C H A P T E R 3 5

Interference
35-1 LIGHT AS A WAVE
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
35.01 Using a sketch, explain Huygens’ principle. 35.08 For light in a certain length of a material, calculate
35.02 With a few simple sketches, explain refraction in the number of internal wavelengths that fit into the
terms of the gradual change in the speed of a wave- length.
front as it passes through an interface at an angle to 35.09 If two light waves travel through different materials
the normal. with different indexes of refraction and then reach a
35.03 Apply the relationship between the speed of light common point, determine their phase difference and
in vacuum c, the speed of light in a material v, and the interpret the resulting interference in terms of maximum
index of refraction of the material n. brightness, intermediate brightness, and darkness.
35.04 Apply the relationship between a distance L in a 35.10 Apply the learning objectives of Module 17-3
material, the speed of light in that material, and the time (sound waves there, light waves here) to find the phase
required for a pulse of the light to travel through L. difference and interference of two waves that reach a
35.05 Apply Snell’s law of refraction. common point after traveling paths of different lengths.
35.06 When light refracts through an interface, identify 35.11 Given the initial phase difference between two
that the frequency does not change but the wave- waves with the same wavelength, determine their
length and effective speed do. phase difference after they travel through different path
35.07 Apply the relationship between the wavelength in lengths and through different indexes of refraction.
vacuum λ, the wavelength λn in a material (the internal 35.12 Identify that rainbows are examples of optical
wavelength), and the index of refraction n of the material. interference.

Key Ideas
● The three-dimensional transmission of waves, includ- ● The wavelength λn of light in a medium depends on the
ing light, may often be predicted by Huygens’ principle, index of refraction n of the medium:
which states that all points on a wavefront serve as point λ
sources of spherical secondary wavelets. After a time t, λn = ,
n
the new position of the wavefront will be that of a surface
tangent to these secondary wavelets. in which λ is the wavelength in vacuum.
● The law of refraction can be derived from Huygens’ ● Because of this dependency, the phase difference
principle by assuming that the index of refraction of any between two waves can change if they pass through
medium is n = c/v, in which v is the speed of light in the different materials with different indexes of refraction.
medium and c is the speed of light in vacuum.

What Is Physics?
One of the major goals of physics is to understand the nature of light. This
goal has been difficult to achieve (and has not yet fully been achieved) because
light is complicated. However, this complication means that light offers many
opportunities for applications, and some of the richest opportunities involve the
interference of light waves — optical interference.
Nature has long used optical interference for coloring. For example, the
wings of a Morpho butterfly are a dull, uninspiring brown, as can be seen on the
1047
1048 CHAPTER 35 INTERFERENCE

bottom wing surface, but the brown is hidden on the top surface by an arrest-
ing blue due to the interference of light reflecting from that surface (Fig. 35-1).
Moreover, the top surface is color-shifting; if you change your perspective or
if the wing moves, the tint of the color changes. Similar color shifting is used
in the inks on many currencies to thwart counterfeiters, whose copy machines
can duplicate color from only one perspective and therefore cannot duplicate
any shift in color caused by a change in perspective.
To understand the basic physics of optical interference, we must largely
abandon the simplicity of geometrical optics (in which we describe light as
rays) and return to the wave nature of light.

Light as a Wave
Philippe Colombi/PhotoDisc/Getty Images, Inc.
The first convincing wave theory for light was in 1678 by Dutch physicist
Figure 35-1 The blue of the top surface of Christian Huygens. Mathematically simpler than the electromagnetic theory
a Morpho butterfly wing is due to optical of Maxwell, it nicely explained reflection and refraction in terms of waves
interference and shifts in color as your and gave physical meaning to the index of refraction.
viewing perspective changes. Huygens’ wave theory is based on a geometrical construction that
allows us to tell where a given wavefront will be at any time in the future if we
know its present position. Huygens’ principle is:

b d
All points on a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical secondary wavelets.
After a time t, the new position of the wavefront will be that of a surface tangent
to these secondary wavelets.

