(a)(i) Determining the Empirical Formula of X

Step 1: Calculate the moles of C and H:

* Moles of carbon (C) = (2.82 g CO₂) / (44.01 g/mol CO₂) = 0.064 mol C

* Moles of hydrogen (H) = (1.71 g H₂O) / (18.02 g/mol H₂O) * 2 = 0.19 mol H

Step 2: Find the simplest whole-number ratio of moles:

* Divide the moles of each element by the smallest number of moles:

* C: 0.064 mol / 0.064 mol = 1

* H: 0.19 mol / 0.064 mol ≈ 3

Therefore, the empirical formula of X is CH₃.

(a)(ii) Effects of Burning Compound X on the Environment

Burning compound X, which contains carbon and hydrogen, will likely produce carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
water (H₂O) as the main products. These compounds contribute to various environmental issues:

* Greenhouse effect: Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming and
climate change.

* Acid rain: When sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released during combustion, they can react with water
in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acid, leading to acid rain.

* Air pollution: Burning organic compounds can release particulate matter and other pollutants into the
air, which can have negative effects on human health and the environment.

(b)(i) Determining the Molecular Formula of X

Given:

* Empirical formula: CH₃

* Molecular ion peak: m/e = 62

Calculation:

* The molecular weight of the empirical formula CH₃ is 12 + 3 = 15.

* To determine the molecular formula, divide the molecular ion peak (62) by the empirical formula
mass (15): 62 / 15 ≈ 4.13.

* Since the ratio is approximately 4, the molecular formula is 4 times the empirical formula.
Therefore, the molecular formula of X is C₄H₁₂.

(b)(ii) Identifying the Species Responsible for the Peaks

* m/e = 17: This likely corresponds to the CH₃⁺ ion, which is formed by the loss of a hydrogen atom from
the molecular ion.

* m/e = 31: This could be due to the C₂H₅⁺ ion, formed by the cleavage of a C-C bond in the molecule.

* m/e = 45: This might represent the C₃H₅⁺ ion, resulting from further fragmentation of the molecule.

* m/e = 62: This is the molecular ion peak, representing the intact molecule of X (C₄H₁₂).

(a)(iii) Drawing the Displayed Formula of X

C₄H₁₂ can be represented by various structural isomers. One possible displayed formula is:

H-C-H

H-C-H

H-C-H

This is a branched chain structure, but other isomers are possible.

(a)(iv) Solubility of X in Water

C₄H₁₂ is a hydrocarbon, which are generally nonpolar molecules. Water is a polar molecule. The "like
dissolves like" principle states that polar substances are more soluble in polar solvents, and nonpolar
substances are more soluble in nonpolar solvents.

Therefore, C₄H₁₂ (X) is expected to have low solubility in water. It is more likely to be soluble in nonpolar
solvents like hexane or benzene.

(b)(i) Buffering Effect of Ammonia and Ammonium Chloride

A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. A mixture of
ammonia (NH₃) and ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) acts as a buffer solution because:

* NH₃ is a weak base that can accept protons (H⁺).

* NH₄Cl is a salt that dissociates to form NH₄⁺ ions, which can donate protons.

When an acid is added to the buffer solution, the NH₃ reacts with the H⁺ ions to form NH₄⁺, neutralizing
the acid and preventing a significant decrease in pH. When a base is added, the NH₄⁺ ions donate
protons to neutralize the base, preventing a significant increase in pH.

Equations:

* NH₃ + H⁺ → NH₄⁺

* NH₄⁺ → NH₃ + H⁺

(b)(ii) Calculating Concentrations

Given:

* Volume of ammonium chloride solution = 500 cm³ = 0.5 L

* Concentration of ammonium chloride = 0.004 mol/dm³

* Volume of ammonia solution = 500 cm³ = 0.5 L

* Concentration of ammonia = 0.003 mol/dm³

Calculations:

1. Ammonium chloride:

* Moles of ammonium chloride = concentration × volume = 0.004 mol/dm³ × 0.5 L = 0.002 mol

* Total volume of the mixture = 0.5 L + 0.5 L = 1 L

* Concentration of ammonium chloride in the mixture = moles / total volume = 0.002 mol / 1 L = 0.002
mol/dm³

2. Ammonia:

* Moles of ammonia = concentration × volume = 0.003 mol/dm³ × 0.5 L = 0.0015 mol

* Concentration of ammonia in the mixture = moles / total volume = 0.0015 mol / 1 L = 0.0015 mol/dm³

Question 3: Chemistry

(a) General Outer Shell Electronic Structure of Group (IV) Elements

Answer:

* Outer shell electronic configuration: ns²np²

Where:

* n is the principal quantum number (e.g., for carbon, n = 2)

(b) Difference in Melting Points of Graphite and Diamond

Answer:

The difference in melting points between graphite and diamond is primarily due to their distinct crystal
structures:

* Graphite: Has a layered structure, where each layer is held together by strong covalent bonds.
However, the layers are held together by weak intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces). This allows
the layers to slide past each other relatively easily, requiring less energy to break the structure, resulting
in a lower melting point.

