Object Oriented Programming with Java Module-1

(BCS306A)

Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of
Karnataka.Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC – “A” Grade
DEPARTMENT OF CSE( Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning)
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@saividya.ac.in * URL
www.saividya.ac.in

Subject Name: Object Oriented Programming Course Coordinator: Mr. Baswanthrao

with Java Patil
Subject Code: BCS306A Scheme: 2022
OOP With Java BCS306A

MODULE 1
An Overview of Java:

 Object Oriented Programming

 A First Simple Program
 A Second Short Program
 Two Control statements
 Using Blocks of code
 Lexical Issues
 The Java Class Libraries

Data Types, Variables and Arrays

Operators:
Arithmetic Operators,
 Java is a Strongly typed Language Relational Operators, Boolean
 The Primitive types. Logical Operators, The
Assignment
 Integers
Operator, The ? Operator,
 Floating-Point types Operator Precedence, Using
 Characters Parentheses.
 Booleans
Control Statements:
 A Closer look at Literals if, for, while, jump
 Variables
 Type conversion and casting
 Automatic Type promotion in Expressions
 Arrays
 A few words about strings

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Introduction to JAVA:
1. Java was originally designed for interactive television.
2. Java was developed by James Gosling
3. Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling, and the file extension was .gt.
4. After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part of the Green project.
5. In 1995, Oak was renamed as "Java" because it was already a trademark by Oak
Technologies.
6. Java is just a name, not an acronym.

Object Oriented Programming:

 Object oriented programming (OOP) is the core of Java programming.
 Java is a general purpose, object- oriented programming language developed by Sun
Microsystems. It was invented by James Gosling and his team and was initially called
as Oak.
 The most important feature that made Java very popular was the ―Platform-
Independent‖ approach.
 It was the first programming language that did not tie-up with any particular operating
system( or hardware) rather Java programs can be executed anywhere and on any
system.
 Java was designed for the development of the software for consumer electronic
devices like TVs, VCRs, etc.
Features of Java/ Java Buzzwords :

Java has become a popular and useful programming language because of its excellent features,
which play a very important role in contributing to the popularity of this language. The Java
features are called “Java BuzzWords”.

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Simple:
 Java is very easy to learn, and its syntax is simple, clean and easy to understand.
 According to Sun Micro Systems, Java language is a simple programming language
because:
 Java syntax is based on C++ (so easier for programmers to learn it after C++).
 Java has removed many complicated and rarely-used features, for example,
explicit pointers, operator overloading, etc.
 There is no need to remove unreferenced objects because there is an Automatic
Garbage Collection in Java.

Object Oriented:
 Java strongly supports the concepts of Object-Oriented Programming due to which it is
called a pure object-oriented language.
 Java supports major Object-Oriented programming features like Encapsulation,
Abstraction, and Inheritance.
 Almost everything in Java is an object. All programs and data live within objects and
classes. ‘Objects’ model Java rather than the ‘processes’. Java comes with an extensible
set of classes organized in packages.

Platform Independent:
 The most significant feature of Java is that it provides platform independence which
leads to a facility of portability, which ultimately becomes its biggest strength.
 Being platform-independent means a program compiled on one machine can be
executed on any machine in the world without any change.
 Java achieves platform independence by using the concept of the BYTE CODE.
 The Java compiler never converts the source code to machine code like that of the C/C++
compiler.
 Instead, it converts the source code into an intermediate code called the byte code and
this byte code is further translated to machine-dependent form by another layer of
software called JVM (Java Virtual Machine).

Intrepreted:
 Usually, a computer language can be either compiled or interpreted. Java integrates
the power of Compiled Languages with the flexibility of Interpreted Languages.
 Java compiler (javac) compiles the java source code into the bytecode.
 Java Virtual Machine (JVM) then executes this bytecode which is executable on many
operating systems and is portable. The diagram below shows the above process

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Secured:
 Java is best known for its security. With Java, we can develop virus-free systems. Java is
secured because:
 No explicit pointer
 Java Programs run inside a virtual machine sandbox-A separate environment
that allows users to execute their applications without affecting the underlying
system.
 It has a bytecode verifier that checks the code fragments for any illegal code
that violates the access right.
Portable:
 Java is portable because it facilitates the programmer to carry the Java bytecode to any
platform.
 In Java, the size of the primitive data types is machine-independent, which were
dependent in the case of C/C++. So, these provisions make Java programs portable
among different platforms such as Windows, Unix, Solaris, and Mac.
 Moreover, any changes and updates made in Operating Systems, Processors and System
resources will not enforce any changes in Java programs.
Architecture Neutral:
 This buzzword means that the program written on one platform or OS
is independent of other platforms or environments and can run on any other Operating
System without recompiling them.
 In other words, it is based on the ‘Write-once-run-anywhere’ (WORA) or ‘Write-once-
run-everywhere’ (WORE) approach.
 Byte-code is not dependent on any machine architecture and Java Virtual Machine
(JVM) can easily translate bytecode into a machine-specific code.

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Robust:
 Robust simply means strong.
 Java is robust because:
 It uses strong memory management.
 There is a lack of pointers that avoids security problems.
 There is automatic garbage collection in java which runs on the Java Virtual
Machine to get rid of objects which are not being used by a Java application
anymore.
 There are exception handling and the type checking mechanism in Java. All
these points make Java robust.

Dynamic:
 Java is dynamic and extensible means with the help of OOPs, we can add classes and
add new methods to classes, creating new classes through subclasses. This makes it
easier for us to expand our own classes and even modify them.
 Java gives the facility of dynamically linking new class libraries, methods, and objects.
It is highly dynamic as it can adapt to its evolving environment.
 Java even supports functions written in other languages such as C and C++ to be written
in Java programs. These functions are called “native methods”. These methods are
dynamically linked at runtime.

High Performance:
 The performance of Java is impressive for an interpreted language because of its
intermediate bytecode.
 Java provides high performance with the use of “JIT – Just In Time compiler”, in which
the compiler compiles the code on-demand basis, that is, it compiles only that method
which is being called. This saves time and makes it more efficient.
 Java architecture is also designed in such a way that it reduces overheads during
runtime. The inclusion of multithreading enhances the overall execution speed of Java
programs.
 Bytecodes generated by the Java compiler are highly optimized, so Java Virtual
Machine can execute them much faster.

