Chapter 5: Nuclear Physics

5.1 The nuclear model of the atom

Atomic Structure

● Atoms are the building blocks of all matter

● They are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m
○ This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across your
thumbnail
● Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their centre, with electrons orbiting around the nucleus
● The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it contains almost
all of the mass of the atom
● They consist of small dense positively charged nuclei, surrounded by negatively charged
electrons

An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

(Note: the atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)

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Rutherford's Experiment

● In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding model

○ Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden to carry out the experiment
● This involved the scattering of alpha (α) particles by a sheet of thin metal supports the nuclear
model of the atom
● A beam of alpha particles (He2+ ions) were directed at a thin gold foil
● They expected the alpha particles to travel through the gold foil, and maybe change direction a
small amount
● Instead, they discovered that :
○ Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil
○ Some of the alpha particles changed direction but continued through the foil
○ A few of the alpha particles bounced back off the gold foil
● The bouncing back could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model, so a new model had to be
created
○ This was the first evidence of the structure of the atom

When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a very small number
bounce straight back

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 ● When α-particles are fired at thin pieces of gold foil:
○ The majority of them go straight through (A)
This happens because the atom is mainly empty space

○ Some are deflected through small angles (B)

This happens because the positive α-particles are repelled by the positive nucleus which
contains most of its mass

○ A very small number are deflected straight back (C)

This is because the nucleus is extremely small

The alpha-particle scattering experiments provide evidence for:

(a) a very small nucleus surrounded by mostly empty space.

(b) a nucleus containing most of the mass of the atom.

(c) a nucleus that is positively charged.

Atoms & Ions

● An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons
○ An atom will lose or gain electrons to become more stable
● A stable atom is normally electrically neutral
○ This means it has the same number of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative
charge)
● Positive ions are therefore formed when atoms lose electrons

○ There will be more protons than electrons

● Negative ions are therefore formed when atoms gain electrons
○ There will be more electrons than protons

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 The difference between positive and negative ions

Composition of the Nucleus

● The structure of the atom is made up of a:

○ Positively charged nucleus at the centre (made up protons and neutrons)
○ Negatively charged electrons in orbit around the nucleus

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom

● Protons have a positive charge, whilst neutrons have no charge

○ This is why the nucleus is overall positive

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Describing the Nucleus

Define the terms proton number (atomic number) Z and nucleon number (mass number) A and be able to
calculate the number of neutrons in a nucleus.

Proton Number, Z

● The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number (it can also be called the atomic
number)
○ Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
○ Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
● The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
● For example:
○ Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
○ Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
○ Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
● The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
○ This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no
overall charge

Nuclide Notation

● A nuclide is a group of atoms containing the same number of protons and neutrons
○ For example, 5 atoms of oxygen are all the same nuclide but are 5 separate atoms
● Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called nuclide

Atomic symbols in AZX Notation describe the constituents of nuclei

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● The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
○ Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
● The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
○ Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus
● Note: In Chemistry, the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton number
as the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number
● An example of an atomic symbol is:

Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei

● When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the atom:
○ Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number
○ Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons
must be equal to the number of positive protons
○ Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from
the nucleon number
● The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – ie. either a proton or a neutron
● The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and neutrons

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Worked example

The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in the gold atom?

Answer: D

Isotopes

● Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the number of
neutrons can be different
● Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons but a different
number of neutrons
○ This means that each element can have more than one isotope
● Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to their imbalance of protons and neutrons
○ This means they're more likely to decay

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 ● In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:

Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons

Question

Which of the following elements are isotopes of each other?

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Relative Charge

● The different particles that make up atoms have different properties

● Relative mass is a way of comparing particles. It is measured in atomic mass units (a.m.u)
○ A relative mass of 1 is equal to mass of 1.67 × 10-27 kg
● Charge can be positive or negative
○ Relative charge is, again, used to compare particles
● The fundamental charge is equal to the size of the charge on a proton and an electron, however the
electron's charge is negative
● The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:

Table of Relative Charge & Mass

If a particle has 0 relative charge, this means it is neutral.

Nuclear Charge

● Nuclear charge is normally stated as the relative charge of the nucleus

○ The term 'relative' refers to the charge of the particle divided by the charge of the proton
● The proton number is the number of protons in a nucleus
● Since nuclei are made up of only protons and neutrons, the proton number determines the relative
charge on a nucleus

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Worked example

What is the relative charge of the Chromium nucleus?