c Δt Here is a simple example. At the left in Fig. 35-2, the present location of a wavefront
of a plane wave traveling to the right in vacuum is represented by plane ab, perpen-
dicular to the page. Where will the wavefront be at time Δt later? We let several
points on plane ab (the dots) serve as sources of spherical secondary wavelets that
are emitted at t = 0. At time Δt, the radius of all these spherical wavelets will have
Wavefront at New position
grown to c Δt, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. We draw plane de tangent to
t=0 of wavefront these wavelets at time Δt. This plane represents the wavefront of the plane wave at
at time t = Δt time Δt; it is parallel to plane ab and a perpendicular distance c Δt from it.

a e The Law of Refraction

Figure 35-2 The propagation of a plane We now use Huygens’ principle to derive the law of refraction, Eq. 33-40 (Snell’s
wave in vacuum, as portrayed by Huygens’ law). Figure 35-3 shows three stages in the refraction of several wavefronts at a flat
principle. interface between air (medium 1) and glass (medium 2). We arbitrarily choose
the wavefronts in the incident light beam to be separated by λ1, the wavelength
in medium 1. Let the speed of light in air be v1 and that in glass be v2. We assume
that v2 < v1, which happens to be true.
Refraction occurs at the
surface, giving a new
direction of travel.

e
λ1
λ1 Incident wave θ1
h θ2 c
λ2
g Refracted wave λ2
θ1 v1
Air v2
Glass

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 35-3 The refraction of a plane wave at an air – glass interface, as portrayed by Huygens’ principle. The wavelength in glass is smaller
than that in air. For simplicity, the reflected wave is not shown. Parts (a) through (c) represent three successive stages of the refraction.
 35-1 LIGHT AS A WAVE 1049

Angle θ1 in Fig. 35-3a is the angle between the wavefront and the interface; it
has the same value as the angle between the normal to the wavefront (that is, the
incident ray) and the normal to the interface. Thus, θ1 is the angle of incidence.
As the wave moves into the glass, a Huygens wavelet at point e in Fig. 35-3b
will expand to pass through point c, at a distance of λ1 from point e. The time
interval required for this expansion is that distance divided by the speed of the
wavelet, or λ1/v1. Now note that in this same time interval, a Huygens wavelet
at point h will expand to pass through point g, at the reduced speed v2 and with
wavelength λ2. Thus, this time interval must also be equal to λ2/v2. By equating
these times of travel, we obtain the relation
λ1 v
= 1, (35-1)
λ2 v2
which shows that the wavelengths of light in two media are proportional to the
speeds of light in those media.
By Huygens’ principle, the refracted wavefront must be tangent to an arc
of radius λ2 centered on h, say at point g. The refracted wavefront must also be
tangent to an arc of radius λ1 centered on e, say at c. Then the refracted wavefront
must be oriented as shown. Note that θ2, the angle between the refracted wave-
front and the interface, is actually the angle of refraction.
For the right triangles hce and hcg in Fig. 35-3b we may write
λ1
sin θ 1 = (for triangle hce)
hc
λ2
and sin θ 2 = (for triangle hcg).
hc
Dividing the first of these two equations by the second and using Eq. 35-1, we find
sin θ 1 λ v
= 1 = 1. (35-2)
sin θ 2 λ2 v2
We can define the index of refraction n for each medium as the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light v in the medium. Thus,
c
n= (index of refraction). (35-3)
v

In particular, for our two media, we have

c c
n1 = and n2 = .
v1 v2
We can now rewrite Eq. 35-2 as
sin θ 1 c/n1 n
= = 2
sin θ 2 c/n2 n1

or n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (law of refraction), (35-4)

as introduced in Chapter 33.