* Diamond: Has a three-dimensional network structure with strong covalent bonds between every
carbon atom. This creates a very rigid and tightly packed structure, requiring significantly more energy
to break, leading to a much higher melting point.

(c) Unreactivity of Nitrogen

Answer:

(i) Explanation of Unreactivity

Nitrogen is relatively unreactive due to its triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the N₂
molecule. This triple bond is very strong and requires a high amount of energy to break, making it
difficult for nitrogen to form new bonds with other elements.

(ii) Reactions Under Natural Conditions and Human Activities

1. Human Activity:

* Haber Process: This process is used to synthesize ammonia (NH₃) from nitrogen and hydrogen gases.

* Equation: N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) → 2NH₃(g)

2. Natural:

* Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria: Certain bacteria, such as Rhizobium, can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia, which can then be used by plants.

* Equation: N₂(g) + 6H⁺(aq) → 2NH₃(aq)

(d) Trend in Thermal Stability of Group (II) Nitrates

Answer:

The thermal stability of Group (II) nitrates increases as you move down the group (Be to Ba). This trend
can be explained by:

* Polarizing Power of Cations: As the size of the cation increases down the group, its polarizing power
decreases. This means it is less able to distort the electron cloud of the nitrate ion.

* Nitrate Ion Stability: When the nitrate ion is not significantly distorted, it is more stable and less likely
to decompose.

* Decomposition: Less stable nitrates decompose more easily upon heating, releasing nitrogen dioxide
(NO₂) and oxygen gas. Therefore, the thermal stability increases as the nitrate ion becomes less
distorted.

Question 3: Chemistry

(a) General Outer Shell Electronic Structure of Group (IV) Elements

Answer:

* Outer shell electronic configuration: ns²np²

Where:

* n is the principal quantum number (e.g., for carbon, n = 2)

(b) Difference in Melting Points of Graphite and Diamond

Answer:

The difference in melting points between graphite and diamond is primarily due to their distinct crystal
structures:

* Graphite: Has a layered structure, where each layer is held together by strong covalent bonds.
However, the layers are held together by weak intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces). This allows
the layers to slide past each other relatively easily, requiring less energy to break the structure, resulting
in a lower melting point.

* Diamond: Has a three-dimensional network structure with strong covalent bonds between every
carbon atom. This creates a very rigid and tightly packed structure, requiring significantly more energy
to break, leading to a much higher melting point.

(c) Unreactivity of Nitrogen

Answer:
(i) Explanation of Unreactivity

Nitrogen is relatively unreactive due to its triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the N₂
molecule. This triple bond is very strong and requires a high amount of energy to break, making it
difficult for nitrogen to form new bonds with other elements.

(ii) Reactions Under Natural Conditions and Human Activities

1. Human Activity:

* Haber Process: This process is used to synthesize ammonia (NH₃) from nitrogen and hydrogen gases.

* Equation: N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) → 2NH₃(g)

2. Natural:

* Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria: Certain bacteria, such as Rhizobium, can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia, which can then be used by plants.

* Equation: N₂(g) + 6H⁺(aq) → 2NH₃(aq)

(d) Trend in Thermal Stability of Group (II) Nitrates

Answer:

The thermal stability of Group (II) nitrates increases as you move down the group (Be to Ba). This trend
can be explained by:

* Polarizing Power of Cations: As the size of the cation increases down the group, its polarizing power
decreases. This means it is less able to distort the electron cloud of the nitrate ion.

* Nitrate Ion Stability: When the nitrate ion is not significantly distorted, it is more stable and less likely
to decompose.

* Decomposition: Less stable nitrates decompose more easily upon heating, releasing nitrogen dioxide
(NO₂) and oxygen gas. Therefore, the thermal stability increases as the nitrate ion becomes less
distorted.

Question 4: Organic Chemistry

(a)(i) Condition for Benzaldehyde to X

Condition: Alkaline conditions (e.g., NaOH)

Reason:

* The reaction is a nucleophilic addition reaction.

