Research methodology

UNIT – II Sampling

Sampling is the selection of a subset of the population of interest in a research

study. In the vast majority of research endeavors, the participation of an entire
population of interest is not possible, so a smaller group is relied upon for data
collection.
Sampling is the process of choosing the group from which you will collect data
for your research. Those individuals who make up a sample are taken from a larger
population.
Sample Design
The 5 steps of sampling are as follows:
1. Identification of Target Population The term "target population" describes the set of
people or things that researchers are interested in generalising their findings to. A
clearly defined population decreases the likelihood of undesired people or things.
2. Sampling Frame selection
The set of people or things from which the researcher will select a sample is known as
the sampling frame. The actual list of every unit in the target population is what is used
to create the sample.
3. Sampling Technique to be used
There are two methods for sampling: probability (random selection) and non-
probability (non-random) methods. Random selection may be used for samples if the
sampling frame and the target population are the same.
4. Sample Size
The quantity of units in the sample is referred to as the sample size. Determining
the sample size depends on several variables, including time, cost, and facility.
5. Execution of the Sampling Plan
The researcher can use all of this knowledge to carry out the sampling plan and
gather the data needed for the research once the population, sampling frame, sampling
technique, and sample size have been determined.
Types of sampling design in research methodology
When creating a sample design, a researcher decides from who or what they'll
collect data. They also choose the techniques and procedures they'll use to select items
or individuals for the sample. There are several types of sample design that fall into two
main categories:
Probability sampling
This sampling method uses a random sample from the pool of people or items
you're interested in, called the population, and is random or chance sampling. Every
person or item in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Using this
method is the best way to get a truly representative sample, and researchers can
generalize the study's results to the entire population.
Non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is not random, as the researcher deliberately selects
people or items for the sample. Researchers also refer to this method as deliberate
sampling, judgment sampling or purposive sampling. Every person or item in the
population doesn't have an equal chance of being selected, and the results are typically
not generalizable to the entire population.
What is Probability Sampling?
The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this
method, all the eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the
whole sample space. This method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-
probability sampling method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it
guarantees the sample that should be the representative of the population.
Probability Sampling Types
Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered
sampling. Let us discuss the different types of probability sampling methods along with
illustrative examples here in detail.
Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal
and likely chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely
depends on the chance, this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the
sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative
Sampling”.
Systematic Sampling
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target
population by selecting the random selection point and selecting the other methods after
a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population size by the
desired population size.
Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller
groups to complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few
characteristics in the population. After separating the population into a smaller group,
the statisticians randomly select the sample.
Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from
the population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have
an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple random
sampling for the cluster of population.

What is Non-Probability Sampling?

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher
selects the sample based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In
this method, not all the members of the population have a chance to participate in the
study.
Non-Probability Sampling Types
Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types,
such as convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental
sampling, snowball sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability
sampling in detail.
Convenience Sampling
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population
directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are
easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire
population.
Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation.
The researcher picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the
researcher researches for a period of time to analyze the result and move to another
group if needed.
Quota Sampling
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the
individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The
researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population.
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s
knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the
chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also
known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this
method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of
a population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong
to the same targeted population.
 Sampling Error

Sampling error is the deviation between a sample (the mean or proportion) and
the corresponding population parameter. Reducing it aims to improve statistical
estimates’ accuracy and reliability and minimize the risk of making incorrect inferences
about the population.

⮚ Sampling error is the variation between a sample and the corresponding

population parameter. This is due to the natural variation that arises when a
random sample is selected from a population.
⮚ It uses mathematical formulas and depends on factors like the sample size,
population standard deviation, and confidence level.
⮚ It can lead to imprecise or biased estimates of population parameters. This can
have significant implications for research findings, policy decisions, and business
decisions.
Population specification error

A population specification error occurs when researchers don’t know precisely

who to survey.

For example, imagine a research study about kid’s apparel. Who is the right person
to survey? It can be both parents, only the mother, or the child. The parents make
purchase decisions, but the kids may influence their choice.

Sample frame error

Sampling frame error occurs when researchers target the sub-population wrongly
while selecting the sample.

For example, picking a sampling frame from the telephone white pages book may
have erroneous inclusions because people shift their cities. Erroneous exclusions
occur when people prefer to un-list their numbers. Wealthy households may have
more than one connection, thus leading to multiple inclusions.

Selection error

Selection error occurs when respondents self-select themselves to participate in

the study. You can control selection errors by going the extra step to request
responses from the entire sample. Only interested ones respond.

Pre-survey planning, follow-ups, and a neat and clean survey design will boost
respondents’ participation rate. Also, try sampling methods like CATI surveys and
in-person interviews to maximize responses.
Sampling errors
Sampling errors occur due to a disparity in the representativeness of the
respondents. It majorly happens when the researcher does not plan his sample
carefully.