Checkpoint 1
The figure shows a monochromatic ray of light travel- b
ing across parallel interfaces, from an original mate- a c a
rial a, through layers of materials b and c, and then
back into material a. Rank the materials according to
the speed of light in them, greatest first.
1050 CHAPTER 35 INTERFERENCE

Wavelength and Index of Refraction

We have now seen that the wavelength of light changes when the speed of the
light changes, as happens when light crosses an interface from one medium into
another. Further, the speed of light in any medium depends on the index of
refraction of the medium, according to Eq. 35-3. Thus, the wavelength of light
in any medium depends on the index of refraction of the medium. Let a certain
monochromatic light have wavelength λ and speed c in vacuum and wavelength
λn and speed v in a medium with an index of refraction n. Now we can rewrite
Eq. 35-1 as
v
λn = λ . (35-5)
c
Using Eq. 35-3 to substitute 1/n for v/c then yields
λ
λn = . (35-6)
n
This equation relates the wavelength of light in any medium to its wavelength in
vacuum: A greater index of refraction means a smaller wavelength.
Next, let fn represent the frequency of the light in a medium with index of
refraction n. Then from the general relation of Eq. 16-13 (v = λf ), we can write
v
fn = .
λn
Substituting Eqs. 35-3 and 35-6 then gives us
c/n c
fn = = = f,
λ/n λ
where f is the frequency of the light in vacuum. Thus, although the speed and
The difference in indexes wavelength of light in the medium are different from what they are in vacuum, the
causes a phase shift frequency of the light in the medium is the same as it is in vacuum.
between the rays. Phase Difference. The fact that the wavelength of light depends on the
index of refraction via Eq. 35-6 is important in certain situations involving the
n2
interference of light waves. For example, in Fig. 35-4, the waves of the rays (that is,
the waves represented by the rays) have identical wavelengths λ and are initially
n1
in phase in air (n ≈ 1). One of the waves travels through medium 1 of index of
L refraction n1 and length L. The other travels through medium 2 of index of refrac-
tion n2 and the same length L. When the waves leave the two media, they will
Figure 35-4 Two light rays travel through
have the same wavelength — their wavelength λ in air. However, because their
two media having different indexes of
refraction. wavelengths differed in the two media, the two waves may no longer be in phase.

The phase difference between two light waves can change if the waves travel
through different materials having different indexes of refraction.

As we shall discuss soon, this change in the phase difference can determine how
the light waves will interfere if they reach some common point.
To find their new phase difference in terms of wavelengths, we first count the
number N1 of wavelengths there are in the length L of medium 1. From Eq. 35-6,
the wavelength in medium 1 is λn1 = λ/n1; so
L Ln1
N1 = = . (35-7)
λn1 λ
Similarly, we count the number N2 of wavelengths there are in the length L of
medium 2, where the wavelength is λn2 = λ/n2:
L Ln2
N2 = = . (35-8)
λn2 λ
 35-1 LIGHT AS A WAVE 1051

To find the new phase difference between the waves, we subtract the smaller of
N1 and N2 from the larger. Assuming n2 > n1, we obtain
Ln2 Ln1 L
N2 − N1 = − = (n2 − n1). (35-9)
λ λ λ

Suppose Eq. 35-9 tells us that the waves now have a phase difference of
45.6 wavelengths. That is equivalent to taking the initially in-phase waves and
shifting one of them by 45.6 wavelengths. However, a shift of an integer number
of wavelengths (such as 45) would put the waves back in phase; so it is only the
decimal fraction (here, 0.6) that is important. A phase difference of 45.6 wave-
lengths is equivalent to an effective phase difference of 0.6 wavelength.
A phase difference of 0.5 wavelength puts two waves exactly out of phase.
If the waves had equal amplitudes and were to reach some common point, they
would then undergo fully destructive interference, producing darkness at that
point. With a phase difference of 0.0 or 1.0 wavelength, they would, instead,
undergo fully constructive interference, resulting in brightness at the common
point. Our phase difference of 0.6 wavelength is an intermediate situation but
closer to fully destructive interference, and the waves would produce a dimly
illuminated common point.
We can also express phase difference in terms of radians and degrees, as we
have done already. A phase difference of one wavelength is equivalent to phase
differences of 2π rad and 360°.
Path Length Difference. As we discussed with sound waves in Module
17-3, two waves that begin with some initial phase difference can end up with
a different phase difference if they travel through paths with different lengths
before coming back together. The key for the waves (whatever their type might
be) is the path length difference ΔL, or more to the point, how ΔL compares to
the wavelength λ of the waves. From Eqs. 17-23 and 17-24, we know that, for light
waves, fully constructive interference (maximum brightness) occurs when