* The hydroxide ion (OH-) acts as the nucleophile, attacking the carbonyl carbon of benzaldehyde.
* Under alkaline conditions, the hydroxide ion is more nucleophilic than water.

(a)(ii) Displayed Formula of Compound D

Displayed Formula:

H-C-OH

CH₂NH₂

(b)(i) Reagent for Reaction II

Reagent: KCN (Potassium cyanide)

Production:

* Potassium cyanide is produced by reacting hydrogen cyanide (HCN) with potassium hydroxide (KOH).

* The reaction is: HCN + KOH → KCN + H₂O

(b)(ii) Reagents and Conditions for Reactions III and IV

Reaction III:

* Reagents: Cr₂O₇²⁻/H⁺ (Dichromate ions and acid)

* Conditions: Warm conditions

Reaction IV:

* Reagents: H₂/Ni catalyst

* Conditions: Room temperature and pressure

Chromium is used to electroplate steel parts for several reasons:

1. Corrosion Resistance: Chromium forms a hard, protective oxide layer (chromium oxide) on the surface
of the steel. This layer is highly resistant to corrosion, making the electroplated steel parts more durable
and less susceptible to rusting.
2. Hardness and Wear Resistance: Chromium is a very hard metal, and its electroplated coating adds
hardness and wear resistance to the steel surface. This is particularly beneficial for components that
experience abrasion or friction, such as machine parts and tools.

3. Aesthetic Appeal: Chromium has a bright, shiny finish that is aesthetically pleasing. This makes it a
popular choice for decorative items, such as automotive trim and kitchen appliances.

4. Chemical Resistance: Chromium is resistant to many chemicals, including acids and alkalis. This makes
it suitable for applications in environments where exposure to corrosive substances is a concern.

5. Improved Lubrication: The smooth surface of chromium can improve the lubrication properties of the
steel part, reducing friction and wear.

6. Increased Strength: Although chromium itself is not as strong as some other metals, the electroplating
process can introduce compressive stresses into the steel surface. This can increase the overall strength
and fatigue resistance of the steel part.

7. Cost-Effectiveness: Electroplating with chromium is a relatively cost-effective process compared to

other surface treatments, such as hot-dip galvanizing or alloying.

Overall, chromium's combination of corrosion resistance, hardness, aesthetic appeal, chemical

resistance, and other properties make it an ideal choice for electroplating steel parts in a wide range of
applications.

Question 5: Organic Chemistry and Environmental Chemistry

(a)(i) Type of Polymerisation for PHB

Answer: Condensation polymerization

Explanation:

* In condensation polymerization, two monomers react to form a polymer, with the elimination of a
small molecule (often water).

* In the case of PHB, the monomers are hydroxybutyric acid molecules, which react to form the
polymer through the elimination of water molecules.

(a)(ii) Reaction of PHB with Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide

Answer:

When aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is spilled on PHB, a hydrolysis reaction occurs. The ester
linkages in the PHB polymer are broken down, forming sodium salts of hydroxybutyric acid.

Explanation:
 * The hydroxide ion (OH-) from NaOH acts as a nucleophile, attacking the carbonyl carbon of the ester
linkage.

* This leads to the cleavage of the ester bond, forming a carboxylate ion (sodium salt) and an alcohol.

(b)(i) Equations for the Catalysis of Sulfuric Acid Formation by Nitrogen Oxides

Answer:

Step 1: Oxidation of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) by ozone (O₃):

NO + O₃ → NO₂ + O₂

Step 2: Reaction of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) with water (H₂O) to form nitric acid (HNO₃) and nitrous acid
(HNO₂):

2NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ + HNO₂

Step 3: Oxidation of nitrous acid (HNO₂) by oxygen (O₂) to form nitric acid (HNO₃):

2HNO₂ + O₂ → 2HNO₃

Step 4: Reaction of nitric acid (HNO₃) with sulfur dioxide (SO₂) to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄):

2HNO₃ + SO₂ → H₂SO₄ + 2NO

The type of catalyst involved in the reaction of oxides of nitrogen to form sulfuric acid in the atmosphere
is heterogeneous catalysis.

Here's why:

* Heterogeneous catalysis involves a catalyst that is in a different phase from the reactants and
products. In the case of atmospheric sulfuric acid formation, the catalyst (usually particulate matter or
dust) is a solid, while the reactants and products are gases.

* The catalyst provides a surface for the reactants to adsorb onto. This brings the molecules into close
proximity and reduces the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.

* The catalytic process involves the formation of intermediate species on the catalyst surface, which can
then react further to produce the final products.