Step 1: Determine the number of protons

● The number of protons is the proton number

● This is the bottom number in the AZX notation

○ This Chromium nucleus has 24 protons and 28 neutrons

Step 2: State the relative charge of 1 proton

● 1 proton has a relative charge of +1

Step 3: Multiple relative charge of 1 proton by the number of protons

● This nucleus of Chromium therefore has a relative charge of +24

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Nuclear Mass

● Nuclear mass is stated as the relative mass of the nucleus

○ The term 'relative' refers to the mass of the particle divided by the mass of the proton
● The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
● The nucleon number (mass number) determines the relative mass of a nucleus

Worked example

What is the relative mass of the Chromium nucleus?

Step 1: Determine the number of protons and neutrons

● The number of protons and neutrons is the mass (nucleon) number

● This is the top number in the AZX notation

○ This Chromium nucleus has 52 protons and neutrons combined

Step 2: State the relative mass of 1 proton and neutron

● 1 proton has a relative mass of 1

● 1 neutron has a relative mass of 1

Step 3: Multiple relative mass of 1 proton and neutron by number of protons and neutrons

● This nucleus of Chromium therefore has a relative mass of 52

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Note: The relative mass of a nucleus only includes the protons and neutrons. However, this is pretty
much the relative mass of the whole atom because electrons have negligible mass in comparison to the
proton and neutron.

Nuclear Fission

● There is a lot of energy stored within the nucleus of an atom

○ This energy can be released in a nuclear reaction such as fission
● Nuclear fission is defined as the splitting of a large, unstable nucleus into two smaller nuclei.
● Isotopes of uranium and plutonium both undergo fission and are used as fuels in nuclear power
stations
● During fission, when a neutron collides with an unstable nucleus, the nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei (called daughter nuclei) as well as two or three neutrons
○ Gamma rays are also emitted.

Large nuclei can decay by fission to produce smaller nuclei and neutrons with a lot of kinetic energy

● The products of fission move away very quickly

○ Energy transferred is from nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy
● The mass of the products (daughter nuclei and neutrons) is less than the mass of the original
nucleus
○ This is because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released
during the fission process
● The processes involved in nuclear fission can be shown in different ways as diagrams
● These diagrams show how the reaction happens in a way that is easy to understand

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 A neutron is fired into the target nucleus, causing it to split

● The diagram above is useful because it shows clearly the different parts of the fission reaction
● An example of a nuclide equation for fission is:

The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a neutron and
splits into two smaller nuclei – a Krypton nucleus and a Barium nucleus, releasing three neutrons in the
process

● The sum of top (nucleon) numbers on the left-hand side equals the sum of top number on the
right-hand side:

235 + 1 = 92 + 141 + (3 × 1)
The same is true for the lower (proton) numbers: 92 + 0 = 36 + 56 + (3 × 0)

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Nuclear Reactors

Chain Reactions

● Only one extra neutron is required to induce a uranium-235 nucleus to split by fission
○ During the fission, it produces two or three neutrons which move away at high speed
● Each of these new neutrons can start another fission reaction, which again creates further excess
neutrons
● This process is called a chain reaction

The neutrons released by each fission reaction can go on to create further fissions, like a chain that is
linked several times – from each chain comes two more

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Worked example

The diagram shows the nuclear fission process for an atom of uranium-235.

Complete the diagram to show how the fission process starts a chain reaction.

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Step 1: Draw the neutrons to show that they hit other U-235 nuclei

○ It is the neutrons hitting the uranium-235 nuclei which causes the fission reactions
○ The daughter nuclei do not need to be shown, only the neutrons and uranium-235 nuclei

Step 2: Draw the splitting of the U-235 nuclei to show they produce two or more neutrons

○ The number of neutrons increases with each fission reaction

○ Each reaction requires one neutron but releases two
○ More reactions happen as the number of neutrons increases

Control Rods and Moderators

● In a nuclear reactor, a chain reaction is required to keep the reactor running

● When the reactor is producing energy at the correct rate, two factors must be controlled:
○ The number of free neutrons in the reactor
○ The energy of the free neutrons
● To do this, nuclear reactors contain control rods and moderators

