
Objective of the Assignment:

Students should be able to preprocess dataset and identify outliers, to check correlation and
implement linear regression and random forest regression models. Evaluate them
with respective scores like R2, RMSE etc.
Prerequisite:
1. Basic knowledge of Python
2. Concept of preprocessing data
3. Basic knowledge of Data Science and Big Data Analytics.
Contents of the Theory:
1. Data Preprocessing
2. Linear regression
3. Random forest regression models
4. Box Plot
5. Outliers
6. Haversine
7. Mathplotlib
8. Mean Squared Error
Data Preprocessing:
Data preprocessing is a process of preparing the raw data and making it suitable
for amachinelearning model. It is the rst and crucial step while creating a machine
learning model.
When creating a machine learning project, it is not always a case that we come across the
clean and formatted data. And while doing any operation with data, it is mandatory to clean
itand put in a formatted way. So for this, we use data preprocessing task.
Why do we need Data Preprocessing?
A real-world data generally contains noises, missing values, and maybe in an unusable format
which cannotbe directly used for machine learning models. Data preprocessing is required
tasks for cleaning thedata andmaking it suitable for a machine learning model which also
increases the accuracy .
Linear Regression:

Linear regression is one of the easiest and most popular Machine Learning algorithms. It is
a statistical method that is used for predictive analysis. Linear regression makes predictions
for continuous/real or numeric variables such assales, salary, age, product price,etc.
Linear regression algorithm shows a linear relationship between a dependent (y) and one
or moreindependent (y) variables, hence called as linear regression. Since linear regression
shows the linear relationship, which means it nds how the value of the dependent variable is
changing according to the valueof the independent variable.
The linear regression model provides a sloped straight line representing the relationship
between the variables. Consider the below image:
Random Forest Regression Models:
Random Forest is a popular machine learning algorithm that belongs to the

supervisedlearning technique. It can be used for both Classi cation and Regression
problems in ML. Itis based on the concept ofensemble learning,which is a process
ofcombining multiple classi ers to solve a complexproblem and to improve the
performance of the model.
As the name suggests,"Random Forest is a classi er that contains a number of

decision trees on various subsets of the given dataset and takes the average to
improve the predictiveaccuracy of that dataset."Instead of relying on one decision
tree, the random forest takesthe
prediction from each tree and based on the majority votes of predictions, and
it predicts thenal output.
The greater number of trees in the forest leads to higher accuracy and prevents
theproblem ofover tting.
Outlier:

Themajor thing about the outliers is what you do with them. If you are going toanalyze
any task to analyzedata sets, you will always have some assumptions based onhow this
data is generated. If you ndsome data points that are likely to contain some form of error,
then these are de nitely outliers, and depending on the context, you want toovercome
those errors. The data mining process involves the analysis and prediction of datathat the
data holds. In 1969, Grubbs introduced the rst de nition of outliers.
Global Outliers
Global outliers are also called point outliers. Global outliers are taken as the simplest form of
outliers. Whendata points deviate from all the rest of the data points in a given data set, it is
known as the global outlier. In most cases, all the outlier detection procedures are targeted
to determine the global outliers. The green data point is the global outlier.
Collective Outliers
In a given set of data, when a group of data points deviates from the rest of the data set is
called collectiveoutliers. Here, the particular set of data objects may not be outliers, but when
you consider the data objectsas a whole, they may behave as outliers. To identify thetypes of
different outliers, you need to go through background information about the relationship
between the behavior of outliers shown by different data objects. For example, in an
Intrusion Detection System, the DOS package from one system to another is taken as normal
behavior. Therefore, if this happens with the various computer simultaneously, it is
considered abnormal behavior, and as a whole, they are called collective outliers. The
greendata points asa whole represent the collective outlier

Contextual Outliers
As the name suggests, "Contextual" means this outlier introduced within a context. For
example, in the speech recognition technique, the single background noise. Contextual
outliers are also known as Conditional outliers. These types of outliers happen if a data object
deviates from the other data points because of any speci c condition in a given data set. As we
know, there are two types of attributes of objectsof data: contextual attributes and behavioral
attributes. Contextual outlier analysis enables the users to examine outliers in different
contexts and conditions, which can be useful in various applications. For example, A
temperature reading of 45 degrees Celsius may behave as an outlier in a rainy season. Still,
it will behave like a normal data point in the context of a summer season. In thegiven
diagram, a green dot representing the low-temperature value in June is a contextual outlier
since the same value in December isnot an outlier.
Haversine:
The Haversine formula calculates the shortest distance between two points on a sphere using
their latitudes and longitudes measured along the surface. It is important for use in
navigation.
Matplotlib:
Matplotlib is an amazing visualization library in Python for 2D plots of arrays. Matplotlib is a