Examples of heterogeneous catalysts involved in atmospheric sulfuric acid formation include:

* Particulate matter: This can include soot, dust, and aerosols, which can act as surfaces for the
adsorption of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.

* Metal oxides: Metal oxides, such as iron oxide and manganese oxide, can also catalyze the oxidation
of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide, which can then react with water to form sulfuric acid.
Therefore, heterogeneous catalysis plays a crucial role in the formation of sulfuric acid in the
atmosphere, contributing to acid rain and air pollution.

Question 6: Chemistry

(c) Effect of SO₂ or SO₃ in Rainwater

(i) Limestone Sculptures

Limestone is primarily calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). Sulfur oxides react with rainwater to form sulfuric
acid (H₂SO₄). The sulfuric acid reacts with the calcium carbonate in limestone, causing it to erode and
dissolve.

Equation:

CaCO₃(s) + H₂SO₄(aq) → CaSO₄(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)

(ii) Steel Structures

Steel is primarily iron (Fe). Sulfur oxides in rainwater react with iron to form iron(III) sulfate (Fe₂(SO₄)₃),
which can cause rusting.

Equation:

2Fe(s) + 3H₂SO₄(aq) → Fe₂(SO₄)₃(aq) + 3H₂(g)

(d) Health Concerns Associated with Nanoparticle Sunscreens

Nanoparticles in sunscreens can penetrate the skin and potentially enter the bloodstream. This raises
concerns about their potential toxicity and long-term health effects. Some potential health concerns
include:

* Cellular damage: Nanoparticles can cause oxidative stress and damage to cells.

* Organ toxicity: Nanoparticles may accumulate in organs like the liver and kidneys, potentially causing
toxicity.

* Allergic reactions: Some individuals may develop allergic reactions to nanoparticle-containing

sunscreens.

* Environmental impact: Nanoparticles can enter the environment through wastewater and have
unknown effects on ecosystems.

Note: While there is ongoing research into the safety of nanoparticle sunscreens, it is essential to be
aware of these potential risks and choose sunscreen products that are formulated with safety in mind.

(a)(i) Zwitterion of Proline

A zwitterion is a molecule with both positive and negative charges. In the case of proline, the amino
group (NH₂) can accept a proton, becoming positively charged (NH₃⁺), while the carboxylic acid group
(COOH) can donate a proton, becoming negatively charged (COO⁻).

Structure of the zwitterion of proline:

H-N⁺-CH-CH₂-COOH

CH₂-CH₂

Question 7: Biochemistry and Environmental Science

(a)(ii) Structure of the Dipeptide Formed

Structure:

H-N-C-H

| |

R₁ O

||

C-N-C-H

| |

R₂ OH

Where:

* R₁ is the side chain of proline (pyrrolidine ring)

* R₂ is the side chain of alanine (methyl group)

(a)(iii) Type of Reaction

Reaction: Peptide bond formation

(b) Electrophoresis of Amino Acids at Different pH Values

The net charge on an amino acid depends on the pH of the solution. At low pH (acidic conditions), the
amino group (NH₂) will be protonated (NH₃⁺), giving the amino acid a positive charge. At high pH
(alkaline conditions), the carboxylic acid group (COOH) will lose a proton (COO⁻), giving the amino acid a
negative charge. At the isoelectric point (pI), the amino acid has no net charge.

During electrophoresis, charged molecules will migrate towards the electrode with the opposite charge.
Therefore, the migration of an amino acid in electrophoresis will depend on its net charge, which is
influenced by the pH of the solution.

(c)(i) Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the study and manipulation of matter at the nanoscale, typically defined as 1-100
nanometers.

(c)(ii) Medical Application of Nanotechnology

Example: Drug delivery systems

Nanoparticles can be designed to deliver drugs specifically to target cells or tissues, reducing side effects
and improving treatment efficacy.

(c)(iii) Advantage and Disadvantage of Drug Delivery Systems

Advantage:

* Targeted drug delivery can reduce systemic toxicity and improve treatment outcomes.

Disadvantage:

* There may be challenges in ensuring the nanoparticles reach their intended targets and are not
degraded or cleared before reaching the site of action.

(d) Why Landfills Are Not Suitable for Disposing Radioactive Waste

Reason:

Radioactive waste has a long half-life, meaning it remains hazardous for a very long time. Landfills are
not designed to contain radioactive materials, and there is a risk of leakage and contamination of
groundwater and the environment. Additionally, the long-term stability of landfills is uncertain, and
there is a risk of erosion and other factors that could lead to the release of radioactive materials.