Diagram of a Nuclear Reactor. The overall purpose of the reactor is to collect the heat energy
produced from nuclear reactions

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Control Rods

Purpose of a control rod: To absorb neutrons

● Control rods are made of a material which absorb neutrons without becoming dangerously
unstable themselves
● The number of neutrons absorbed is controlled by varying the depth of the control rods in the fuel
rods
○ Lowering the rods further decreases the rate of fission, as more neutrons are absorbed
○ Raising the rods increases the rate of fission, as fewer neutrons are absorbed
● This is adjusted automatically so that exactly one fission neutron produced by each fission event
goes on to cause another fission
● In the event the nuclear reactor needs to shut down, the control rods can be lowered all the way so
no reaction can take place

Moderator

The purpose of a moderator: To slow down neutrons

● The moderator is a material that surrounds the fuel rods and control rods inside the reactor core
● The fast-moving neutrons produced by the fission reactions slow down by colliding with the
molecules of the moderator, causing them to lose some momentum
● The neutrons are slowed down so that they are in thermal equilibrium with the moderator, hence
the term ‘thermal neutron’
○ This ensures neutrons can react efficiently with the uranium fuel

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Shielding

● The entire nuclear reactor is surrounded by shielding materials

● The purpose of shielding is to absorb hazardous radiation
● The daughter nuclei formed during fission, and the neutrons emitted, are radioactive
● The reactor is surrounded by a steel and concrete wall that can be nearly 2 metres thick
● This absorbs the emissions from the reactions
○ It ensures that the environment around the reactor is safe

Shielding metals in a nuclear reactor

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Nuclear Fusion

● Small nuclei can react to release energy in a process called nuclear fusion
● Nuclear fusion is defined as:

When two light nuclei join to form a heavier nucleus

● This process requires extremely high temperatures to maintain

○ This is why nuclear fusion has proven very hard to reproduce on Earth
● Stars use nuclear fusion to produce energy
● In most stars, hydrogen atoms are fused together to form helium and produce lots of energy

Two hydrogen nuclei are fusing to form a helium nuclei

● The energy produced during nuclear fusion comes from a very small amount of the particle’s mass
being converted into energy
● Albert Einstein described the mass-energy equivalence with his famous equation:

E = m × c2

● Where:
○ E = energy released from fusion in Joules (J)
○ m = mass converted into energy in kilograms (kg)
○ c = the speed of light in metres per second (m/s)
● Therefore, the mass of the product (fused nucleus) is less than the mass of the two original nuclei
○ This is because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released
when the nuclei fuse

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 ● The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion is huge:
○ The energy from 1 kg of hydrogen that undergoes fusion is equivalent to the energy from
burning about 10 million kilograms of coal
● An example of a nuclide equation for fusion is:

Worked example

A nuclide equation for nuclear fission is stated as:

Calculate the number of neutrons, N emitted in this reaction.

Step 1: Calculate the nucleon number on the left side of the equation

235 + 1 = 236

Step 2: Calculate the nucleon number on the right side of the equation

96 + 138 + N = 233 + N

Step 3: Equate the nucleon number for both sides of the equation

236 = 233 + N

Step 4: Rearrange for the number of neutrons, N

N = 236 – 233 = 3

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Background Radiation

● It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon

● Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
● However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are exposed to on
Earth
● Background radiation is defined as the radiation that exists around us all the time.
● There are two types of background radiation:
○ Natural sources
○ Man-made sources

Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment. Radon gas is
given off from some types of rock

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 ● Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources such as:
○ Rocks
○ Cosmic rays from space
○ Foods
● Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it comes from artificial sources,
such as medical procedures (including X-rays)
● Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place

Sources of Background Radiation

● Background radiation can come from natural sources on Earth or space and man-made sources

Natural Sources

● Radon gas (in the air)

○ Airborne radon comes from the ground
○ This is from the natural decay of uranium in rocks and soil
○ The gas is tasteless, colourless and odourless but it not generally a health issue

● Rocks and Buildings

○ Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in rocks in the
ground
○ Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
○ This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
○ Natural radioactivity can be found in building materials, including decorative rocks, stone
and brick

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 ● Cosmic rays from space
○ The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
○ Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
○ When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of gamma
radiation
○ Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic events

● Carbon-14 in biological material

○ All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
○ Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems hence
the amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant

Man-Made Sources

● Medical sources
○ In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
○ Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
● Nuclear waste
○ While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it can be
dangerous for the people handling it
● Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
○ Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear
explosion, such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
○ While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would increase
significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
● Nuclear accidents
○ Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into the
environment
○ While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render areas
devastated for centuries

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Detecting Radiation

● It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation

○ The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose
● Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a detector connected to a counter

Count Rate

● Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded by a detector and recorded by the
counter
○ It is measured in counts/s or counts/min
● The count rate decreases the further the detector is from the source
○ This is because the radiation becomes more spread out the further away it is from the
source

Geiger–Müller tube

● The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect radiation
● Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine
○ This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate
● The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more radiation the
Geiger-Müller tube is absorbing
○ Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
○ The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected

A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

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Examples of other radiation detectors include:

● Photographic film (often used in badges)

● Ionisation chambers
● Scintillation counters
● Spark counters

Detection of Alpha Particles

● α-particles are detected using a cloud chamber or spark counter

Cloud Chambers

● There are several different types of cloud chambers

● A cloud chamber contains:
○ A metal plate on the bottom, cooled using dry ice
○ A transparent viewing film at the top with a light source at one side, allowing the
observer to identify what is happening
○ A thin film of alcohol evaporated inside the chamber forming a vapour
○ A radioactive source placed in the chamber
○ A magnetic field at right angles to the chamber

A Simple Cloud Chamber Set-Up

A cloud chamber contains vapour obtained from the cooling of alcohol using dry ice

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● When charged particles pass through the cloud chamber:
○ They collide with gas molecules
○ Creating ions as the alcohol condenses
○ Forming a path of condensation within the chamber
● α-particles can be identified because they produce thick short tracks and curl slowly in one
direction

An Alpha Particle Path in a Cloud Chamber

Alpha particles can be identified by their short thick tracks that bend slightly in one direction

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Spark Counters

● A spark counter consists of a thin metal gauze mounted very close (about a mmm) to a thin wire
● A large voltage (around 5000 V) is applied across the gauze and the wire to cause sparking
between them
● The voltage is then reduced until no more sparking occurs
● When an alpha radiation source is brought close to the gauze it will ionise the air around it
○ Creating sparks between the gauze and the wire

A Spark Counter Set-Up

A spark counter contains a high voltage placed between a gauze and a wire to create sparking

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Worked example

A Geiger-Müller tube is used to detect radiation in a particular location. If it counts 16,000 decays in 1
hour, what is the count rate?

Step 1: Identify the different variables

○ The number of decays is 16 000

○ The time is 1 hour

Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds

○ 1 hour is equal to 60 minutes, and 1 minute is equal to 60 seconds

Time period = 1 × 60 × 60 = 3600 seconds

Step 3: Divide the total counts by the time period in seconds

Counts ÷ Time period = 16 000 ÷ 3600 = 4.5

○ Therefore, there are 4.5 decays per second

Accounting for Background Radiation

● Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory

● This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then subtracting this
from readings with the source present
○ This is known as the corrected count rate

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Worked example

A student is using a Geiger-counter to measure the counts per minute at different distances from a source
of radiation. Their results and a graph of the results are shown here.

Determine the background radiation count.

Step 1: Determine the point at which the source radiation stops being detected

○ The background radiation is the amount of radiation received all the time
○ When the source is moved back far enough it is all absorbed by the air before reaching the
Geiger-counter
○ Results after 1 metre do not change
○ Therefore, the amount after 1 metre is only due to background radiation

Step 2: State the background radiation count

○ The background radiation count is 15 counts per minute.

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Radioactive Decay

● Some atomic nuclei are unstable

● This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
○ Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
○ This is commonly due to the nucleus having too many protons or neutrons
● Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable
○ It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12

Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14 has two extra neutrons

Note: The notation of C-12 for example, means the element 'Carbon' with the mass (or nucleon) number
of 12

Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or because they have too many or too few neutrons

● Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable

○ Radiation can be in the form of a high energy particle or wave

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves

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 ● As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
○ This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
○ This makes the nucleus more stable
● The process of emitting radiation** is called radioactive decay
● ** Radiation refers to the particles or waves emitted from a decaying nucleus
● Radioactive decay is a random process
○ This means it is not possible to know exactly when a particular nucleus will decay
● It cannot be predicted when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
● This is because radioactive decay is a random process, this means that:
○ There is an equal probability of any nucleus decaying
○ It cannot be known which particular nucleus will decay next
○ It cannot be known at what time a particular nucleus will decay
○ The rate of decay is unaffected by the surrounding conditions
○ It is only possible to estimate the probability of a nuclei decaying in a given time period

Definition: Radioactive decay refers to the spontaneous (natural, without external force) and random
process by which an unstable atomic nucleus transforms into a more stable one by emitting radiation.