multi-platform data visualization library built on NumPy arrays and designed to work with
the broader SciPy stack. It was introduced by John Hunter in the year 2002.
One of the greatest benefits of visualization is that it allows us visual access to huge amounts
of data in easily digestible visuals. Matplotlib consists of several plots like line, bar, scatter,
histogram etc.
Mean Squared Error;
TheMean Squared Error (MSE)orMean Squared Deviation (MSD)of an estimator

measures the average of error squares i.e. the average squared difference between
theestimated values and true value. It is a risk function, corresponding to the expected
value ofthe squared error loss. It is always non – negative and values close to zero are
better.
Conclusion:
In this way we have explored Concept correlation and implement linear regression
andrandomforest regression models.

Assignment no:2
Title of the Assignment: Classify the email using the binary

classification method.EmailSpam detection has two states:
a) Normal State – Not Spam,
b) Abnormal State – Spam.
Use K-Nearest Neighbors and Support Vector Machine for
classification.Analyze theirperformance.
Dataset Description:The csv file contains 5172 rows, each row for each
email. There are 3002 columns. The first column indicates Email name.
The name has been set with numbers and not recipients' name to protect
privacy. The last column has the labels for prediction : 1for spam, 0 for
not spam. The remaining 3000 columns are the 3000 most common
words inall theemails, after excluding the non-alphabetical
characters/words. For each row, thecount of each word(column) in that
email(row) is stored in the respective cells. Thus,information regarding
all 5172 emails are stored in a compact dataframe rather than
asseparate text files.
Link:https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/balaka18/email-spam-
classification-dataset-csv Objective of the Assignment:
Students should be able to classify email using the binary Classification

and implement email spam detection technique by using K-Nearest
Neighbors and Support Vector Machine algorithm.
Prerequisite:
2.Concept of K-Nearest Neighbors and Support Vector Machine for classification.
1. Data Preprocessing
2. Binary Classification
3. K-Nearest Neighbours
4. Support Vector Machine
5. Train, Test and Split Procedure
Data Preprocessing:

Data preprocessing is a process of preparing the raw data and

making it suitable for amachinelearning model. It is the rst and
crucial step while creating a machine learning model.
When creating a machine learning project, it is not always a case that we

come across the clean and formatted data. And while doing any operation
with data, it is mandatory to clean itand put in a formatted way. So for
this, we use data preprocessing task.
Why do we need Data Preprocessing?

A real-world data generally contains noises, missing values, and maybe in
an unusable format which cannotbe directly used for machine learning
models. Data preprocessing is required tasks for cleaning thedata and
making it suitable for a machine learning model which also increases the
accuracy and e ciency of a machinelearning model.
It involves below steps:
● Getting the dataset
● Importing libraries
● Importing datasets
● Finding Missing Data
● Encoding Categorical Data
● Splitting dataset into training and test set
● Feature scalin

Assignment no:3
Title of the Assignment: Given a bank customer, build a neural

network-based classifier that can determine whether they will leave
or not in the next 6 months
Dataset Description: The case study is from an open-source dataset

from Kaggle. The dataset contains 10,000 sample points with 14
distinct features such as CustomerId, CreditScore, Geography,
Gender, Age, Tenure, Balance, etc.
Link for Dataset:https://www.kaggle.com/barelydedicated/bank-
customer-churn-modeling Perform the following steps:

1. Read the dataset.
2. Distinguish the feature and target set and divide the data set
into training and test sets.
3. Normalize the train and test data.
4. Initialize and build the model. Identify the points of
improvement and implement the same.
5. Print the accuracy score and confusion matrix (5 points).

Students should be able to distinguish the feature and target set and
divide the data set into training and test sets and normalize them and
students should build the model on the basis of that.
Prerequisite:
2. Concept of Confusion Matrix
1. Artificial Neural Network

2. Keras
3. tensorflow
4. Normalization
5. Confusion Matrix

AnArti cial Neural Networkin the eld ofArti cial intelligencewhere it

attempts to mimic the network of neurons makes up a human brain so
that computers will have an option tounderstand things and
makedecisions in a human-like manner. The arti cial neural networkis
designed by programming computers to behave simply like
interconnected brain cells.
There are around 1000 billion neurons in the human brain. Each neuron
has an association point somewherein the range of 1,000 and 100,000. In
the human brain, data is stored in such a manner as to be distributed,and
we can extract more than one piece of this data when necessary from our
memory parallelly. We can say that the human brain is made up
ofincredibly amazing parallel processors.
We can understand the arti cial neural network with an example,