These sampling errors can be controlled and eliminated by creating a careful

sample design, having a large enough sample to reflect the entire population, or
using an online sample or survey audiences to collect responses.
What are the steps to reduce sampling errors?

Sampling errors are easy to identify. Here are a few simple steps to reduce
sampling error:
Increase sample size
A larger sample size is more accurate because the study gets closer to the actual
population size.
Divide the population into groups

Test groups according to their size in the population instead of a random sample.
For example, if people of a specific demographic make up 20% of the population, make
sure that your study is made up of this variable to reduce sampling bias.
Know your population
Study your population and understand its demographic mix. Know what
demographics use your product and service and ensure you only target the sample that
matters. We have also created a tool to help you determine your sample size easily:
Sample Size Calculator.
A sampling error is measurable, and researchers can use it to their advantage to
estimate their findings’ accuracy and variance.

Unit-III

What is Data Collection?

Data collection is the process of collecting and evaluating information or data

from multiple sources to find answers to research problems, answer questions, evaluate
outcomes, and forecast trends and probabilities. It is an essential phase in all types of
research, analysis, and decision-making, including that done in the social sciences,
business, and healthcare.

Accurate data collection is necessary to make informed business decisions,

ensure quality assurance, and keep research integrity.

During data collection, the researchers must identify the data types, the sources
of data, and what methods are being used. We will soon see that there are many
different data collection methods. There is heavy reliance on data collection in research,
commercial, and government fields.
 ⮚ What’s the goal or purpose of this research?
⮚ What kinds of data are they planning on gathering?
⮚ What methods and procedures will be used to collect, store, and process the
information?

Additionally, we can break up data into qualitative and quantitative types.

Qualitative data covers descriptions such as color, size, quality, and appearance.
Quantitative data, unsurprisingly, deals with numbers, such as statistics, poll numbers,
percentages, etc.

What Are the Different Data Collection Methods?

Primary and secondary methods of data collection are two approaches used to gather
information for research or analysis purposes. Let's explore each data collection method
in detail:

1. Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection involves the collection of original data directly from the
source or through direct interaction with the respondents. This method allows
researchers to obtain firsthand information specifically tailored to their research
objectives. There are various techniques for primary data collection, including:

a. Surveys and Questionnaires: Researchers design structured questionnaires or

surveys to collect data from individuals or groups. These can be conducted through
face-to-face interviews, telephone calls, mail, or online platforms.
b. Interviews: Interviews involve direct interaction between the researcher and the
respondent. They can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video
conferencing. Interviews can be structured (with predefined questions), semi-structured
(allowing flexibility), or unstructured (more conversational).

c. Observations: Researchers observe and record behaviors, actions, or events in their

natural setting. This method is useful for gathering data on human behavior,
interactions, or phenomena without direct intervention.
d. Experiments: Experimental studies involve the manipulation of variables to observe
their impact on the outcome. Researchers control the conditions and collect data to
draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships.
e. Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small group of individuals who discuss
specific topics in a moderated setting. This method helps in understanding opinions,
perceptions, and experiences shared by the participants.

2. Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection involves using existing data collected by someone else for a
purpose different from the original intent. Researchers analyze and interpret this data to
extract relevant information. Secondary data can be obtained from various sources,
including:
a. Published Sources: Researchers refer to books, academic journals, magazines,
newspapers, government reports, and other published materials that contain relevant
data.
b. Online Databases: Numerous online databases provide access to a wide range of
secondary data, such as research articles, statistical information, economic data, and
social surveys.
c. Government and Institutional Records: Government agencies, research
institutions, and organizations often maintain databases or records that can be used for
research purposes.
d. Publicly Available Data: Data shared by individuals, organizations, or communities
on public platforms, websites, or social media can be accessed and utilized for research.
e. Past Research Studies: Previous research studies and their findings can serve as
valuable secondary data sources. Researchers can review and analyze the data to gain
insights or build upon existing knowledge.

Data Collection Tools

Now that we’ve explained the various techniques, let’s narrow our focus even
further by looking at some specific tools. For example, we mentioned interviews as a
technique, but we can further break that down into different interview types (or
“tools”).
Word Association
The researcher gives the respondent a set of words and asks them what comes to
mind when they hear each word.
Sentence Completion
Researchers use sentence completion to understand what kind of ideas the
respondent has. This tool involves giving an incomplete sentence and seeing how the
interviewee finishes it.
Role-Playing
Respondents are presented with an imaginary situation and asked how they
would act or react if it was real.
In-Person Surveys
The researcher asks questions in person.
Online/Web Surveys
These surveys are easy to accomplish, but some users may be unwilling to
answer truthfully, if at all.
Mobile Surveys
These surveys take advantage of the increasing proliferation of mobile
technology. Mobile collection surveys rely on mobile devices like tablets or
smartphones to conduct surveys via SMS or mobile apps.
Phone Surveys
No researcher can call thousands of people at once, so they need a third party to
handle the chore. However, many people have call screening and won’t answer.
Observation
Sometimes, the simplest method is the best. Researchers who make direct
observations collect data quickly and easily, with little intrusion or third-party bias.
Naturally, it’s only effective in small-scale situations.