Types of Radioactive Decay

● When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation called nuclear radiation

● There are different types of radiation that can be emitted:
○ Alpha (α) particles
○ Beta (β-) particles
○ Gamma (γ) radiation
● These changes are spontaneous and random

Alpha Particles

● The symbol for alpha is α

● An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
○ This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
● Alpha particles have a charge of +2
○ This means they can be affected by an electric field

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Beta Particles

● The symbol for beta is β-

● Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
● They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
● Beta particles have a charge of -1
○ This means they can be affected by an electric field

Gamma Rays

● The symbol for gamma is γ

● Gamma rays are high-frequency electromagnetic waves
● They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
● Gamma rays have no charge

Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves can be emitted from unstable nuclei

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Alpha, Beta & Gamma Emission

● α, β and γ radiation can be identified by the emission from a nucleus by recalling their:
○ Nature (what type of particle or radiation they are)
○ Their relative ionising effects (how easily they ionise other atoms)
○ Their relative penetrating abilities (how far can they travel before they are stopped
completely)
● The properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma are given in this table, and then described in more
detail below

Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation

● The trend down the table shows:

○ The range increases
○ Penetrating power increases
○ Ionisation decreases

Penetrating Power

● Alpha, beta and gamma have different properties

● They penetrate materials in different ways
○ This means they are stopped by different materials

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 Alpha, beta and gamma are different in how they penetrate materials. Alpha is the least penetrating,
and gamma is the most penetrating

● Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and gamma pass through it

● Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium
○ Gamma can pass through aluminium
● Gamma rays are only partially stopped by thick lead

Worked example

A student has an unknown radioactive source. They are trying to work which type of radiation is being
given off:

A Alpha particles

B Beta particles

C Gamma rays

D Neutrons

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They measure the count-rate, using a Geiger-Muller tube, when the source is placed behind different
material. Their results are shown in the table below:

Which type of radiation is being given off by the source?

ANSWER: B

○ The answer is not A because the radiation passed through the paper almost unchanged
■ This means it is not alpha
○ The answer is not C or D because the aluminium decreased the count-rate significantly
■ This means it is not gamma (gamma penetrates aluminium)
■ This also means it is not neutrons (neutrons penetrate aluminium)
○ Therefore, the source must be Beta particles

Ionising Effect of Radiation

● Ionisation is the process of which an atom becomes negative or positive by gaining or losing
electrons
● All nuclear radiation is capable of ionising atoms that it hits
○ When an atom is ionised, the number of electrons it has changes
● This is mostly done by knocking out an electron so the atom loses a negative charge and is left
overall positive

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 When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom

● Alpha is by far the most ionising form of radiation

○ Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every atom they
meet
○ Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short range
○ Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they have the
potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body

● Beta particles are moderately ionising

○ The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha, and consequently have a longer
range
○ They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further and
penetrate the skin, and yet are still ionising enough to cause significant damage

● Gamma is the least ionising form of radiation (although it is still dangerous)

○ Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more
penetrating and have a greater range
○ This can make them hazardous in large amounts
● The ionising effects depend on the kinetic energy and charge of the type of radiation

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 ● The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is
○ This means alpha radiation is the most ionising as it has a charge of +2
○ A beta particle has a charge of –1 so is moderately ionising
○ This means gamma radiation is the least ionising as it has a charge of 0 (no charge)

● The higher the kinetic energy of the radiation, the more ionising it is
○ This means alpha particle is still the most ionising because it has the greatest mass
○ However, a beta particle is very light (it is an electron) but travels at high speeds,
therefore, it has a lot of kinetic energy and is still moderately ionising
○ Gamma radiation has virtually no mass so is weakly ionising