ΔL
= 0, 1, 2, . . . (fully constructive interference), (35-10)
λ

and that fully destructive interference (darkness) occurs when

ΔL
= 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, . . . (fully destructive interference). (35-11)
λ

Intermediate values correspond to intermediate interference and thus also

illumination.

Rainbows and Optical Interference

In Module 33-5, we discussed how the colors of sunlight are separated into a
rainbow when sunlight travels through falling raindrops. We dealt with a sim-
plified situation in which a single ray of white light entered a drop. Actually,
light waves pass into a drop along the entire side that faces the Sun. Here we
cannot discuss the details of how these waves travel through the drop and then
emerge, but we can see that different parts of an incoming wave will travel dif-
ferent paths within the drop. That means waves will emerge from the drop with
different phases. Thus, we can see that at some angles the emerging light will
be in phase and give constructive interference. The rainbow is the result of such
constructive interference. For example, the red of the rainbow appears because
waves of red light emerge in phase from each raindrop in the direction in which
you see that part of the rainbow. The light waves that emerge in other direc-
tions from each raindrop have a range of different phases because they take
1052 CHAPTER 35 INTERFERENCE

a range of different paths through each drop. This light is neither bright nor
colorful, and so you do not notice it.
If you are lucky and look carefully below a primary rainbow, you can see dimmer
Primary colored arcs called supernumeraries (Fig. 35-5). Like the main arcs of the rainbow,
rainbow
Supernumeraries
the supernumeraries are due to waves that emerge from each drop approximately
in phase with one another to give constructive interference. If you are very lucky
Figure 35-5 A primary rainbow and the and look very carefully above a secondary rainbow, you might see even more (but
faint supernumeraries below it are due to even dimmer) supernumeraries. Keep in mind that both types of rainbows and both
optical interference. sets of supernumeraries are naturally occurring examples of optical interference and
naturally occurring evidence that light consists of waves.

Checkpoint 2
The light waves of the rays in Fig. 35-4 have the same wavelength and amplitude and are
initially in phase. (a) If 7.60 wavelengths fit within the length of the top material and 5.50
wavelengths fit within that of the bottom material, which material has the greater index
of refraction? (b) If the rays are angled slightly so that they meet at the same point on
a distant screen, will the interference there result in the brightest possible illumination,
bright intermediate illumination, dark intermediate illumination, or darkness?

Sample Problem 35.01 Phase difference of two waves due to difference in refractive indexes
In Fig. 35-4, the two light waves that are represented by the Thus, the phase difference of the emerging waves is 2.84 wave-
rays have wavelength 550.0 nm before entering media 1 and 2. lengths. Because 1.0 wavelength is equivalent to 2π rad and
They also have equal amplitudes and are in phase. Medium 1 360°, you can show that this phase difference is equivalent to
is now just air, and medium 2 is a transparent plastic layer of
index of refraction 1.600 and thickness 2.600 μm. phase difference = 17.8 rad ≈ 1020°. (Answer)

(a) What is the phase difference of the emerging waves in The effective phase difference is the decimal part of
wavelengths, radians, and degrees? What is their effective the actual phase difference expressed in wavelengths. Thus,
phase difference (in wavelengths)? we have

KEY IDEA effective phase difference = 0.84 wavelength. (Answer)