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Multi-Threaded:
 A thread is like a separate program, executing concurrently.
 We can write Java programs that deal with many tasks at once by defining multiple threads.
 The main advantage of multi-threading is that it doesn't occupy memory for each thread. It
shares a common memory area.
 Threads are important for multi-media, Web applications, etc.

Distributed:
 Java is distributed because it encourages users to create distributed applications.
 In Java, we can split a program into many parts and store these parts on different
computers.
 A Java programmer sitting on a machine can access another program running on the
other machine. This feature in Java gives the advantage of distributed programming,
which is very helpful when we develop large projects.
 Java helps us to achieve this by providing the concept of RMI (Remote Method
Invocation) and EJB (Enterprise JavaBeans).
 Java comes with an extensive library of classes for interacting, using TCP/IP protocols
such as HTTP and FTP, which makes creating network connections much easier than
in C/C++
 It also enables multiple programmers at many locations to work together on a single
project.

Two Paradigms:

 Every program contains 2 components code and data.

 Two approaches are there to solve the problem and in program writing: Procesure
oriented and object oriented.
Procedure Oriented:
 Procedure oriented programs are written based on ―whats happening‖ around, where
the code acts on data. Ex: C etc
 Problems increases in procedure oriented as the program grows larger and more
complex.

Object Oriented:
 Object oriented programs are written based on ―Who is being affected‖ around,
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which manages the increasing complexity.

 It organises program around data and well defined interfaces of that data.
 Characterised as data controlling access to code. Ex: C++, JAVA, Small Talk etc

The Three OOP:

The three important features of OOP are:
 Encapsulation
 Inheritence
 Polymorphism
Encapsulation:
 Encapsulation is the mechanism that binds together code and data it manipulates,
and keeps both safe from outside interference and misuse.
 In Java the basis of encapsulation is the class. A class defines the state and behavior
( data & code) that will be shared by set of objects.
 Each object contains the structure and behavior defined by the class. The datadefined
by the class are called instance variables (member variables), the code that operates
on that data are called methods (member functions).

Inheritance:
 Inheritance is the process by which one object acquires the properties of another
object. This is important as it supports the concept of hierarchical classification.
 By the use of inheritance, a class has to define only those qualities that make it
unique. The general qualities can be derived from the parent class or base class.
 Ex: A child inheriting properties from parents.

Polymorphism
 Polymorphism (meaning many forms) is a feature that allows one interface to be used
for a general class of actions. The specific action determined by the exact nature of
the situation. This concept is often expressed as ― one interface, multiple methods‖.
 Ex: ―+‖ can be used for addition of 2 numbers and also concatenation of 2 strings.
System.out.println(2+4); // outputs 6 as answer
System.out.println(―Hello‖ + ―Gautham‖); // outputs Hello Gautham as answer

Apart from this the additional features include:

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Object:
 An object can be any real world entity.
 Ex: an animal, bank, human, box, fan etc
 An object is a software bundle of related state and behavior.
 An object is an instance of class.

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Class:
 A class is a blueprint or prototype from which objects are created.
 Its just a template for an object, which describes an object.
 Ex: a class describes how an animal looks like.
 A class is a user defined data type.

Abstraction:
 Data abstraction refers to providing only essential information to the outside world
and hiding their background details i.e., to represent the needed information in
program without presenting the details.
 Ex: a database system hides certain details of how data is stored and created and
maintained.

Polymorphism, Encapsulation and Inheritance work Together

 The 3 principles of OOP Polymorphism, Encapsulation and Inheritance combines
together to make the programming robust and scalable.
 Encapsulation allows to migrate the implementation without disturbing the code that
depends on class.
 Polymorphism allows to create clean, sensible, readable, resilient code.
 Inheritance mainly deals with the code reusability.

A First Simple Program

class Example
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
System.out.println(―Welcome to Programming in Java‖);
}
}

1. Open the notepad and type the above program

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2. Save the above program with .java extension, here file name and class name
should be same,
ex: Example.java
3. Open the command prompt and Compile the above program
javac Example.java
From the above compilation the java compiler produces a bytecode(.class file)
4. Finally run the program through the
interpreter java Example.java

Output of th e program:
Welcome to Programming in Java

Note:
 In Java all code must reside inside a class and name of that class should match the
name of the file that holds the program.
 Java is case-sensitive

Compiling the program

 To compile the program, execute the compiler ―javac‖, specifying the name of the
source file on the command line as shown below
C:\> javac Example.java
 The ―javac: compiler creates a file called ―Example.class‖ that contains the bytecode
version of the program.
 To run the program, we must use the java interpreter called ―java‖. To do so we pass
the class name ―Example‖ as a command-line argument as shown below
C:\> java Example
 When you run the program we get the output:
Welcome to Programming in Java

Description:

(1) Class declaration: ―class Example‖ declares a class, which is an object- oriented
construct. Sample one is a Java identifier that specifies the name of the class to
be defined.

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(2) Opening braces: Every class definition of Java starts with opening braces and ends with
matching one.
(3) The main line: the line ― public static void main(String args[]) ― defines a method
name main. Java application program must include this main. This is the starting point
of the interpreter from where it starts executing. A Java program can have any number
of classes but only one class will have the main method.
(4) Public: This key word is an access specifier that declares the main method as
unprotected and therefore making it accessible to the all other classes.
(5) Static: Static keyword defines the method as one that belongs to the entire class and not
for a particular object of the class. The main must always be declared as static.
(6) Void: the type modifier void specifies that the method main does not return any value.
(7) The println: It is a method of the object out of system class. It is similar to the printf
or cout of c or c++. This always appends a newline character to the end of the string
i.e, any subsequent output will start on a new line.

A Second Short Program

/* This is a short example

Name of file : Example2.java */
class Example2{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int n=3;
System.out.println(― the value of n is ―+n);
n=n+5;
System.out.print(― the new value is‖);
System.out.println(n);
}
}
Output:
the value of n is 3
the new value of n is 8

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The statement System.out.println(― the value of n is ―+n), the sign ―+‖ causes the value of
―n‖ to be appended to the string that preceeds it, and the resulting string is output.( Actually n is
first converted from an integer into its string equivalent and the concatenated with the string
that preceeds it)

The System.out.print( ) method is just like println( ) except that it does not output a newline
character after each call.