consider an example of adigital logic gatethat takes an input and gives an
output. "OR" gate, which takes two inputs. If one or both the inputs are
"On," then we get "On" in output. If both the inputs are "Off," thenwe get
"Off" in output. Here the outputdepends upon input. Our brain does not
perform the same task. The outputs to inputs relationship keep changing
because of the neurons in our brain, which are "learning."
The architecture of an artificial neural network:
To understand the concept of the architecture of an arti cial neural

network, we have to understand what a neural network consists of. In
order to de ne a neural network that consists of a large number of arti
cial neurons, which are termed units arranged in a sequence of layers.
Lets us look at various types of layers available in an arti cial neural
network.
Confusion Matrix:
The confusion matrix is a matrix used to determine the performance of

the classi cation models for a given set of test data. It can only be
determined if the true values for test data are known. The matrix itselfcan
be easily understood, but the related terminologies may beconfusing.
Since it shows the errors in the model performance in the form of a
matrix, hence also known as anerror matrix. Some features of Confusion

matrix are given below:
● For the 2 prediction classes of classi ers, the matrix is of 2*2

table, for 3 classes, it is3*3 table,and so on.
● The matrix is divided into two dimensions, that

arepredicted valuesandactualvaluesalong
with the total number of predictions.
● Predicted values are those values, which are predicted

by the model, and actualvalues arethe true values for
the given observations.
Need for Confusion Matrix in Machine learning
● It evaluates the performance of the classi cation

models, when they makepredictionson test data,
and tells how good our classi cation model is.
● It not only tells the error made by the classi ers but also the
type of errors such as itis either type-I or type-II error.
● With the help of the confusion matrix, we can calculate the

different parameters forthe model,such as accuracy,
precision, etc.
Conclusion: In this way we build a neural network.

Assignment no:4
Title of the Assignment: Implement K-Nearest Neighbors

algorithm on diabetes.csv dataset.Compute confusion matrix,
accuracy, error rate, precision and recall on the given dataset.
Dataset Description: We will try to build a machine learning model to

accurately predict whether or not the patients in the dataset have diabetes
or not?
The datasets consists of several medical predictor variables and one
target variable, Outcome. Predictor variables includes the number of
pregnancies the patient has had, their BMI, insulin level, age, and so on.
Link for Dataset: Diabetes predication system with KNN algorithm | Kaggle

Students should be able to preprocess dataset and identify outliers,
to check correlation and implement KNN algorithm and random
forest classification models. Evaluate them with respective scores
like confusion_matrix, accuracy_score, mean_squared_error,
r2_score, roc_auc_score, roc_curve etc.
Prerequisite:
2. Concept of Confusion Matrix
3. Concept of roc_auc curve.
4. Concept of Random Forest and KNN algorithms

k-Nearest-Neighbors (k-NN) is a supervised machine learning model.

Supervised learning is when a model learns from data that is already
labeled. A supervised learning model takes in a set of input objects and
output values. The model then trains on that data to learn how to map the
inputs to the desired output so it can learn tomake predictions on unseen
data.
k-NN models work by taking a data point and looking at the ‘k’ closest
labeled data points. The data point isthen assigned the label of the majority
of the ‘k’ closest points.
For example, if k = 5, and 3 of points are ‘green’ and 2 are ‘red’, then the
data point in question would belabeled ‘green’, since ‘green’ is the
majority (as shown in the above graph).
Scikit-learn is a machine learning library for Python. In this tutorial, we will
build a k-NN model using Scikit-learn to predict whether or not a patient
has diabetes.
Reading in the training data
For our k-NN model, the first step is to read in the data we will use as input. For this example,
we are using the diabetes dataset. To start, we will use Pandas to read in the data. I will not go
into detail on Pandas, but it is a library you should become familiar with if you’re looking to
dive further into data science and machine learning.
Split the dataset into train and test data
Now we will split the dataset into into training data and testing data. The
training data is the data thatthe model will learn from. The testing data is the
data we will use to see how well the model performs on unseen data.
Scikit-learn has a function we can use called ‘train_test_split’ that makes
it easy for us to split our dataset into training and testing data.
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split#split dataset into train and test data
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=1, stratify=y)
‘train_test_split’ takes in 5 parameters. The first two parameters are the
input and target data we split up earlier. Next, we will set ‘test_size’ to 0.2.
This means that 20% of all the data will be used for testing, which leaves
80% of the data as training data for the model to learn from. Setting

‘random_state’ to 1 ensures that we get the same split each time so we can
reproduce our results.
Setting ‘stratify’ to y makes our training split represent the proportion of
each value in the y variable. For example, in our dataset, if 25% of patients
have diabetes and 75% don’t have diabetes, setting ‘stratify’ to y will ensure
that the random split has 25% of patients with diabetes and 75% of patients
without diabetes.
Building and training the model
Next, we have to build the model. Here is the code:

from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsClassifier#
Create KNN classifier knn =
KNeighborsClassifier(n_neighbors = 3)# Fit the
classifier to the data knn.fit(X_train,y_train)
First, we will create a new k-NN classifier and set ‘n_neighbors’ to 3. To
recap, this means

Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Collegethat if at least 2 Lavale
Of Engineering out of Pune.
the 3 nearest points to an new data
3
point are patients without diabetes, then the new data point will be labeled
as ‘no diabetes’, and vice versa. In other words, a new data point is labeled
with by majority from the 3 nearest points.
We have set ‘n_neighbors’ to 3 as a starting point. We will go into more
detail below on how to better select a value for ‘n_neighbors’ so that the
model can improve its performance.
Conclusion:
In this way we build a a neural network-based classifier that can

determine whether they willleave or not in the next 6 months

Assignment no:5
Title of the Assignment: Implement K-Means clustering/

hierarchical clustering on sales_data_sample.csv dataset.
Determine the number of clusters using the elbow method.
Dataset Description: The data includes the following features:

1. Customer ID
2. Customer Gender
3. Customer Age
4. Annual Income of the customer (in Thousand Dollars)
5. Spending score of the customer (based on customer behavior and spending
nature)

Students should able to understand how to use unsupervised learning to
segment different-different clusters or groups and used to them to train
your model to predict future things.
Prerequisite:
1. Knowledge of Python
2. Unsupervised learning
3. Clustering
4. Elbow method
Clustering algorithms try to find natural clusters in data, the various aspects
of how the algorithms to cluster data can be tuned and modified. Clustering
is based on the principle that items within the same cluster must be similar
to each other. The data is grouped in such a way that related elements are
close to each other.

Diverse and different types of data are subdivided into smaller groups.
Uses of Clustering
Marketing:
In the field of marketing, clustering can be used to identify various customer groups
with existing customer data. Based on that, customers can be provided with discounts,
offers, promo codes etc.
BookStore and Library management:

Libraries and Bookstores can use Clustering to better manage the book database. With
proper book ordering, better operations can be implemented.
Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College Of Engineering Lavale Pune.
Document Analysis: 9
Often, we need to group together various research texts and documents according to
similarity. And in such cases, we don’t have any labels. Manually labelling large amounts
of data is also not possible. Using clustering, the algorithm can process the text and group
it into different themes.
These are some of the interesting use cases of clustering.
K-Means Clustering
K-Means clustering is an unsupervised machine learning algorithm that divides the
given data into the given number of clusters. Here, the “K” is the given number of
predefined clusters, that need to be created.
It is a centroid based algorithm in which each cluster is associated with a

centroid. The main idea is to reduce the distance between the data points
and their respective cluster centroid.
The algorithm takes raw unlabelled data as an input and divides the dataset into
clusters and the process is repeated until the best clusters are found.

K-Means is very easy and simple to implement. It is highly scalable, can

be applied to both small and large datasets. There is, however, a
problem with choosing the number of clusters or K. Also, with the
increase in dimensions, stability decreases. But, overall K Means is a
simple and robust algorithm that makes clustering very easy.
#Importing the
necessary
librariesimport
numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import
matplotlib.py
plot as plt
import
seaborn as
sns
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D
%matplotlib inline
Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College Of Engineering Lavale Pune.
Conclusion: We can clearly see that 5 different clusters have been formed from the 1
data. The red cluster is the customers with the least income and least spending score,
similarly, the blue cluster is the customers with the most income and most spending
score.

Group C
Assignment no:1
Title of the Assignment: Installation of MetaMask and study spending Ether per
transaction
Objective of the Assignment: Students should be able to learn new

technology such as metamask.Itsapplication and implementations
Prerequisite:
1. Basic knowledge of cryptocurrency

2. Basic knowledge of distributed computing concept
3. Working of blockchain
Introduction to Blockchain
● Blockchain can be described as a data structure that holds
transactional records and while ensuring security,
transparency, and decentralization. You can also think of it asa
chain or records stored in the forms of blocks which are
controlled by no single authority.
● A blockchain is a distributed ledger that is completely open to
any and everyone onthenetwork. Once an information is stored
on a blockchain, it is extremely difficult to change or alter it.
● Each transaction on a blockchain is secured with a digital
signature that proves its authenticity. Due to the use of
encryption and digital signatures, the data stored on the
blockchain is tamper-proof and cannot be changed.
● Blockchain technology allows all the network participants to
reach an agreement, commonly known as consensus. All the
data stored on a blockchain is recorded digitally and has a
common history which is available for all the network
participants. This way,the chances of any fraudulent activity or
duplication of transactions is eliminated without the need of a