Deflection in Electric & Magnetic Fields

● A particle is deflected in an electric field if it has charge

● A particle is deflected in a magnetic field if it has charge and is moving perpendicular to it
○ Therefore, since gamma (γ) particles have no charge, they are not deflected by either
electric or magnetic fields
○ Only alpha (α) and beta (β) particles are

Electric Fields

● Alpha particles have a charge of +2 (charge of a helium nucleus)

● Beta particles have a charge of −1 (charge of an electron)
● Therefore, between an electric field created between a negatively charged and positively charged
plate
○ Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate
○ Beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate
○ Gamma radiation is not deflected and travels straight through between the plates

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 Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields

● Alpha particles are heavier than beta particles

○ Therefore, beta particles are deflected more in the electric field and alpha is deflected less

Magnetic Fields

● Similarly, alpha and beta particles are deflected by magnetic fields whilst they are moving
● They are deflected in opposite directions due to their opposite charges

Alpha and Beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields

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Exam Tip

It is important to note that because of their opposite charges, alpha and beta particles will deflect in
opposite directions. You do not need to know which direction alpha and beta particles are deflected in a
magnetic field but you should know that they are deflected, whilst gamma is not because they (alpha and
beta) are charged and they deflect in opposite directions.

Change to a New Element

● During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a different element

● The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
● The nucleus of the new element is often called the daughter nucleus

Alpha decay creating a change from a parent nucleus to a daughter nucleus of a new element

● The daughter nucleus is a new element because it has a different proton and/or nucleon number
to the original parent nucleus
● This can be seen on a graph of N (neutron number) against Z (proton number)

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 Graph of N against Z for the decay of Pu–239

● When Pu-239 decays by alpha to U-235, it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons

○ U (Uranium) is a completely different element to Pu (Plutonium)

Reducing Neutron Number

● A nucleus decays to increase its stability by reducing the number of excess neutrons

○ This is done by alpha or beta decay

● If the nucleus has too much energy, this is given off in the form of radiation
○ This is often gamma radiation

Alpha Decay

● During alpha decay, an alpha particle is emitted from an unstable nucleus

● A completely new element is formed in the process

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Alpha decay usually happens in large unstable nuclei, causing the overall mass and charge of the
nucleus to decrease

● An alpha particle is a helium nucleus

○ It is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
● When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number and atomic
number of the nucleus changes
○ The mass number decreases by 4
○ The atomic number decreases by 2
● The charge on the nucleus also decreases by 2
○ This is because protons have a charge of +1 each

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Beta Decay

● During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron

○ The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei
● A completely new element is formed because the atomic number changes

Beta decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many neutrons. The mass number stays the
same, but the atomic number increases by one

● A beta particle is a high-speed electron

● It has a mass number of 0
○ This is because the electron has a negligible mass, compared to neutrons and protons
● Therefore, the mass number of the decaying nuclei remains the same
● Electrons have a charge of -1
○ This means that the new nuclei will increase its atomic number by 1 in order to maintain
the overall atomic number before and after the decay
● The following equation shows carbon-14 undergoing beta decay
○ It forms nitrogen-14 and a beta particle
○ Beta particles are written as an electron in this equation

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Gamma Decay

● During gamma decay, a gamma ray is emitted from an unstable nucleus

● The process makes the nucleus less energetic but does not change its structure

Gamma decay does not affect the mass number or the atomic number of the radioactive nucleus, but it
does reduce the energy of the nucleus

● The gamma ray that is emitted has a lot of energy, but no mass or charge

Decay Equations

● Radioactive decay events can be shown using a decay equation

● A decay equation is similar to a chemical reaction equation
○ The particles present before the decay are shown before the arrow
○ The particles produced in the decay are shown after the arrow
● During decay equations the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the reaction must be the
same as the sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the reaction
● The following decay equation shows Polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay
○ It forms Lead-208 and an alpha particle
○ An alpha particle can also be written as a helium nucleus (Symbol He)

The polonium nucleus emits an alpha particle, causing its mass and charge to decrease. This means it
changes into a new element

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Alpha Decay Equation

● When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number and atomic
number of the nucleus changes
○ The mass number decreases by 4
○ The atomic number decreases by 2

Alpha decay equation

Beta Decay Equation

● During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron

○ The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei

Beta decay equation

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Gamma Decay Equation

● The gamma ray that is emitted has a lot of energy, but no mass or charge
● Here is an example of Uranium-238 undergoing gamma decay
○ Notice that the mass number and atomic number of the unstable nuclei remains the same
during the decay