Two Control Statements

Here in this chapter initially we focus on two control statements if and for loop , the
detailed control statements will be discussed in module 2.

if statement

 The if- statement is the most basic of all the control flow statements. It tells your
program to execute a certain section of code only if a particular test evaluatesto
true.

 Here is the general form of the if statement:

if (condition) statement;
 Here the condition is Boolean expression.
 If the condition is true then the statement is executed, if false then statement will be
skipped.

Example:
class Example
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a=10;
if(a>0)
System.out.println(―a is positive number‖);
System.out.println(― End of program‖);
}

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}
In the above program since a is greater than o it prints the output as a is
positive number
End of program

If incase a is -1 or negative value the condition fails and it prints onlyEnd

of program

The for loop

 The for loop is similar to that of C/C++

 Here is the general form of the traditional for statement:
for(initialization; condition; iteration)
{
//body
}
 Initialization sets the loop control variable to initial value.
 Condition is a Boolean expression which tests the loop
 Iteration expression tells hoe the control variable has to change at each iteration.
Generally the increment or decrement operator is used to perform iteration.
Example:
class Example
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a;
for(a=0;a<5;a++)
System.out.println(a);
System.out.println(― End of program‖);
}
}
Output:0
1

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2
3
4
End of Program

Using blocks of code

 Java supports code blocks - which means that two or more statements are grouped
into blocks of code.
 Opening and closing braces is used to achieve this.
 Each block is treated as logical unit.
 Whenever two or more statements has to be linked blocks can be used.
Example:
class Example
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a=10;
if(a>0)
{ // begin of block
System.out.println(―a is positive number‖);
System.out.println(― inside block‖);
}// end of block
}
}

Lexical issues:
Java programs are a collection of whitespace, identifiers, literals, comments, operators,
separators, and keywords.
Whitespace:

 Java is a free from language- means no need to follow any indentation rules.
 Whitespace is a space, tab, or newline.

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Java character set:

 The smallest unit of Java language are its character set used to write Java tokens. This
character are defined by unicode character set that tries to create character for a large
number of character worldwide.
 The Unicode is a 16-bit character coding system and currently supports 34,000 defined
characters derived from 24 languages of worldwide.

Key Words:
Java program is basically a collection of classes. A class is defined by a set of declaration
statements and methods containing executable statements. Most statement contains an
expression that contains the action carried out on data. The compiler recognizes the tokens
for building up the expression and statements. Smallest individual units of programs are
known as tokens. Java language includes five types of tokens. They are
(a) Reserved Keyword
(b) Identifiers
(c) Literals.
(d) Operators
(e) Separators.
Reserved keyword:
Java language has 50 words as reserved keywords. They implement specific feature of the
language. The keywords combined with operators and separators according to syntax build
the Java language.

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Identifiers:
Identifiers are programmer-designed token used for naming classes methods variable,
objects, labels etc. The rules for identifiers are
1. They can have alphabets, digits, dollar sign and underscores.
2. They must not begin with digit.
3. Uppercase and lower case letters are distinct.
4. They can be any lengths.
5. Name of all public method starts with lowercase.
6. In case of more than one word starts with uppercase in next word.
7. All private and local variables use only lowercase and underscore.
8. All classes and interfaces start with leading uppercases.
9. Constant identifier uses uppercase letters only.

Example for valid identifiers:

Var_1, count, $value etc

Example for invalid identifiers:

6name, var@value, my/name etc

Literals:
Literals in Java are sequence of characters that represents constant values to be stored in
variables. Java language specifies five major types of Literals. They are:
1. Integer Literals.
2. Floating-point Literals.
3. Character Literals.
4. String Literals.
5. Boolean Literals.
Operators:
An operator is a symbol that takes one or more arguments and operates on them to produce an
result.

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Separators:
Separators are the symbols that indicates where group of code are divided and arranged.Some
of the operators are:

Comments:
 Java supports 3 styles of comments
 Multiline comment: this type of comment begins with /* and ends with */
Ex: /* Welcome to
Java Programming */
 Single line comments: this type of comment begins with // and ends at the end of
current line
Ex: // Welcome to java Programming
 Documentation Comment: this type of comment is used to produce an HTML file that
documents your program. The documentation comment begins with /** andends
with */

Java Class libraries:

Java environment has several built in class libraries.
Java standard library includes hundreds of classes and methods grouped into several
functional packages. Most commonly used packages are:
(a) Language support Package.
(b) Utilities packages.
(c) Input/output packages
(d) Networking packages
(e) AWT packages. Applet packages.

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Data types, variables and arrays

Java is a strongly typed language:

 The strongly typed nature of Java gives it the robustness and safety for it.
 Every variable and expression has strictly defined type.
 Assignments, parameter passing or explicit value passing are checked for type
compatibility.
 Java compiler checks all expressions and parameters to ensure type compatibility.

Data types
The various data types supported in java is as follows

Data types

Primitive Data type Non Primitive Data type

Numeric Non Numeric arrays

class

boolean interfaces
Integer Floating type
character string etc

byte float

short double
int
t
long i
v
e

Java defines eight primitive types of data: byte, short, int, long, char, float, double, and
boolean. As shown in above figure.
 The primitive types represent single values—not complex objects. Although Java is
otherwise completely object-oriented, the primitive types are not.

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 They are analogous to the simple types found in most other non–object-oriented
languages.
 The reason for this is efficiency. Making the primitive types into objects would have
degraded performance too much. The primitive types are defined to have an explicit
range and mathematical behavior.
 Because of Java‗s portability requirement, all data types have a strictly defined range.
For example, an int is always 32 bits, regardless of the particular platform.

Integers
 Java defines four integer types: byte, short, int, and long.
 All of these are signed, positive and negative values. Java does not support unsigned,
positive-only integers.
 Many other computer languages support both signed and unsigned integers.
 However, Java‗s designers felt that unsigned integers were unnecessary. Specifically,
they felt that the concept of unsigned was used mostly to specify the behavior of
the high-order bit, which defines the sign of an integer value.

byte
 The smallest integer type is byte.
 This is a signed 8-bit type that has a range from –128 to127.
 Variables of type byte are especially useful when you‗re working with a stream of
data from a network or file.
 Byte variables are declared by use of the byte keyword.
 For example, the following declares two byte variables called b and c: byte b, c;
short
 short is a signed 16-bit type.
 It has a range from –32,768 to 32,767.
 It is probably the least-used Java type.