Quantitative and qualitative data

Quantitative = Quantity
Quantitative data are
❖ measures of values or counts and are expressed as numbers.
❖ data about numeric variables (e.g. how many, how much or how often).
Qualitative = Quality
Qualitative data are
❖ measures of 'types' and may be represented by a name, symbol, or a number
code.
❖ Qualitative data are data about categorical variables (e.g. what type).
Data collected about a numeric variable will always be quantitative and data
collected about a categorical variable will always be qualitative. Therefore, you can
identify the type of data, prior to collection, based on whether the variable is numeric or
categorical.

Example of how quantitative and qualitative data can be gathered from the same data
unit

Data unit Numeric variable = Quantitative Categorical variable = Qualitative

data data
"How many children 4 children "In which country India
do you have?" were your children
born?"
A "How much do you $60,000 "What is your Photograph
person earn?" p.a. occupation?" er

"How many hours 38 hours "Do you work full-

Full-time
do you work?" per week time or part-time?"
200
"How many square "In which city or town
A house square Bangaluru
metres is the house?" is the house located?"
metres

"How many workers 264

A "What is the industry
are currently employee Retail
business of the business?"
employed?" s
"How many milk
"What is the main
A farm cows are located on 36 cows Dairy
activity of the farm?"
the farm?"
A Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the

purpose of gathering information from respondents. Questionnaires can be thought of as
a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone,
computer or post.

Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick, and efficient way of obtaining

large amounts of information from a large sample of people.

Data can be collected relatively quickly because the researcher would not need to
be present when completing the questionnaires. This is useful for large populations
when interviews would be impractical.

However, a problem with questionnaires is that respondents may lie due to social
desirability. Most people want to present a positive image of themselves and so may lie
or bend the truth to look good, e.g., pupils would exaggerate revision duration.

Questionnaires can be an effective means of measuring the behavior, attitudes,

preferences, opinions, and intentions of relatively large numbers of subjects more
cheaply and quickly than other methods.
Often a questionnaire uses both open and closed questions to collect data. This is
beneficial as it means both quantitative and qualitative data can be obtained.
Questionnaire methods
Open-ended questions
Open format questions or open-ended questions give your audience an
opportunity to express their opinions in a free-flowing manner. These questions don't
have predetermined set of responses and the respondent is free to answer whatever
he/she feels right. By including open format questions in your questionnaire, you can
get true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions. Qualitative questions fall under
this category.
An ideal questionnaire would include an open-ended question at the end of the
questionnaire that seeks feedback and/or suggestions for improvements from
respondents.

1. How do you deal with stress in the workplace?

2. What is a typical day at work like for you?

Closed-ended questions
 Multiple choice questions, where respondents are restricted to choose among any
of the given multiple choice answers are known as closed format or closed-ended
questions. There is no fixed limit as to how many multiple choices should be given; the
number can be even or odd.
One of the main advantages of including closed format questions in your
questionnaire design is the ease at performing preliminary analysis. These questions are
ideal for calculating statistical data and percentages, as the answers set is known.
Closed ended questions can also be asked to different groups at different intervals to
efficiently track their opinion about a product/service/company over time. Closed-
ended questions can be further classified into 7 types.
Are you satisfied with the current work-from-home policies?

(A)Yes (B) No

ABC Corporation’s products have to improve an quality?

1.Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3.Neither agree or disagree 4. Disagree 5.Strongly disagree

How would you rate the service of xyz corporation?

1.Excellent 2. Very good 3. fair 4. Poor 5. Very Poor.

Types of Research Questions

There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

1. Descriptive. When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or

what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of
people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For
instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a
Democratic or a Republican in the next presidential election, we are simply
interested in describing something.
2. Relationship. When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two
or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males
and females say they would vote for a Democratic or a Republican candidate in
 the next presidential election is essentially studying the relationship between
gender and voting preference.
3. Causal. When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables
(e.g., a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome
variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent
political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially
be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who
would vote Democratic or Republican (effect).

The three question types can be viewed as cumulative. That is, a relational study
assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables
you are trying to relate. And, a causal study assumes that you can describe both the
cause and effect variables and that you can show that they are related to each other.
Causal studies are probably the most demanding of the three.