Gamma decay equation

Half-Life

● It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay

● But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
○ This is known as the half-life
● Half-life is defined as:

The time taken for half the nuclei in any sample, to decay

● In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its original level
● Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a second to
billions of years in length
● Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph

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The graph shows how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each time the original
activity halves, another half-life has passed

● The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
○ It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25 %
activity
○ The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
● Half-life can also be represented on a table
○ As the number of half life increases, the proportion of the isotope remaining halves

Table For Number of Half Lives to Proportion of Isotope

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Half-Life Graphs

● To calculate the half-life of a sample from a graph:

○ Check the original activity (where the line crosses the y-axis), A0
○ Halve this value and look for this activity
○ Go across from the halved value (on the y-axis) to the best fit curve, and then straight
down to the x-axis
○ The point where you reach the x-axis should be the half-life
● The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life

Background Radiation

● Background radiation is radiation that is always present in the environment around us

● As a consequence, whenever an experiment involving radiation is carried out, some of the
radiation that is detected will be background radiation
● When carrying out experiments to measure half-life, the presence of background radiation must
be taken into account

When measuring radioactive emissions, some of the detected radiation will be background

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 ○ Start by measuring background radiation (with no sources present) – this is called your
background count
○ Then carry out your experiment
○ Subtract the background count from each of your readings, in order to give a corrected
count
○ The corrected count is your best estimate of the radiation emitted from the source, and
should be used to measure its half-life

Worked example

The radioisotope technetium is used extensively in medicine. The graph below shows how the activity of
a sample varies with time.

Determine the half-life of this material.

Step 1: Draw lines on the graph to determine the time it takes for technetium to drop to half of its
original activity

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Step 2: Read the half-life from the graph

○ In the diagram above the initial activity, A0, is 8 × 107 Bq

○ The time taken to decrease to 4 × 107 Bq, or ½ A0, is 6 hours
○ The time taken to decrease to 2 × 107 Bq is 6 more hours
○ The time taken to decrease to 1 × 107 Bq is 6 more hours
○ Therefore, the half-life of this isotope is 6 hours

Worked example

A particular radioactive sample contains 2 million un-decayed atoms. After a year, there is only 500 000
atoms left un-decayed. What is the half-life of this material?

Step 1: Calculate how many times the number of un-decayed atoms has halved

○ There were 2 000 000 atoms to start with

○ 1 000 000 atoms would remain after 1 half-life
○ 500 000 atoms would remain after 2 half-lives
○ Therefore, the sample has undergone 2 half-lives

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Step 2: Divide the time period by the number of half-lives

○ The time period is a year

○ The number of half-lives is 2
○ 1 year divided by 2 is half a year or 6 months
○ Therefore, the half-life is 6 months

Uses of Radiation

● Radiation is used in a number of different ways:

1. Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer
2. Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
3. Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays)
4. Determining the age of ancient artefacts
5. Checking the thickness of materials
6. Smoke detectors (alarms)
● The properties of the different types of radiation determine which one is used in a particular
application

Smoke Detectors

● Alpha particles are used in smoke detectors

● The alpha radiation will normally ionise the air within the detector, creating a current
● The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke enters the detector
● The alarm is triggered by a microchip when the sensor no longer detects alpha

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Measuring the Thickness of Materials

● Radiation can be used for tracing and gauging thickness

○ Mostly commonly this is beta particles
● As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it can be
monitored using a detector
● If the material gets thicker, more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will get through
○ If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
● This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material constant

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 Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper, cardboard or
aluminium foil

● Beta radiation is used because it will be partially absorbed by the material

○ If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would get through
○ If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would not be able
to sense any difference if the thickness were to change

Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer

● Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation

(Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals)
● Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it
● Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible
to radiation than others
● Beams of gamma rays or X-rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
○ Gamma rays are used because they are able to penetrate the body, reaching the tumour
○ The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still being aimed
at the tumour
● A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement of substances, like blood,
around the body
○ A PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan can detect the emissions from a tracer to
diagnose cancer and determine the location of a tumour

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 Radiation therapy to remove a tumour

Sterilising Food and Medical Equipment

● Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilise medical equipment

● Gamma is most suited to this because:
○ It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
○ It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
○ Instruments can be sterilised without removing the packaging
● Food can be irradiated in order to kill any microorganisms that are present on it
● This makes the food last longer, and reduces the risk of food-borne infections

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Worked example

Use the diagram to explain why alpha radiation is used in smoke detectors, and not beta or gamma
radiation.