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 Here are some examples of short variable declarations:

short s;
short t;

Floating-Point Types

 Floating-point numbers, also known as real numbers, are used when evaluating
expressions that require fractional precision.
 For example, calculations such as square root, or transcendental such as sine and
cosine, result in a value whose precision requires a floating-point type.
 There are two kinds of floating-point types, float and double, which represent
single- and double-precision numbers, respectively.
float
 The type float specifies a single-precision value that uses 32 bits of storage.
double
 Double precision, as denoted by the double keyword, uses 64 bits to store a value.
 Double precision is actually faster than single precision on some modern processors
that have been optimized for high-speed mathematical calculations.

Characters
 In Java, the data type used to store characters is char.
 However, C/C++ programmers beware: char in Java is not the same as char in C or
C++.
 In C/C++, char is 8 bits wide. This is not the case in Java. Instead, Java uses Unicode
to represent characters.
 Unicode defines a fully international character set that can represent all of the
characters found in all human languages.
 It is a unification of dozens of character sets, such as Latin, Greek
Arabic, Cyrillic,Hebrew, Katakana, Hangul, and many more. For this purpose, it
requires 16 bits.

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 Thus, in Java char is a 16-bit type. The range of a char is 0 to 65,536. There are no
negative

Booleans:
Java has a simple type called boolean for logical values. It can have only one of two possible
values. They are true or false.

Data Type Default Value Default size

boolean False 1 bit
Char '\u0000' 2 byte
Byte 0 1 byte
short 0 2 byte
Int 0 4 byte
Long 0L 8 byte
Float 0.0f 4 byte
double 0.0d 8 byte

Literals:
A constant value in Java is created by using a literal representation of it. There are 5 types of
literals.
 Integer Literals.
 Floating-point Literals.
 Character Literals.
 String Literals.
 Boolean Literals.
Integer literals:
 Any whole number value is an integer literal.
 These are all decimal values describing a base 10 number.
 There are two other bases which can be used in integer literal, octal( base 8) where 0
is prefixed with the value, hexadecimal (base 16) where 0X or 0x is prefixed with the
integer value.
Example:
int decimal = 100; int
octal = 0144; int
hexa = 0x64;

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Floating point literals:

 The default type when you write a floating-point literal is double, but you can
designate it explicitly by appending the D (or d) suffix
 However, the suffix F (or f) is appended to designate the data type of a floating-point
literal as float.
 We can also specify a floating-point literal in scientific notation using Exponent (short
E ore), for instance: the double literal 0.0314E2 is interpreted as:

Example:
0.0314 *10² (i.e 3.14).
6.5E+32 (or 6.5E32) Double-precision floating-point literal7D
Double-precision floating-point literal
.01f Floating-point literal

Character literals:
 char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character.
 We can specify a character literal as a single printable character in a pair of single
quote characters such as 'a', '#', and '3'.
 You must know about the ASCII character set. The ASCII character set includes 128
characters including letters, numerals, punctuation etc.
 Below table shows a set of these special characters.

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Boolean Literals:
 The values true and false are treated as literals in Java programming.
 When we assign a value to a Boolean variable, we can only use these two values.
 Unlike C, we can't presume that the value of 1 is equivalent to true and 0 is equivalent
to false in Java.
 We have to use the values true and false to represent a Boolean value.
Example
boolean chosen = true;

String Literal
 The set of characters in represented as String literals in Java.
 Always use "double quotes" for String literals.
 There are few methods provided in Java to combine strings, modify strings and to
know whether to strings have the same values.
Example:
―hello world‖
―Java‖

Variables:
A variable is an identifier that denotes a storage location used to store a data value. A
variable may have different value in the different phase of the program. To declare one
identifier as a variable there are certain rules. They are:
1. They must not begin with a digit.
2. Uppercase and lowercase are distinct.
3. It should not be a keyword.
4. White space is not allowed.

Declaring Variable: One variable should be declared before using.

The syntax is
type identifier [ = value][, identifier [= value] ...] ;
Example:
int a,b,c;
float quot, div;

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Initializing a variable:A variable can be initialize in two ways. They are

(a) Initializing by Assignment statements.
(b) Dynamic Initialisation
Initializing by assignment statements:
 One variable can be initialize using assignment statements. The syntax is :
Variable-name = Value;
Example: int a=10,b,c=16;
Double pi=3.147;

Dynamic initialization:
 Java allows variables to be initialized dynamically, using expression valid at the time
variable is declared.
Example:
class Example
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
double a=10, b=2.6;
double c=a/b;
System.out.println(―value of c is‖+c);
}
}

The Scope and Lifetime of Variables

 Java allows variables to be declared within any block. A block is begun with an
opening curly brace and ended by a closing curly brace. A block defines a scope.
 A scope determines what objects are visible to other parts of your program. It also
determines the lifetime of those objects.
 Many other computer languages define two general categories of scopes: global
and local. However, these traditional scopes do not fit well with Java‗s strict,
object-oriented model.
 As a general rule, variables declared inside a scope are not visible (that is, accessible)
to code that is defined outside that scope. Thus, when you declare a variable within a

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scope, you are localizing that variable and protecting it from unauthorized access
and/or modification.
class Scope
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x; // known to all code within main x = 10;if(x
== 10) // start new scope
{
int y = 20; // known only to this block
// x and y both known here.
System.out.println("x and y: " + x + " " + y); x = y * 2;
}
// y = 100; // Error! y not known here
// x is still known here. System.out.println("x is " + x);
}
}

Note:
 There should not be two variables with the same name in different scope.
 The variable at outer scope can be accessed in inner scope but vice versa is not
possible.