You can show that this is equivalent to 5.3 rad and about
The phase difference of two light waves can change if they
300°. Caution: We do not find the effective phase difference
travel through different media, with different indexes of
by taking the decimal part of the actual phase difference
refraction. The reason is that their wavelengths are different
as expressed in radians or degrees. For example, we do not
in the different media. We can calculate the change in phase
take 0.8 rad from the actual phase difference of 17.8 rad.
difference by counting the number of wavelengths that fits
into each medium and then subtracting those numbers. (b) If the waves reached the same point on a distant screen,
what type of interference would they produce?
Calculations: When the path lengths of the waves in the
two media are identical, Eq. 35-9 gives the result of the sub- Reasoning: We need to compare the effective phase differ-
traction. Here we have n1 = 1.000 (for the air), n2 = 1.600, ence of the waves with the phase differences that give the
L = 2.600 μm, and λ = 550.0 nm. Thus, Eq. 35-9 yields extreme types of interference. Here the effective phase dif-
ference of 0.84 wavelength is between 0.5 wavelength (for
L fully destructive interference, or the darkest possible result)
N2 − N1 = (n2 − n1)
λ and 1.0 wavelength (for fully constructive interference, or
the brightest possible result), but closer to 1.0 wavelength.
2.600 × 10−6 m
= (1.600 − 1.000) Thus, the waves would produce intermediate interference
5.500 × 10−7 m that is closer to fully constructive interference — they would
= 2.84. (Answer) produce a relatively bright spot.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

 35-2 YOUNG’S INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT 1053

35-2 YOUNG’S INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
35.13 Describe the diffraction of light by a narrow slit and and the angles θ to the minima (dark fringes) and to the
the effect of narrowing the slit. maxima (bright fringes) in the interference pattern.
35.14 With sketches, describe the production of the inter- 35.19 Sketch the double-slit interference pattern,
ference pattern in a double-slit interference experiment identifying what lies at the center and what the
using monochromatic light. various bright and dark fringes are called (such as
35.15 Identify that the phase difference between two “first side maximum” and “third order”).
waves can change if the waves travel along paths of 35.20 Apply the relationship between the distance D
different lengths, as in the case of Young’s experiment. between a double-slit screen and a viewing screen,
35.16 In a double-slit experiment, apply the relationship the angle θ to a point in the interference pattern,
between the path length difference ΔL and the wave- and the distance y to that point from the pattern’s
length λ, and then interpret the result in terms of inter- center.
ference (maximum brightness, intermediate brightness, 35.21 For a double-slit interference pattern, identify
and darkness). the effects of changing d or λ and also identify what
35.17 For a given point in a double-slit interference pat- determines the angular limit to the pattern.
tern, express the path length difference ΔL of the rays 35.22 For a transparent material placed over one slit in a
reaching that point in terms of the slit separation d and Young’s experiment, determine the thickness or index
the angle θ to that point. of refraction required to shift a given fringe to the cen-
35.18 In a Young’s experiment, apply the relationships ter of the interference pattern.
between the slit separation d, the light wavelength λ,

Key Ideas
● In Young’s interference experiment, light passing through a single slit falls on two slits in a screen. The light leaving
these slits flares out (by diffraction), and interference occurs in the region beyond the screen. A fringe pattern, due to
the interference, forms on a viewing screen.
● The conditions for maximum and minimum intensity are

d sin θ = mλ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (maxima — bright fringes),

1
d sin θ = (m + 2 )λ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (minima — dark fringes),

where θ is the angle the light path makes with a central axis and d is the slit separation.

Diffraction
In this module we shall discuss the experiment that first proved that light is
a wave. To prepare for that discussion, we must introduce the idea of diffraction
of waves, a phenomenon that we explore much more fully in Chapter 36. Its
essence is this: If a wave encounters a barrier that has an opening of dimensions
similar to the wavelength, the part of the wave that passes through the opening
will flare (spread) out — will diffract — into the region beyond the barrier. The
flaring is consistent with the spreading of wavelets in the Huygens construction
of Fig. 35-2. Diffraction occurs for waves of all types, not just light waves;
Fig. 35-6 shows the diffraction of water waves traveling across the surface of water
in a shallow tank. Similar diffraction of ocean waves through openings in a bar-
rier can actually increase the erosion of a beach the barrier is intended to protect.