​
○ Consider the different properties of alpha, beta and gamma:
■ Alpha is the most weakly penetrating and strongest ioniser
■ Beta and gamma have stronger penetrating power and weaker ionising power
○ If beta or gamma radiation were used in this situation then they would pass straight
through the smoke and the alarm would not go off
○ Therefore, since alpha is absorbed by smoke, and beta and gamma are not, this makes it
most suitable for use in a smoke detector

Dangers of Radioactivity

● Ionising radiation can damage human cells and tissues at high doses:
● This could be in terms of:
○ Cell death
○ Tissue damage
○ Mutations
○ Cancer
● As a result, its use needs to be kept to a minimum
● However, the benefits of using radiation in medicine can outweigh the potential risks

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 ○ The risks posed by the radiation are smaller than the risks associated with leaving the
condition untreated
● For example, if a person has a cancerous tumour that is likely to kill them, then it is less of a risk
to use radiotherapy than to leave the tumour

Tissue Damage

● Radiation is effectively used to destroy cancerous tumour cells

● However, it can cause damage to healthy tissue if it is not properly targeted
● This is mostly from high-energy radiation such as gamma rays and X-rays

Mutations

● If the atoms that make up a DNA strand are ionised then the DNA strand can be damaged
● If the DNA is damaged then the cell may die, or the DNA may be mutated when it reforms
● If a mutated cell is able to replicate itself then a tumour may form
○ This is an example of cancer, which is a significant danger of radiation exposure

Diagram showing the damage caused to DNA by ionising radiation. Sometimes the cell is able to
successfully repair the DNA, but incorrect repairs can cause a mutation

● Acute radiation exposure can have other serious symptoms:

○ It can cause skin burns, similar to severe sunburn
○ Radiation can reduce the amount of white blood cells in the body, making a person more
susceptible to infections by lowering their immune system
● Because of this, it is very important to handle radioactive sources carefully

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 Safe Storage

● The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimised by following a few
simple procedures:
○ Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
○ Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their boxes as
soon as you have finished using them
○ During use, keep yourself and other people as far from the sources as feasible. When
handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs

Radioactivity warning sign

● When using tongs, gloves and safety specs are usually unnecessary when handling radioactive
materials, unless there is a risk of the material leaking onto things

Disposing of Radioactive Waste

● If an isotope has a long half-life then a sample of it will decay slowly

○ Although it may not emit a lot of radiation, it will remain radioactive for a very long time
● Sources with long half-life values present a risk of contamination for a much longer time
● Radioactive waste with a long half-life is buried underground to prevent it from being released
into the environment

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Worked example

A student plans to use a gamma source to conduct an experiment. List four things that the student should
do in order to minimise the risk to themselves when using the source.

Any four from:

● Keep the source in a lead lined container until the time it is needed
● Use tongs to move the source, rather than handling it directly
● The source should be kept at as far a distance from the student as possible during the experiment
● The time that the source is being used should be minimised
● After the experiment the student should wash their hands
● The date and the time that the radiation has been used for should be recorded

Safety Precautions

● To mitigate the risks of radiation exposure, there are some safe practices that should be used:
○ Radioactive sources should be kept in a shielded container when not in use, for example,
a lead-lined box
○ Radioactive materials should only be handled when wearing gloves, and with tongs to
increase the distance from them
○ It may be appropriate to wear protective clothing to prevent the body becoming
contaminated
○ The time that a radioactive source is being used for should be limited

Regulating Exposure

● Because of the harmful effects of radiation, it is important to regulate the exposure of humans to
radiation
● The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured in sieverts (Sv)
● One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
○ It would cause acute radiation poisoning
● People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
● To protect against overexposure, the dose received by different activities is measured
● A dosemeter measures the amount of radiation in particular areas and is often worn by
radiographers, or anyone working with radiation

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A dosemeter, or radiation badge, can be worn by a person working with radiation in order to keep
track of the amount of radiation they are receiving

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