Type Conversion and casting

It is often necessary to store a value of one type into the variable of another type. In these
situations the value that to be stored should be casted to destination type. Assigning a value
of one type to a variable of another type is known as Type Casting .Type casting can be done
in two ways.
In Java, type casting is classified into two types,

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1. Widening Casting(Implicit)

2. Narrowing Casting(Explicitly done)

Widening or Automatic type converion

Automatic Type casting take place when,
the two types are compatible
the target type is larger than the source type

Example :

public class Test

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i = 100;
long l = i; //no explicit type casting required
float f = l; //no explicit type casting required
System.out.println("Int value "+i);
System.out.println("Long value "+l);
System.out.println("Float value "+f);
}

}
Output :

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Int value 100

Long value 100
Float value 100.0

Narrowing or Explicit type conversion

When you are assigning a larger type value to a variable of smaller type, then you need to
perform explicit type casting.
Example :
public class Test
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double d = 100.04;
long l = (long)d; //explicit type casting required
int i = (int)l; //explicit type casting required
System.out.println("Double value "+d);
System.out.println("Long value "+l);
System.out.println("Int value "+i);

}
Output :
Double value 100.04
Long value 100
Int value 100

Automatic type promotion in expressions:

 Type conversions also occurs in expressions.
 Java automatically promotes each byte, short, or char operand to int when evaluating
an expression.
byte b = 50;
b = b * 2; // Error! Cannot assign an int to a byte!

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the operands were automatically promoted to int when the expression was evaluated, theresult
has also been promoted to int. Thus, the result of the expression is now of type int,which
cannot be assigned to a byte without the use of a cast.

byte b = 50;
b = (byte)(b * 2); which yields the correct value of 100.

Java defines several type promotion rules that apply to expressions. They are as follows:
 First, all byte, short, and char values are promoted to int, as just described.
 Then, if one operand is a long, the whole expression is promoted to long.
 If one operand is a float, the entire expression is promoted to float.
 If any of the operands is double, the result is double.

Arrays in Java
Arraywhich stores a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same type.
An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an array
as a collection of variables of the same type.

Declaring Array Variables:

To use an array in a program, you must declare a variable to reference the array, and you
must specify the type of array the variable can reference. Here is the syntax for declaring
an array variable:

dataType[] arrayRefVar; or dataType arrayRefVar[];

Example:

The following code snippets are examples of this syntax:

int[] myList; or int myList[];

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Creating Arrays:

You can create an array by using the new operator with the following syntax:

arrayRefVar = new dataType[arraySize];

The above statement does two things:

It creates an array using new dataType[arraySize];

It assigns the reference of the newly created array to the variable arrayRefVar.

Declaring an array variable, creating an array, and assigning the reference of the array to the
variable can be combined in one statement, as shown below:

dataType[] arrayRefVar = new dataType[arraySize];

Alternatively you can create arrays as follows:

dataType[] arrayRefVar = {value0, value1, ..., valuek};

The array elements are accessed through the index. Array indices are 0-based; that is,they
start from 0 to arrayRefVar.length-1.

Example:

Following statement declares an array variable, myList, creates an array of 10 elements of

double type and assigns its reference to myList:

double[] myList = new double[10];

Following picture represents array myList. Here, myList holds ten double values and the
indices are from 0 to 9.

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Processing Arrays:
When processing array elements, we often use either for loop or foreach loop because all of
the elements in an array are of the same type and the size of the array is known.

Example:
Here is a complete example of showing how to create, initialize and process arrays: class
TestArray
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};

// Print all the array elementsfor

(int i = 0; i < 4; i++)
{
System.out.println(myList[i] + " ");
}
}

Multidimensional Arrays
Java does not support multidimensional arrays. However, you can declare and create an arrayof
arrays (and those arrays can contain arrays, and so on, for however many dimensions you
need), and access them as you would C-style multidimensional arrays:
int coords[] [] = new int[12] [12];

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coords[0] [0] = 1; coords[0] [1] = 2;

A few words about strings:

 Java supports string type which is an object. It is used to declare string variables
 Array of strings can also be declared.
 A string variable can be assigned to another string variable.
 String variable can also be used as argument.
Example:
String name1=‖gautham‖, name2; Name2=name1; //
sets name2 withvalue gautham
System.out.println(name2); // string variable passed as parameter.

Programs:
// Compute distance light travels using long variables.
class Light
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int lightspeed;
long days;
long seconds;
long distance; // approximate speed of light in miles per second
lightspeed = 186000;
days = 1000; // specify number of days here seconds =
days * 24 * 60 * 60; // convert to secondsdistance =
lightspeed * seconds; // compute distance
System.out.print("In " + days);
System.out.print(" days light will travel about ");
System.out.println(distance + " miles.");
}
}
This program generates the following output:

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In 1000 days light will travel about 16070400000000 miles.

// Compute the area of a circle.

class Area
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
double pi, r, a; r = 10.8; // radius of circle
pi = 3.1416; // pi, approximately
a = pi * r * r; // compute area System.out.println("Area
of circle is " + a);
}
}

// Demonstrate char data type.

class CharDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
char ch1, ch2; ch1 = 88; // code for X ch2
= 'Y';
System.out.print("ch1 and ch2: ");
System.out.println(ch1 + " " + ch2);
}
}
This program displays the following output:
ch1 and ch2: X Y

// char variables behave like integers.

class CharDemo2
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
char ch1; ch1 = 'X';

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System.out.println("ch1 contains " + ch1);

ch1++; // increment ch1
System.out.println("ch1 is now " + ch1);
}
}
The output generated by this program is shown here:
ch1 contains X ch1 is now Y

// Demonstrate boolean values.

class BoolTest
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
boolean b;b =
false;
System.out.println("b is " + b);b =
true;
System.out.println("b is " + b); // a boolean value can control the if statement if(b)
System.out.println("This is executed.");
b = false;
if(b)
System.out.println("This is not executed.");
System.out.println("10 > 9 is " + (10 > 9));
}
}
The output generated by this program is shown here:
b is falseb
is true
This is executed.
10 > 9 is true

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Scope of variable
class LifeTime
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x;
for(x = 0; x < 3; x++)
{
int y = -1; // y is initialized each time block is entered
System.out.println("y is: " + y); // this always prints -1
y = 100;
System.out.println("y is now: " + y);
}
}
}
The output generated by this program is shown here:y is:
-1
y is now: 100y is:
-1
y is now: 100
y is: -1
y is now: 100