third-party.
Blockchain Features
The following features make the revolutionary technology of blockchain
stand out:
● Decentralized
Blockchains are decentralized in nature meaning that no single
person or group holds the authority of the overall network.
While everybody in the network has the copy of the distributed
ledger with them, no one can modify it on his or her own. This
unique feature of blockchain allows transparency and security
while giving power to the users.
● Immutable
The immutability property of a blockchain refers to the fact that any data
once written on the blockchain cannot be changed. To understand
immutability, consider sending email as an example. Once you send an email
to a bunch of people, you cannot take it back. In order to find a way around,
you’ll have to ask all the recipients to delete your email which is pretty
tedious. This is how immutability works.
● Tamper-Proof
With the property of immutability embedded in blockchains, it
becomes easier to detecttampering of any data. Blockchains are
considered tamper-proof as any change in even one single
block can be detected and addressed smoothly. There are two
key ways of detecting tampering namely, hashes and blocks.
Popular Applications of Blockchain Technology

Benefits of Blockchain Technology:
● Time-saving: No central Authority verification needed

for settlements making theprocess faster and cheaper.
● Cost-saving: A Blockchain network reduces expenses in
several ways. No need for third-party verification. Participants
can share assets directly. Intermediaries are reduced.
Transaction efforts are minimized as every participant has a
copy of shared ledger.
● Tighter security: No one can temper with Blockchain
Data as it is shared among millions of participants. The
system is safe against cybercrimes and Fraud.
● In finance market trading, Fibonacci retracement levels are
widely used in technicalanalysis.
How to use MetaMask: A step by step guide
MetaMask is one of the most popular browser extensions that serves

as a way of storing your Ethereum and other ERC-20 Tokens. The
extension is free and secure, allowing web applications to read and
interact with Ethereum’s blockchain.

Step 1. Install MetaMask on your browser.
To create a new wallet, you have to install the extension first.

Depending on your browser, there are different marketplaces to find
it. Most browsers have MetaMask on their stores, so it’s not that hard
to see it, but either way, here they are Chrome, Firefox, and Opera.
● Click on Install MetaMask as a Google Chrome extension.

● Click Add to Chrome.
● Click Add Extension.
Step 2. Create an account.
● Click on the extension icon in the upper right corner to open MetaMask.
● To install the latest version and be up to date, click Try it now.
● Click Continue.
● You will be prompted to create a new password. Click Create.
Step 3. Depositing funds.
● Click on View Account.

What advantages does MetaMask have?
● Popular - It is commonly used, so users only need one plugin
to access a wide range ofdapps.
● Simple - Instead of managing private keys, users just need to
remember a list of words, andtransactions are signed on their
behalf.
● Saves space - Users don’t have to download the Ethereum
blockchain, as MetaMask sendsrequests to nodes outside of the

user’s computer.
● Integrated - Dapps are designed to work with MetaMask, so it
becomes much easier to sendEther in and out.
Conclusion- In this way we have explored Concept Blockchain

and metamat wallet fortransaction of digital currency

Assignment no:2
Title of the Assignment: Create your own wallet using Metamask for crypto
transactions
Objective of the Assignment: Students should be able to learn about

cryptocurrencies and learn howtransaction done by using different digital
currency
Prerequisite:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
Contents for Theory:

1. Cryptocurrency
2. Transaction Wallets
3. Ether transaction
Introduction to Cryptocurrency
● Cryptocurrency is a digital payment system that doesn't rely on banks
to verify transactions. It’s a peer-to-peer system that can enable
anyone anywhere to send and receive payments. Instead of being
physical money carried around and exchanged in the real world,
cryptocurrency payments exist purely as digital entries to an online
database describing specific transactions. When you transfer
cryptocurrency funds, the transactions are recorded in a publicledger.
Cryptocurrency is stored in digital wallets.
● Cryptocurrency received its name because it uses encryption to verify
transactions. This meansadvanced coding is involved in storing and
transmitting cryptocurrency data between wallets and to public
ledgers. The aim of encryption is to provide security and safety.
● The first cryptocurrency was Bitcoin, which was founded in 2009 and
remains the best known today. Much of the interest in

cryptocurrencies is to trade for profit, with speculatorsat times

driving prices skyward.
How does cryptocurrency work?
● Cryptocurrencies run on a distributed public ledger called blockchain,

a record of all transactions updated and held by currency holders.
● Units of cryptocurrency are created through a process called mining,
which involves using computer power to solve complicated
mathematical problems that generate coins. Users can also buy the
currencies from brokers, then store and spend them using
cryptographic wallets.
● If you own cryptocurrency, you don’t own anything tangible. What you
own is a key that allowsyou to move a record or a unit of measure from
one person to another without a trusted third party.
● Although Bitcoin has been around since 2009, cryptocurrencies and
applications of blockchaintechnology are still emerging in financial
terms, and more uses are expected in thefuture. Transactions
including bonds, stocks, and other financial assets could eventually be
traded using the technology.
Cryptocurrency examples
There are thousands of cryptocurrencies. Some of the best known include:
● Bitcoin:
Founded in 2009, Bitcoin was the first cryptocurrency and is still the
most commonly traded. The currency was developed by Satoshi
Nakamoto – widely believed to be a pseudonym for an individual or
group of people whose precise identity remains unknown.
● Ethereum:
Developed in 2015, Ethereum is a blockchain platform with its own

cryptocurrency, called Ether (ETH) or Ethereum. It is the most
popular cryptocurrency after Bitcoin.
● Litecoin:

This currency is most similar to bitcoin but has moved more quickly
to develop new innovations, including faster payments and processes
to allow more transactions.
● Ripple:
Ripple is a distributed ledger system that was founded in 2012. Ripple
can be used to track different kinds of transactions, not just
cryptocurrency. The company behind it has worked with various
banks and financial institutions.
● Non-Bitcoin cryptocurrencies are collectively known as “altcoins” to
distinguish them from the original.
How to store cryptocurrency
● Once you have purchased cryptocurrency, you need to store it safely

to protect it from hacks or theft. Usually, cryptocurrency is stored in
crypto wallets, which are physical devices or online software used to
store the private keys to your cryptocurrencies securely. Some
exchanges provide wallet services, making it easy for you to store
directly through the platform.However, not all exchanges or brokers
automatically provide wallet services for you.
● There are different wallet providers to choose from. The terms “hot
wallet” and “cold wallet”are used:
● Hot wallet storage: "hot wallets" refer to crypto storage that uses
online software to protectthe private keys to your assets.
● Cold wallet storage: Unlike hot wallets, cold wallets (also known
as hardware wallets) relyon offline electronic devices to securely
store your private keys.
Conclusion- In this way we have explored Concept

Cryptocurrency and learn howtransactions are done using
digital currency

Assignment no:3
Title of the Assignment: Write a smart contract on a test network, for Bank
account of a customer for followingoperations:
 Deposit money
 Withdraw Money
 Show balance
Objective of the Assignment: Students should be able to learn new technology

such as metamask.Itsapplication and implementations
Prerequisite:
3. Working of blockchain.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----

The contract will allow deposits from any account, and can be trusted to allow
withdrawals only by accounts that have sufficient funds to cover the requested
withdrawal.
This post assumes that you are comfortable with the ether-handling concepts
introduced in our post, Writing a Contract That Handles Ether.
That post demonstrated how to restrict ether withdrawals to an “owner’s” account.
It did this by persistently storing the owner account’s address, and then comparing
it to the msg.sender value for any withdrawal attempt. Here’s a slightly simplified
version of that smart contract, which allows anybody to deposit money, but only
allows the owner to make withdrawals:
pragma
solidity
^0.4.19;
contract
TipJar {
address owner; // current owner of the contract
functio
n
TipJa
r()

publi
c{
owne
r=
msg.s
ende
r;
}
function
withdraw()
public {
require(owner
==
msg.sender);
msg.sender.transfer(address(this).balance);
}
function deposit(uint256 amount) public

payable { require(msg.value ==
amount);
}
function getBalance() public view

returns (uint256) { return
address(this).balance;
}
}
I am going to generalize this contract to keep track of ether deposits based on the
account address of the depositor, and then only allow that same account to make
withdrawals of that ether. To do this, we need a way keep track of account balances
for each depositing account—a mapping from accounts to balances. Fortunately,
Solidity provides a ready-made mapping data type that can map account addresses
to integers,
The code above demonstrates the following:
 The require(amount <= balances[msg.sender]) checks to make sure the sender has
sufficient funds to cover the requested withdrawal. If not, then the transaction
aborts without making any state changes or ether transfers.
 The balanceOf mapping must be updated to reflect the lowered residual amount after
the withdrawal.
 The funds must be sent to the sender requesting the withdrawal.
In the withdraw() function above, it is very important to adjust balanceOf[msg.sender]
before transferring ether to avoid an exploitable vulnerability. The reason is specific to
smart contracts and the fact that a transfer to a smart contract executes code in that smart
contract. (The essentials of Ethereum transactions are discussed in How Ethereum
Transactions Work.)
Now, suppose that the code in withdraw() did not adjust balanceOf[msg.sender] before
making the
transfer and suppose that msg.sender was a malicious smart contract. Upon receiving the
transfer—handled by msg.sender’s fallback function—that malicious contract could initiate

another withdrawal from the banking contract. When the banking contract handles this
second withdrawal request, it would have already transferred ether for the original
withdrawal, but it would not have an updated balance, so it would allow this second
withdrawal!
To avoid this sort of reentrancy bug, follow the “Checks-Effects-Interactions pattern” as
described in the Solidity documentation. The withdraw()function above is an example of
implementing this pattern

Assignment no:4
Title of the Assignment: Write a survey report on types of Blockchains and its real
time use cases.
Objective of the Assignment: Students should be able to learn new technology

such as metamask.Itsapplication and implementations
Prerequisite:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
There are 4 types of blockchain:Public Blockchain.
Private Blockchain. Hybrid Blockchain. Consortium Blockchain
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Public Blockchain
These blockchains are completely open to following the idea of decentralization. They
don’t have any restrictions, anyone having a computer and internet can participate in
the network.