Figure 35-6 Waves produced by an oscillating paddle at the left flare out through
an opening in a barrier along the water surface. George Resch/Fundamental Photographs
1054 CHAPTER 35 INTERFERENCE

A wave passing through Figure 35-7a shows the situation schematically for an incident plane wave of
a slit flares (diffracts). wavelength λ encountering a slit that has width a = 6.0λ and extends into and out
of the page. The part of the wave that passes through the slit flares out on the far
side. Figures 35-7b (with a = 3.0λ) and 35-7c (a = 1.5λ) illustrate the main feature
Incident Diffracted of diffraction: the narrower the slit, the greater the diffraction.
wave wave Diffraction limits geometrical optics, in which we represent an electromag-
λ netic wave with a ray. If we actually try to form a ray by sending light through
a narrow slit, or through a series of narrow slits, diffraction will always defeat our
a effort because it always causes the light to spread. Indeed, the narrower we make
the slits (in the hope of producing a narrower beam), the greater the spreading
(6.0 λ)
is. Thus, geometrical optics holds only when slits or other apertures that might be
located in the path of light do not have dimensions comparable to or smaller than
the wavelength of the light.
(a ) Screen

Young’s Interference Experiment

λ In 1801, Thomas Young experimentally proved that light is a wave, contrary to
what most other scientists then thought. He did so by demonstrating that light
undergoes interference, as do water waves, sound waves, and waves of all other
a
types. In addition, he was able to measure the average wavelength of sunlight;
(3.0 λ) his value, 570 nm, is impressively close to the modern accepted value of 555 nm.
We shall here examine Young’s experiment as an example of the interference of
light waves.
(b )
Figure 35-8 gives the basic arrangement of Young’s experiment. Light from a
distant monochromatic source illuminates slit S0 in screen A. The emerging light
then spreads via diffraction to illuminate two slits S1 and S2 in screen B. Diffrac-
tion of the light by these two slits sends overlapping circular waves into the region

λ
Max
a The waves emerging
Max
from the two slits
(1.5 λ)
Max overlap and form an
Incident
interference pattern.
wave Max
S2
(c ) Max
Max
Figure 35-7 Diffraction represented sche-
matically. For a given wavelength λ, the S0 Max
diffraction is more pronounced the smaller Max
the slit width a. The figures show the cases Max
for (a) slit width a = 6.0λ, (b) slit width S1
Max
a = 3.0λ, and (c) slit width a = 1.5λ. In all
three cases, the screen and the length of Max
the slit extend well into and out of the
page, perpendicular to it. Max

Max
A B C
Figure 35-8 In Young’s interference experiment, incident monochromatic light is
diffracted by slit S0, which then acts as a point source of light that emits semicircular
wavefronts. As that light reaches screen B, it is diffracted by slits S1 and S2, which then
act as two point sources of light. The light waves traveling from slits S1 and S2 over-
lap and undergo interference, forming an interference pattern of maxima and minima
on viewing screen C. This figure is a cross section; the screens, slits, and interference
pattern extend into and out of the page. Between screens B and C, the semicircular
wavefronts centered on S2 depict the waves that would be there if only S2 were open.
Similarly, those centered on S1 depict waves that would be there if only S1 were open.
 35-2 YOUNG’S INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT 1055

beyond screen B, where the waves from one slit interfere with the waves from the
other slit.
The “snapshot” of Fig. 35-8 depicts the interference of the overlapping
waves. However, we cannot see evidence for the interference except where a
viewing screen C intercepts the light. Where it does so, points of interference
maxima form visible bright rows — called bright bands, bright fringes, or (loosely
speaking) maxima — that extend across the screen (into and out of the page in
Fig. 35-8). Dark regions — called dark bands, dark fringes, or (loosely speak-
ing) minima — result from fully destructive interference and are visible between
adjacent pairs of bright fringes. (Maxima and minima more properly refer to the
center of a band.) The pattern of bright and dark fringes on the screen is called
an interference pattern. Figure 35-9 is a photograph of part of the interference
pattern that would be seen by an observer standing to the left of screen C in the
arrangement of Fig. 35-8.