Type conversion
class Conversion
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
byte b;
int i = 257;
double d = 323.142; System.out.println("\nConversion
of int to byte.");b = (byte) i;
System.out.println("i and b " + i + " " + b);

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System.out.println("\nConversion of double to int.");

i = (int) d;
System.out.println("d and i " + d + " " + i); System.out.println("\nConversion
of double to byte.");
b = (byte) d; System.out.println("d and b " + d + " " + b);
}
}
This program generates the following output:
Conversion of int to byte.i
and b 257 1
Conversion of double to int.
d and i 323.142 323
Conversion of double to byte.
d and b 323.142 67

Additional:
Applications of Java

 Some of the applications of Java is that internet users can use Java to create applet
programs and run them using a web-browser.
 The first application program written in Java was HotJava, a web browser to run applet
on internet.(An applet is a special kind of Java program that is designed to be
transmitted over the internet and automatically executed by a Jva compatible web
browser)
 Further internet users can also set up their websites containing java applets,that could
be used by other remote users of the internet. Hence Java is popularly called as ―
Language of Internet‖.
 Before the invention of Java, world wide web was limited to displaying text and still
images. However, the incorporation of Java into web pages has made web capable of
supporting animations, graphics, games and wide range of special effects.

We can develop two types of Java application. They are:

(1). Stand alone Java application.
(2). Web applets.

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Stand alone Java application: Stand alone Java application are programs
written in Java to carry out certain tasks on a certain stand alone system. Executing
a stand-alone Java program contains two phases:
(a) Compiling source coded into bytecode using javac compiler.
(b) Executing the bytecodede program using Java interpreter.
Java applet: Applets are small Java program developed for Internet
application. An applet located on a distant computer can be downloaded via
Internet and execute on local computer.

Java Environment:
 Java environment includes a large number of development tools and hundred of
classes and methods.
 The development tools are part of the system known as Java Development Kit(JDK)
 The classes and methods area apart of the Java Standard Library (JSL) also known
as Application Program Interface (API)
 JRE(java runtime environment) consists of tools required to execute the java code,
contianing JVM, runtime class libraries, user interface toolkits.

Java Development Kit:

The Java Development Kit comes with a collection of tools that are used for developing and
running java programs. They include,
 applet viewer: Enables us to run java applet (without actually using a Java
compatible browser)
 java: Java interpreter, which runs applets and applications by reading and interpreting
bytecode files.
 javac: the Java compiler, which translates java source code to bytecode files that the
interpreter can understand.
 javadoc: creates HTML format documentation from java source code.
 javah: produces header files for use with native methods.
 javap: Java disassembler, which enables us to convert bytecode files into a program
description.

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 jdb: Java debugger, which helps to find errors in programs.

Java Standard Library(JSL):

Java standard library includes hundreds of classes and methods grouped into several
functional packages. Most commonly used packages are:
(g) Language support Package.
(h) Utilities packages.
(i) Input/output packages
(j) Networking packages
(k) AWT packages.
(l) Applet packages.

JVM(Java Virtual Machine):

The concept of Write-once-run-anywhere (known as the Platform independent) is
one of the important key feature of java language that makes java as the most powerful
language. Not even a single language is idle to this feature but java is closer to this feature.
The programs written on one platform can run on any platform provided the platform must
have the JVM (Java Virtual Machine). A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a virtual machine
that can execute Java bytecode. It is the code execution component of the Java software
platform. The below figure shows the JVM

Fig: Java Virtual Machine

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Java is iterpreted:
Java as a language initially gained popularity mainly due to its platform independentarchitecture
or portaibility feature. The reason for Java to be portable is that it is interpreted.Firstly Java
compiler translates source code into bytecode(an intermediate representation). This byte code
is given as an input to the Java interpreter that generates the machine code that can be
executed by the native system. So we call java as an interpreter language.

The Bytecode:
This concept allows java to solve both security and portability problems. When the source
program is given as an input to the Java compiler, it will never generate the machine level
language executable code, rather it generates ―bytecode‖.
Bytecodes are highly optimized set if instructions designed to be executed by the java runtime
system called JVM. Translating a java program into bytecode makes it much easier to run a
program in a wide variety of environment because only the JVM needs to be implemented
for each platform.

Implementing a Java program: Java program implementation contains three

stages.They are:
1. Create the source code.
2. Compile the source code.
3. Execute the program.
(1) Create the source code:
1. Any editor can be used to create the Java source code.
2. After coding the Java program must be saved in a file having the same
nameof the class containing main() method.
3. Java code file must have .Java extension.

(2) Compile the source code:

1. Compilation of source code will generate the bytecode.
2. JDK must be installed before completion.
3. Java program can be compiled by typing javac<filename>.java
4. It will create a file called <filename>.class containing thebytecode.

(3) Executing the program:

1. Java program once compiled can be run at any system.
2. Java program can be execute by typing Java<filename>
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Control Statements
 Java’s program control statements can be put into the following categories: selection,
iteration, and jump.
 Selection statements allow your program to choose different paths of execution based
upon the outcome of an expression or the state of a variable.
 Iteration statements enable program execution to repeat one or more statements (that
is, iteration statements form loops).
 Jump statements allow your program to execute in a nonlinear fashion.

Java’s Selection Statements

 Java supports two selection statements: if and switch.

The if statement
 The if statement executes a block of code only if the specified expression is true.
 If the value is false, then the if block is skipped and execution continues with the rest
of the program.
 You can either have a single statement or a block of code within an if statement.
 Note that the conditional expression must be a Boolean expression.