As the name is public this blockchain is open to the public, which means it is
not owned by anyone. Anyone having internet and a computer with good
hardware can participate in this public blockchain. All the computer in the
network hold the copy of other nodes or block present in the network
In this public blockchain, we can also perform verification of
transactions or records Advantages:
Trustable: There are algorithms to detect no fraud. Participants need not worry about
the other nodes in the network
Secure: This blockchain is large in size as it is open to the public. In a large size,
there is greater distribution of records
Anonymous Nature: It is a secure platform to make your transaction properly at the
same time, you are not required to reveal your name and identity in order to
participate.
Decentralized: There is no single platform that maintains the network, instead every
user has a copy of the ledger.
Disadvantages:
Processing: The rate of the transaction process is very slow, due to its large size.
Verification of each node is a very time-consuming process.
Energy Consumption: Proof of work is high energy-consuming. It requires good
computer hardware to participate in the network
Acceptance: No central authority is there so governments are facing the issue to
implement the technology faster.
Use Cases: Public Blockchain is secured with proof of work or proof of stake they
can be used to displace traditional financial systems. The more advanced side of
this blockchain is the smart contract that enabled this blockchain to support
decentralization. Examples of public blockchain are Bitcoin, Ethereum.
2. Private Blockchain
These blockchains are not as decentralized as the public blockchain only selected
nodes can participate in the process, making it more secure than the others.
These are not as open as a

public blockchain. They
are open to some
authorized users only.
These blockchains are operated in a closed network.
In this few people are allowed to participate in a network within a
company/organization. Advantages:
Speed: The rate of the transaction is high, due to its small size. Verification of each
node is less time- consuming.
Scalability: We can modify the scalability. The size of the network can be
decided manually. Privacy: It has increased the level of privacy for
confidentiality reasons as the businesses required.
Balanced: It is more balanced as only some user has the access to the transaction
which improves the performance of the network.

Disadvantages:
Security- The number of nodes in this type is limited so chances of

manipulation are there. These blockchains are more vulnerable.
Centralized- Trust building is one of the main disadvantages due to its central
nature. Organizations can use this for malpractices.
Count- Since there are few nodes if nodes go offline the entire system of
blockchain can be endangered. Use Cases: With proper security and maintenance,
this blockchain is a great asset to secure information without exposing it to the
public eye. Therefore companies use them for internal auditing, voting, and asset
management. An example of private blockchains is Hyperledger, Corda.
3. Hybrid Blockchain
It is the mixed content of the private and public blockchain, where some
part is controlled by some organization and other makes are made visible
as a public blockchain.
It is a combination of both public

and private blockchain. Permission-
based and permissionless systems
are used. User access information
via smart contracts
Even a primary entity owns a hybrid blockchain it cannot alter
the transaction Advantages:
Ecosystem: Most advantageous thing about this blockchain is its hybrid nature. It
cannot be hacked as 51% of users don’t have access to the network
Cost: Transactions are cheap as only a few nodes verify the transaction. All
the nodes don’t carry the verification hence less computational cost.
Architecture: It is highly customizable and still maintains integrity, security,
and transparency. Operations: It can choose the participants in the blockchain
and decide which transaction can be made public.
Disadvantages: Efficiency: Not everyone is in the position to implement a hybrid
Blockchain. The organizationalso faces
Speed: A limited number of users make verification fast. The high speed makes this
more usable for organizations.
Authority: Multiple organizations can take part and make it decentralized at
every level. Decentralized authority, makes it more secure.
Privacy: The information of the checked blocks is unknown to the public view. but
any member belonging to the blockchain can access it.
Flexible: There is much divergence in the flexibility of the blockchain. Since it is not a
very large decision can be taken faster.
Disadvantages:
Approval: All the members approve the protocol making it less flexible. Since one or
more organizations are involved there can be differences in the vision of interest.
Transparency: It can be hacked if the organization becomes corrupt. Organizations
may hide information from the users.
Vulnerability: If few nodes are getting compromised there is a greater
chance of vulnerability in this blockchain
Use Cases: It has high potential in businesses, banks, and other payment processors.

