INTELLIGENCE

Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability. Other theories of
intelligence hold that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents.

Intelligence involves mental abilities such as logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning.

Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important component
of intelligence.

Recognize problems: To use knowledge, people first must identify the problems it might address.

Solve problems: People must then use what they have learned to come up with solutions to problems.

Theories of multiple intelligence

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described the concept of general

intelligence, or the "g factor." After using factor analysis to examine mental aptitude tests,
Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.

People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests,
while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that
intelligence is a general cognitive ability that researchers can measure and express
numerically

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) focused on seven primary mental abilities rather than a
single, general ability Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) proposed a different theory of

intelligence; in his theory, he argues that intelligence is not subjected to one individual factor. He
argues that intelligence depends on multiple abilities.

Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general intelligence altogether, he
instead theorised that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number of
specific abilities, paving the way for future research that examined the different forms of
intelligence.
 Mental Ability Description

Word Fluency Ability to use words quickly and fluency in performing such tasks as
rhyming, solving anagrams, and doing crossword puzzles.

Verbal Ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and ideas.

Comprehension

Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to quickly compute answers to problems.

Spatial Ability to visualise and manipulate patterns and forms in space.

Visualisation

Perceptual Speed Ability to grasp perceptual details quickly and accurately and to
determine similarities and differences between stimuli.

Memory Ability to recall information such as lists or words, mathematical

formulas, and definitions.

Inductive Ability to derive general rules and principles from the presented
Reasoning information.

Multiple Intelligences
Among more recent ideas about intelligence is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. He
proposed that traditional IQ testing does not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. He
proposed eight different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in various cultures:

● Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control body movements and handle objects
skillfully
● Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others
 ● Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs, and thinking processes
● Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and to
discern logical or numerical patterns
● Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
● Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorise animals, plants, and other
objects in nature
● Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,
meanings, and rhythms of words
● Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and visualise accurately and
abstractly

Gardner's theory has had a profound impact on education by emphasising the importance of

acknowledging and developing all intelligences, not just those traditionally measured by IQ tests. It has

led to more diverse and inclusive approaches to teaching and learning, recognizing that students have

different strengths and talents.Gardner holds that most activities (such as dancing) will involve a

combination of these multiple intelligences (such as spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences). He also

suggests that these multiple intelligences can help us understand concepts beyond intelligence, such as

creativity and leadership. This perspective has allowed educators to tailor their teaching methods to fit

the unique intelligences of their students, fostering a more holistic understanding of intelligence in the

classroom.

The Triarchic Approach to Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to
one's life."

Although he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general
ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as
individual talents. Sternberg proposed the concept of "successful intelligence," which
involves three factors:

● Analytical intelligence/Componential intelligence : The ability to evaluate

information and solve problems

● Creative intelligence/Experiential intelligence: The ability to come up with new
ideas
● Practical intelligence/Contextual intelligence: The ability to adapt to a changing
environment
Componential intelligence encompasses the analytical or problem-solving abilities that allow

individuals to break down complex tasks and find efficient solutions. This aspect of intelligence

involves skills such as critical thinking, logical reasoning, and strategic planning.

Experiential intelligence refers to the ability to approach new situations creatively and

adaptively. It includes the capacity for insight, imagination, and the use of previous knowledge

in novel ways. Individuals with high experiential intelligence are often innovative, able to view

problems from unique perspectives, and find creative solutions.

Contextual intelligence, the third aspect of the Triarchic Theory, involves the application of

intelligence to real-world settings and understanding the cultural and social context in which a

person operates. It includes the ability to adapt to different environments, effectively

communicate, and demonstrate practical problem-solving skills in everyday situations.

Spearman's g Factor and Beyond

Charles Spearman, an English psychologist, developed the two-factor theory of intelligence in the early 20th
century. Central to his theory is the concept of the g-factor (general intelligence) and the s-factor (specific
intelligence).

According to Spearman, the g-factor represents the overall or general intelligence that underlies a person's
performance across various cognitive tasks. This factor is responsible for an individual's ability to reason,
solve problems, and comprehend complex information. In other words, the g-factor represents a person's
general mental capacity.

In addition to the g-factor, Spearman proposed the s-factor, which refers to specific abilities or skills that
are task-specific. These specific abilities include talents in areas such as music, art, or athletics. Unlike the
g-factor, the s-factor is independent of the general mental capacity and represents more specialised
abilities that are not related to overall intelligence.
To support his theory, Spearman used factor analysis, a statistical technique that examines patterns of
correlation between different variables. He applied this technique to intelligence test scores from a large
sample of individuals.

Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence provided a framework to understand the relationship

between general and specific abilities. While the g-factor represents the foundation of overall
intelligence, the s-factor acknowledges the presence of diverse talents and skills that contribute to
human abilities beyond general mental capacity.

Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is a concept in the field of psychology that refers to an individual's ability

to perceive, understand, express, and regulate emotions effectively. Unlike traditional

intelligence, which primarily measures cognitive abilities, emotional intelligence focuses on

one's mental capacity to recognize and manage emotions in oneself and others.

Some argue that emotional intelligence is simply a reflection of certain personality traits, such

as empathy and self-awareness.

However, others believe that it constitutes a separate kind of intelligence that is vital for

navigating social interactions and adapting to new situations.

Key abilities associated with emotional intelligence include perceiving emotions accurately,
both in oneself and in others. This involves recognizing facial expressions, body language, and
vocal cues. Expressing emotions appropriately is another aspect of emotional intelligence,
involving the ability to convey feelings effectively and assertively.

Intelligence (IQ) Testing

Efforts to quantify intelligence took a significant leap forward when German psychologist William
Stern first coined the term "intelligence quotient" (IQ) in the early 20th century.

Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government
identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance.

Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age: a set of abilities that children of a certain
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age possess.

Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has led to many other tests
of skill and aptitude.

However, IQ testing continues to spur debate over its use, cultural biases, influences on intelligence,
and even the very way we define intelligence.
How Psychologists and Psychiatrists Measure Intelligence

Experts use a variety of standardised tests to measure intelligence. Some are aptitude tests
administered in a group setting such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and the American
College Test (ACT). Others are IQ tests given to individuals.

IQ test scores average around 100. Most children with intellectual disabilities (85%) score between 55
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and 70. Severe disabilities usually correspond to still lower scores.

The following is a brief history of IQ tests as they were developed:

● Binet-Simon intelligence scale: This was the first IQ test ever made, and was developed in
1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon.
● Stanford-Binet IQ test: This was psychologist Lewis Terman's adaptation of the Binet-Simon
test. Scores are based on a person's mental age divided by their chronological age (mental
age/chronological age x 100).
● Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): This was the first intelligence test for adults,
developed by David Wechsler in 1939. It was the first to use standardised normal distribution
in scoring and is commonly used today. It is divided into verbal and performance measures.
Like most modern tests, it scores on a bell curve.

Other tests that psychologists and psychiatrists use today include the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of
Cognitive Abilities, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, the Cognitive Assessment System,
and the Differential Ability Scale.

While IQ tests have been widely used to measure intellectual abilities, they have faced
significant criticism regarding cultural biases and the validity of their results. One major
criticism is that these tests may be influenced by cultural biases, favouring individuals from
certain backgrounds while disadvantages those from different cultures or socio-economic
statuses.

Furthermore, there is an ongoing debate surrounding the very definition and use of intelligence.
Some argue that intelligence cannot be adequately captured by a single IQ score and that it is a
multidimensional concept with various aspects, such as emotional intelligence, practical
intelligence, and creative intelligence. This perspective challenges the narrow focus on cognitive
abilities that traditional IQ tests emphasise.