Syntax:
if (<conditional expression>) {
<statements>
}

Example:
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b)
System.out.println("a > b");
if (a < b)

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System.out.println("b > a");

}
}

The if else statement

 The if statement is Java’s conditional branch statement. It can be used to route
program execution through two different paths.
 Here is the general form of the if statement:

Syntax:
if (condition)
statement1;
else statement2;

 Here, each statement may be a single statement or a compound statement enclosed in

curly braces (that is, a block).
 The condition is any expression that returns a boolean value. The else clause is
optional.
 The if works like this: If the condition is true, then statement1 is executed. Otherwise,
statement2 (if it exists) is executed.
Example:
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b)
System.out.println("a > b");
else
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}

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Nested ifs
 A nested if is an if statement that is the target of another if or else.
 When you nest ifs, the main thing to remember is that an else statement always refers
to the nearest if statement that is within the same block as the else and that is not already
associated with an else.
Here is an
example:
if(i == 10) {
if(j < 20) a = b;
if(k > 100) c = d; // this if is
else a = c; // associated with this else
}
else a = d; // this else refers to if(i == 10)

The if-else-if Ladder

 A common programming construct that is based upon a sequence of nested ifs is the
if-else-if ladder.
 It looks like this:

if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
...
else
statement;

 The if statements are executed from the top down.

 As soon as one of the conditions controlling the if is true, the statement associated
with that if is executed, and the rest of the ladder is bypassed.
 If none of the conditions is true, then the final else statement will be executed.

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Example:
class IfElse {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int month = 4; // April
String season;
if(month == 12 || month == 1 || month == 2)
season = "Winter";
else if(month == 3 || month == 4 || month == 5)
season = "Spring";
else if(month == 6 || month == 7 || month == 8)
season = "Summer";
else if(month == 9 || month == 10 || month == 11)
season = "Autumn";
else
season = "Bogus Month";
System.out.println("April is in the " + season + ".");
}
}

The switch statement

 The switch case statement is a multi-way branch with several choices. A switch is
easier to implement than a series of if/else statements.
Structure of Switch:
 The switch statement begins with a keyword, followed by an expression that equates
to a no long integral value.
 Following the controlling expression is a code block that contains zero or more
labeled cases.
 Each label must equate to an integer constant and each must be unique.

Working of switch case:

 When the switch statement executes, it compares the value of the controlling
expression to the values of each case label.

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 The program will select the value of the case label that equals the value of the
controlling expression and branch down that path to the end of the code block.
 If none of the case label values match, then none of the codes within the switch
statement code block will be executed. Java includes a default label to use in cases
where there are no matches.
 We can have a nested switch within a case block of an outer switch.

Syntax:
switch (<non-long integral expression>) {
case label1: <statement1> ; break;
case label2: <statement2> ; break;
…
case labeln: <statementn> ; break;
default: <statement>
}

Example:
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 10, b = 20, c = 30;
int status = -1;
if (a > b && a > c) {
status = 1;
} else if (b > c) {
status = 2;
} else {
status = 3;
}
switch (status) {
case 1:
System.out.println("a is the greatest");
break;
case 2:

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System.out.println("b is the greatest");

break;
case 3:
System.out.println("c is the greatest");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Cannot be determined");
}
}
}

 The break statement is optional. If you omit the break, execution will continue on
into the next case.
 It is sometimes desirable to have multiple cases without break statements between
them.
 For example, consider the following program:
// In a switch, break statements are optional.class
MissingBreak {
public static void main(String args[]) {
for(int i=0; i<12; i++) switch(i)
{
case 0:
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
System.out.println("i is less than 5");
break;
case 5:
case 6:
case 7:
case 8:
case 9:

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System.out.println("i is less than 10");

break;
default:
System.out.println("i is 10 or more");
}
}
}

Nested switch Statements

 You can use a switch as part of the statement sequence of an outer switch. This is
called a nested switch.
 Since a switch statement defines its own block, no conflicts arise between the case
constants in the inner switch and those in the outer switch.
 For example, the following fragment is perfectly valid:
switch(count) {
case 1:
switch(target) { // nested switch
case 0:
System.out.println("target is zero");
break;
case 1: // no conflicts with outer switch
System.out.println("target is one");
break;
}
break;
case 2: // ...

In summary, there are three important features of the switch statement to note:
 The switch differs from the if in that switch can only test for equality, whereas if can
evaluate any type of Boolean expression. That is, the switch looks only for a match
between the value of the expression and one of its case constants.
 No two case constants in the same switch can have identical values. Of course, a
switch statement and an enclosing outer switch can have case constants in common.
 A switch statement is usually more efficient than a set of nested ifs.

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Iteration Statements

The while loop

 The while statement is a looping construct control statement that executes a block of
code while a condition is true.
 You can either have a single statement or a block of code within the while loop.
 The loop will never be executed if the testing expression evaluates to false.
 The loop condition must be a boolean expression.

Syntax:
while (<loop condition>) {
<statements>
}

Example:
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
while (count <= 10) {
System.out.println(count++);
}
}
}

The do-while loop

 The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the test is performed at the
end of the loop instead of at the beginning.
 This ensures that the loop will be executed at least once.
Syntax:
do {
<loop body>
} while (<loop condition>);

Example:

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 OOP With Java BCS306A
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
do {
System.out.println(count++);
} while (count <= 10);
}
}

The for loop

 The for loop is a looping construct which can execute a set of instructions a specified
number of times. It’s a counter controlled loop.

Syntax:
for (<initialization>; <loop condition>; <increment expression>) {
<loop body>
}

Example:
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
for (int count = 1; count <= 10; count++) {
System.out.println(count);
}
}
}

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

Declaring Loop Control Variables Inside the for Loop

 Often the variable that controls a for loop is only needed for the purposes of the loop
and is not used elsewhere.
 When this is the case, it is possible to declare the variable inside the initialization
portion of the for.
class ForTick {
public static void main(String args[]) {
// here, n is declared inside of the for loop
for(int n=10; n>0; n--)
System.out.println("tick " + n);
}
}
 When you declare a variable inside a for loop, there is one important point to
remember: the scope of that variable ends when the for statement does

Using the Comma

 There will be times when you will want to include more than one statement in the
initialization and iteration portions of the for loop.
class Comma {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a, b;
for(a=1, b=4; a<b; a++, b--) {
System.out.println("a = " + a);
System.out.println("b = " + b);
}
}
}

Some for Loop Variations

 The for loop supports a number of variations that increase its power and applicability.
The reason it is so flexible is that its three parts—the initialization, the conditional test,
and the iteration—do not need to be used for only those purposes can be used for any
purpose you desire.

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

 One of the most common variations involves the conditional expression.