Food tracking of the organizations frequently collaborates with their sectors making it
a federated solution ideal for their use. Examples of consortium Blockchain are
Tendermint and Multichain.
Conclusion-In this way we have explored types of blockchain and its applications in
real time

Assignment no:5
Title of the Assignment: Write a program to create a Business Network using

Hyperledger.
Objective of the Assignment: Students should be able to learn hyperledger .Its

application andimplementations
Prerequisite:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
Hyperledger Composer is an extensive, open development toolset and framework to make developing
blockchain applications easier. The primary goal is to accelerate time to value, and make it easier to integrate
your blockchain applications with the existing business systems.
You can use Composer to rapidly develop use cases and deploy a blockchain solution in days.
Composer allows you to model your business network and integrate existing systems and data with your
blockchain applications.
Hyperledger Composer supports the existing Hyperledger Fabric blockchain infrastructure and runtime.
Hyperleder Composer generate business network archive (bna) file which you can deploy on existing
Hyperledger Fabric network
You can use Hyperledger Composer to model business network, containing your existing assets and the
transactions related to them

Key Concepts of
Hyperledger
Composer
1. Blockchain State Storage: It stores all transaction that happens in your hyperledger composer
application. It stores transaction in Hyperledger fabric network.

2. Participants: Participants are members of a business network. They may
own assets and submit transactions. Participant must have an identifier and
can have any other properties.
3. Identities and ID cards: Participants can be associated with an identity. ID cards are
a combination of an identity, a connection profile, and metadata. ID cards simplify

the process of connecting to a business network.
4. Transactions: Transactions are the mechanism by which participants interact
with assets. Transaction processing logic you can define in JavaScript and you
can also emit event for transaction.
5. Queries: Queries are used to return data about the blockchain world-state. Queries
are defined within abusiness network, and can include variable parameters for
simple customisation. By using queries, data can be easily extracted from your
blockchain network. Queries are sent by using the Hyperledger Composer API.
6. Events: Events are defined in the model file. Once events have been defined, they
can be emitted by transaction processor functions to indicate to external

systems that something of importance has happened to the ledger.
7. Access Control: Hyperledger is enterprise blockchain and access control is core
feature of any business blockchain. Using Access Control rules you can define who
can do what in Business networks. The access control language is rich enough to
capture sophisticated conditions.
8. Historian registry: The historian is a specialised registry which records successful

transactions, including the participants and identities that submitted them. The
historian stores transactions as HistorianRecord assets, which are defined in the
Hyperledger Composer system namespace.
Conclusion: In this way we have learnt about hyperledger and its use case in
business world.

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LABORATORY PRACTICE-III – LABORATORY MANUAL

Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s

Department of Computer Engineering

SUBJECT: Laboratory Practice-III

CLASS: B.E. COMP

PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY:

(Prof. Sopan Kshirsagar) H.O.D. [COMP]

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Vision and Mission of the Institute

Vision and Mission of the Department

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Course Outcomes (CO)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

List of Experiments with Mapping

Sr. No. Group Name of the Experiment CO PO

1. Write a program to calculate Fibonacci numbers and CO4,CO5PO1,PO2,P

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

14 Mini Project PO1,PO2,PO3,

18 Write a program in solidity to create Student data. CO6 PO1,PO2,P

Deploy this as smart contract on Ethereum and

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Rubrics for Evaluation

1 Timely 5 or 10 Punctuality reflects the work ethics. Students should

2 Journal 5 or 10 Students are expected to prepare the journal.

3 Performance 5 or 10 After performance, the students should have good

4 Understanding 5 or 10 The student should be able to explain methodology

5 Oral 5 or 10 The student should be able to answer the questions

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Group A: Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Objective: Students should be able to perform non-recursive and recursive programs to

Introduction to Fibonacci numbers

Fibonacci sequence are given as: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 38, . . .

What is the Fibonacci Series?

Method 1: Iterative Algorithm (Use Non-recursion)

A simple method that is a direct recursive implementation of mathematical recurrence relation is

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

# Pseudocode to display the Fibonacci sequence up to n-th term

Time and Space Complexity of Space Optimized Method

Method 2: Recursive Algorithm:

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

T(n) = T(n-1) + T(n-2) + c

Time and Space Complexity

● The time complexity of the above code is T(2^N), i.e., exponential.

Using dynamic programming

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Space Optimized Method

Method Time complexity Space complexity

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

Title: Write a program to implement Huffman Encoding using a greedy strategy.

Advantages of Greedy Approach

Disadvantages of Greedy Approach

1. To begin with, the solution set (containing answers) is empty.

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING – NMIET (2023-24)

There are mainly two major parts in Huffman Coding