Locating the Fringes

Light waves produce fringes in a Young’s double-slit interference experiment, as it is
called, but what exactly determines the locations of the fringes? To answer, we shall
use the arrangement in Fig. 35-10a. There, a plane wave of monochromatic light is
incident on two slits S1 and S2 in screen B; the light diffracts through the slits and
produces an interference pattern on screen C. We draw a central axis from the point
halfway between the slits to screen C as a reference. We then pick, for discussion, an Courtesy Jearl Walker
arbitrary point P on the screen, at angle θ to the central axis. This point intercepts Figure 35-9 A photograph of the interfer-
the wave of ray r1 from the bottom slit and the wave of ray r2 from the top slit. ence pattern produced by the arrange-
Path Length Difference. These waves are in phase when they pass through ment shown in Fig. 35-8, but with short
the two slits because there they are just portions of the same incident wave. slits. (The photograph is a front view of
However, once they have passed the slits, the two waves must travel different part of screen C.) The alternating maxima
distances to reach P. We saw a similar situation in Module 17-3 with sound waves and minima are called interference fringes
and concluded that (because they resemble the decorative
fringe sometimes used on clothing and
rugs).
The phase difference between two waves can change if the waves travel paths of
different lengths.

The change in phase difference is due to the path length difference ΔL in the paths
taken by the waves. Consider two waves initially exactly in phase, traveling along
paths with a path length difference ΔL, and then passing through some common
point. When ΔL is zero or an integer number of wavelengths, the waves arrive at
the common point exactly in phase and they interfere fully constructively there.
If that is true for the waves of rays r1 and r2 in Fig. 35-10, then point P is part of

r2 The ΔL shifts
Incident P
wave one wave from
r2
r1 θ the other, which
y S2
determines the
S2
d θ r1 interference.
d
S1 b θ Figure 35-10 (a) Waves from slits S1 and S2
S1 θb (which extend into and out of the page)
Path length difference ΔL combine at P, an arbitrary point on screen
(b )
C at distance y from the central axis. The
angle θ serves as a convenient locator for P.
(b) For D ⪢ d, we can approximate rays
r1 and r2 as being parallel, at angle θ to the
(a ) B C central axis.
1056 CHAPTER 35 INTERFERENCE

a bright fringe. When, instead, ΔL is an odd multiple of half a wavelength, the

waves arrive at the common point exactly out of phase and they interfere fully
destructively there. If that is true for the waves of rays r1 and r2, then point P is
part of a dark fringe. (And, of course, we can have intermediate situations of
interference and thus intermediate illumination at P.) Thus,

What appears at each point on the viewing screen in a Young’s double-slit

interference experiment is determined by the path length difference ΔL of the
rays reaching that point.

Angle. We can specify where each bright fringe and each dark fringe is
located on the screen by giving the angle θ from the central axis to that fringe.
To find θ, we must relate it to ΔL. We start with Fig. 35-10a by finding a point b
along ray r1 such that the path length from b to P equals the path length from S2
to P. Then the path length difference ΔL between the two rays is the distance
from S1 to b.
The relation between this S1-to-b distance and θ is complicated, but we can
simplify it considerably if we arrange for the distance D from the slits to the
screen to be much greater than the slit separation d. Then we can approximate
rays r1 and r2 as being parallel to each other and at angle θ to the central axis
(Fig. 35-10b). We can also approximate the triangle formed by S1, S2, and b as being
a right triangle, and approximate the angle inside that triangle at S2 as being θ.
Then, for that triangle, sin θ = ΔL/d and thus

ΔL = d sin θ (path length difference). (35-12)

For a bright fringe, we saw that ΔL must be either zero or an integer number of
wavelengths. Using Eq. 35-12, we can write this requirement as
ΔL = d sin θ = (integer)(λ), (35-13)
or as

d sin θ = mλ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (maxima — bright fringes). (35-14)