 Specifically, this expression does not need to test the loop control variable against some
target value. In fact, the condition controlling the for can be any Boolean expression.
For example, consider the following fragment:
boolean done = false; for(int
i=1; !done; i++) {
// ...
if(interrupted()) done = true;
}
In this example, the for loop continues to run until the boolean variable done is set to true.It
does not test the value of i.

 Here is another interesting for loop variation. Either the initialization or the iteration
expression or both may be absent, as in this next program:
// Parts of the for loop can be empty. class
ForVar {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int i;
boolean done = false;i =
0;
for( ; !done; ) {
System.out.println("i is " + i);if(i
== 10) done = true;
i++;
}
}
}
Here, the initialization and iteration expressions have been moved out of the for. Thus, partsof
the for are empty

 Here is one more for loop variation. You can intentionally create an infinite loop (a
loop that never terminates) if you leave all three parts of the for empty.
 For example:

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

for( ; ; ) {
// ...
}
This loop will run forever because there is no condition under which it will terminate.

The For-Each Version of the for Loop

 Beginning with JDK 5, a second form of for was defined that implements a “for-
each” style loop.
 The general form of the for-each version of the for is shown here:

for(type itr-var : collection)

statement-block

 Here, type specifies the type and itr-var specifies the name of an iteration variable
that will receive the elements from a collection, one at a time, from beginning to end.
 The collection being cycled through is specified by collection.
 There are various types of collections that can be used with the for, but the only type
used in this chapter is the array.
Working:
 With each iteration of the loop, the next element in the collection is retrieved and
stored in itr-var.
 The loop repeats until all elements in the collection have been obtained.
 Because the iteration variable receives values from the collection, type must be the
same as (or compatible with) the elements stored in the collection.
 Thus, when iterating over arrays, type must be compatible with the base type of the
array.
class ForEach {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int nums[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };
int sum = 0; for(int x :
nums) {
sum += x;
}

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

System.out.println("Summation: " + sum);

}
}
 With each pass through the loop, x is automatically given a value equal to the next
element in nums. Thus, on the first iteration, x contains 1; on the second iteration, x
contains 2; and so on.
 Not only is the syntax streamlined, but it also prevents boundary errors.

For example, this program sums only the first five elements of nums:
class ForEach2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int sum = 0;
int nums[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };
// use for to display and sum the values
for(int x : nums) {
sum += x;
if(x == 5) break; // stop the loop when 5 is obtained
}
System.out.println("Summation of first 5 elements: " + sum);
}
}

Iterating Over Multidimensional Arrays

 The enhanced version of the for also works on multidimensional arrays.
 Remember, however, that in Java, multidimensional arrays consist of arrays of
arrays. (For example, a two-dimensional array is an array of one-dimensional arrays.)
class ForEach3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int sum = 0;
int nums[][] = new int[3][5];
// give nums some values
for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
for(int j=0; j < 5; j++)

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

nums[i][j] = (i+1)*(j+1);
// use for-each for to display and sum the values
for(int x[] : nums) {
for(int y : x) {
sum += y;
}
}
System.out.println("Summation: " + sum);
}
}
 In the program, pay special attention to this line:
for(int x[] : nums) {
 Notice how x is declared. It is a reference to a one-dimensional array of integers.
 This is necessary because each iteration of the for obtains the next array in nums,
beginning with the array specified by nums[0].
 The inner for loop then cycles through each of these arrays, displaying the values of
each element.

Java program to search given key element

class Search {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int nums[] = { 6, 8, 3, 7, 5, 6, 1, 4 };
int val = 5;
boolean found = false;
// use for-each style for to search nums for val
for(int x : nums) {
if(x == val) {
found = true;
break;
}
}
if(found)
System.out.println("Value found!");

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

}
}

Nested Loops
 Like all other programming languages, Java allows loops to be nested.
 That is, one loop may be inside another. For example, here is a program that nests for
loops:
class Nested {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int i, j;
for(i=0; i<10; i++) {
for(j=i; j<10; j++)
System.out.print(".");
System.out.println();
}
}
}

Jump Statements
 Java supports three jump statements: break, continue, and return. These statements
transfer control to another part of your program.

The break statement

 The break statement transfers control out of the enclosing loop (for, while, do or
switch statement).
 You use a break statement when you want to jump immediately to the statement
following the enclosing control structure.
 You can also provide a loop with a label, and then use the label in your break
statement.
 The label name is optional, and is usually only used when you wish to terminate the
outermost loop in a series of nested loops.

Syntax:
break; // the unlabeled form
break <label>; // the labeled form

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

Example for break:

public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Numbers 1 - 10");
for (int i = 1;; ++i) {
if (i == 11)
break;
System.out.println(i + "\t");
}
}
}

Example for labeled break:

class Break {
public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean t = true;
first: {
second: {
third: {
System.out.println("Before the break.");
if(t) break second; // break out of second block
System.out.println("This won't execute");
}
System.out.println("This won't execute");
}

System.out.println("This is after second block.");

}
}
}
Running this program generates the following output:
Before the break.
This is after second block.

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

The continue statement

 A continue statement stops the iteration of a loop (while, do or for) and causes
execution to resume at the top of the nearest enclosing loop.
 You use a continue statement when you do not want to execute the remaining
statements in the loop, but you do not want to exit the loop itself.
 You can also provide a loop with a label and then use the label in your continue
statement.
 The label name is optional, and is usually only used when you wish to return to the
outermost loop in a series of nested loops.

Syntax:
continue; // the unlabeled form
continue <label>; // the labeled form

Example for continue:

public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Odd Numbers");
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; ++i) {
if (i % 2 == 0)
continue;
System.out.println(i + "\t");
}
}
}
Example for labelled continue:
class ContinueLabel {
public static void main(String args[]) {
outer: for (int i=0; i<10; i++) {
for(int j=0; j<10; j++) {
if(j > i) {
System.out.println();
continue outer;
}

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 OOP With Java BCS306A

System.out.print(" " + (i * j));

}
}
System.out.println();
}
}

The return statement

 The return statement exits from the current method, and control flow returns towhere the
method was invoked.

Syntax:
The return statement has two forms:
One that returns a value
return val;
One that doesn't returns a value
return;

Example:
public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int res = sum(10, 20);
System.out.println(res);
}
private static int sum(int a, int b) {
return (a + b);
}
}
OOP With Java BCS306A