For a dark fringe, ΔL must be an odd multiple of half a wavelength. Again using
Eq. 35-12, we can write this requirement as
ΔL = d sin θ = (odd number)( 12 λ), (35-15)
or as

d sin θ = (m + 12)λ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (minima — dark fringes). (35-16)

With Eqs. 35-14 and 35-16, we can find the angle θ to any fringe and thus locate
that fringe; further, we can use the values of m to label the fringes. For the value
and label m = 0, Eq. 35-14 tells us that a bright fringe is at θ = 0 and thus on the
central axis. This central maximum is the point at which waves arriving from the
two slits have a path length difference ΔL = 0, hence zero phase difference.
For, say, m = 2, Eq. 35-14 tells us that bright fringes are at the angle

θ = sin−1 ( )
2λ
d
above and below the central axis. Waves from the two slits arrive at these two
fringes with ΔL = 2λ and with a phase difference of two wavelengths. These
fringes are said to be the second-order bright fringes (meaning m = 2) or the
second side maxima (the second maxima to the side of the central maximum),
 35-2 YOUNG’S INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT 1057

or they are described as being the second bright fringes from the central
maximum.
For m = 1, Eq. 35-16 tells us that dark fringes are at the angle

θ = sin−1 ( )
1.5λ
d
above and below the central axis. Waves from the two slits arrive at these two
fringes with ΔL = 1.5λ and with a phase difference, in wavelengths, of 1.5. These
fringes are called the second-order dark fringes or second minima because they are
the second dark fringes to the side of the central axis. (The first dark fringes, or first
minima, are at locations for which m = 0 in Eq. 35-16.)
Nearby Screen. We derived Eqs. 35-14 and 35-16 for the situation D ⪢ d.
However, they also apply if we place a converging lens between the slits and the
viewing screen and then move the viewing screen closer to the slits, to the focal
point of the lens. (The screen is then said to be in the focal plane of the lens; that
is, it is in the plane perpendicular to the central axis at the focal point.) One prop-
erty of a converging lens is that it focuses all rays that are parallel to one another
to the same point on its focal plane. Thus, the rays that now arrive at any point on
the screen (in the focal plane) were exactly parallel (rather than approximately)
when they left the slits. They are like the initially parallel rays in Fig. 34-14a that
are directed to a point (the focal point) by a lens.

Checkpoint 3
In Fig. 35-10a, what are ΔL (as a multiple of the wavelength) and the phase
difference (in wavelengths) for the two rays if point P is (a) a third side
maximum and (b) a third minimum?

Sample Problem 35.02 Double-slit interference pattern

What is the distance on screen C in Fig. 35-10a between Calculations: If we equate our two expressions for angle θ
adjacent maxima near the center of the interference pat- and then solve for ym, we find
tern? The wavelength λ of the light is 546 nm, the slit separa- mλD
tion d is 0.12 mm, and the slit – screen separation D is 55 cm. ym = . (35-17)
d
Assume that θ in Fig. 35-10 is small enough to permit use of
the approximations sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ, in which θ is expressed For the next maximum as we move away from the pattern’s
in radian measure. center, we have
(m + 1)λD
ym+1 = . (35-18)
KEY IDEAS d
We find the distance between these adjacent maxima by
(1) First, let us pick a maximum with a low value of m to
subtracting Eq. 35-17 from Eq. 35-18:
ensure that it is near the center of the pattern. Then, from the
geometry of Fig. 35-10a, the maximum’s vertical distance ym λD
from the center of the pattern is related to its angle θ from Δy = ym+1 − ym =
d
the central axis by
y (546 × 10−9 m)(55 × 10−2 m)
tan θ ≈ θ = m . =
D 0.12 × 10−3 m
(2) From Eq. 35-14, this angle θ for the mth maximum is = 2.50 × 10−3 m ≈ 2.5 mm. (Answer)
given by As long as d and θ in Fig. 35-10a are small, the separation
mλ of the interference fringes is independent of m; that is, the
sin θ ≈ θ = .
d fringes are evenly spaced.

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