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ESP under hypnosis: The role of induction instructions

and personality characteristics

Article in Journal of Parapsychology · March 2007

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 ESP UNDER HYPNOSIS: THE ROLE
OF INDUCTION INSTRUCTIONS
AND PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS
By Patrizio Tressoldi* and Guido Del Prete**

ABSTRACT: In the present study, we compared directly the efficacy of two types
of hypnotic induction instructions on a forced-choice clairvoyance task in a sample
of participants selected for their medium to high absorption or transliminality
scores. The first kind of instructions (ESP) emphasized the capacity to visualize
a remote picture, freeing the mind from any thinking activity. The second kind
of instructions, the out-of-body experience (OBE), emphasized leaving the body
and allowing the mind to go where the target was presented. The two instructions
were applied in a within-subject design to control individual differences better. In
the 2 sessions of 10 trials each, the mean hit scores were: first session: M = 3.33
(SD = .65); second session: M = 2.41 (SD = .79). The mean hit score of the first
session was well above MCE, π = .60; CI: .28–.91; contrast: ∆π = .10. No substantial
differences were obtained with the two kinds of instructions. These data replicate
the findings obtained by Del Prete and Tressoldi (2005), supporting the hypothesis
that a combination of hypnosis and special induction instructions tailored for the
ESP task facilitate the performance in participants with medium to high absorption
or transliminality scores.

The role of hypnosis as a mediator for ESP has been documented

(see Stanford & Stein’s 1994 meta-analysis). Even if it is well established that
hypnosis facilitates ESP better than normal awakening or self-relaxation,
little, if any, systematic research on the role of specific instructions to induce
hypnosis has been carried out. Cardeña (2006, 2007) repeatedly underlined
that enhanced psi phenomena depend on a trait (high hypnotizability), a
state (the hypnotic context), or an interaction between the two.
In this paper we manipulated the state, comparing directly the
efficacy of two kinds of instructions. The first, which we named ESP, was
characterized by the emphasis on the capacity to visualize a remote picture
while freeing the mind from any thinking activity. The second, which we
named OBE, was characterized by instructions to leave the body and allow
the mind to go to the place where the target was presented (see details
below). The two instructions were applied by using a within-subject design
to control individual differences better. To maintain the personality traits
under control, we selected participants with a medium to high level of
transliminality or absorption. It is well documented that these traits act as
mediators for ESP (Dalton, Zingrone, & Alvarado, 1999; Thalbourne, 1996,
2004) as well as for hypnotizability (Glisky, Tataryn, Tobias, Kihlstrom, &
McConkey, 1991). Del Prete and Tressoldi (2005) demonstrated that these
personality traits were strongly correlated with hits in a clairvoyance-like
126 The Journal of Parapsychology

task, but only if participants were in a deep hypnotic state using OBE
instruction.
We expected that, once in a state of hypnosis, participants with
these personality traits would benefit more from suggestions to use OBE
to complete a clairvoyance task than from suggestions to use ESP because
the targets were presented in a room not very far from the place where the
participants were located. However, the OBE suggestions can be considered
less credible than the ESP ones, that is, the possibility to let the mind leave
the body and move to the room where the targets are presented. There is
some evidence that the credibility of the treatment acts as a mediator on the
effects obtained under hypnosis (Milling, Shores, Coursen, Menario, & Farris,
2007). To our knowledge, there is no evidence of the role of the credibility
of hypnotic suggestions on ESP performance. In this sense, our comparison
between OBE and ESP instructions has to be considered as exploratory.

Method

Participants

Twelve volunteers (7 males and 5 females) were recruited by the

first author among relatives and people attending his Center, to participate
in an experiment to test the potentialities of hypnosis. They were selected
from among other people if their scores on the Revised Transliminality
Scale (Lange, Thalbourne, Houran, & Storm, 2000) were above 25.7 out of
a maximum of 37.3 of the corrected scores and/or above 23 (over 2/3 of
the range, 0–34) on the Tellegen Absorption Scale.
Previous findings (Del Prete & Tressoldi, 2005), suggested that the
contribution of these personality characteristics to ESP required at least
a medium level of transliminality or absoption; therefore we maintained
this criterion. The participants’ mean chronological age was 35, standard
deviation = 10.1. The volunteers were not paid for their participation.

Task

The task was devised as a simple gambling-like task. Twenty different

series of four emotionally neutral figures (representing landscapes, animals,
buildings, flowers, and so on) for a total of 10 trials, were presented in
sequence one at time on a PC monitor for about 1 min and then presented
simultaneously to allow the participant to guess which one could be the
target. At the same time, the target, chosen by a pseudorandom algorithm,
was projected on a second monitor. This monitor was in a room connected
to the equipment installed in a second room separate from the one where
the volunteer was located. During the experiment, the two rooms were
completely isolated. The experimental assistant and the participant could
not see what was being shown in the adjacent room.
 ESP Under Hypnosis: Role of Induction Instructions and Personality 127

Hypnosis Induction Procedure

The hypnotic state was induced by the first author, a medical doctor
with more than 15 years of experience in clinical hypnosis. The procedure
started with a modified Jacobson technique (20–30 min) followed by 15–
20 min of real hypnotic induction. The attainment of the deep hypnotic
state was based on behavioural indices observed by the hypnotist. The main
indices are: deep muscular relaxation, slow and regular breathing, reports
of spontaneous images, slow ocular movements, and a sensation of hand
paralysis.
Each participant was shown the monitor on which the target would
appear and was then invited to lie down on a couch in the main room,
isolated from the environmental noise. The task was explained as follows:

When you are in the desired mental state after the induced
hypnotic state, you will see four pictures presented one after
another for about 1 minute each on the monitor in front
of you. Afterwards, you will see all four pictures together
and you will have to choose the target. Remember, do not
try to look for any rules because the target has been chosen
by a randomized algorithm.

OBE instructions contained indirect flight suggestions, in line with

Erickson’s procedure (Erickson & Rossi, 1981), to induce spontaneous
OBE experiences, plus an element of expectancy or “mental set,” whereby
the participant was encouraged to want an OBE and firmly believe it could
happen. With ESP instructions, the emphasis was placed on the capacity
to receive spontaneously the target image without mental effort (an
abbreviated description of the instructions is reported in Appendix B; a
more complete version may be requested from the second author).
The participant was instructed to report every impression arising
during the hypnotic state. Following the reception period, participants were
shown the four possible targets and asked to choose the real one using their
impressions. After the participant had chosen the target, the experimenter
input the answer on the computer and the program recorded the choice in
a file without any feedback.
The order of instructions, ESP and OBE, was counterbalanced
among participants.
Each session comprised 10 trials. Due to the individual differences
in achieving the appropriate mental status and performing the task,
the time needed to induce the optimal hypnotic condition and deliver
the instructions varied among the participants. It was then necessary to
complete each session in a different number of days, ranging from two to
four.
128 The Journal of Parapsychology

Results

Data Analysis

Instead of a factorial design 2 (session) x 2 (order) we chose to

focus our statistical comparison to test specific hypotheses (Fur & Rosenthal,
2003). Furthermore, we preferred nonparametric statistics given the low
number of data. Effect sizes and their Confidence Intervals were calculated
using the bootstrap method suggested by Algina, Keselman, and Penfield
(2005).
The number of correct hits out of 10 for each participant is
presented in Appendix A.

Level of Transliminality and Absorption

The mean scores of transliminality and absorption were: M = 28.8,

SD = 1.8, and M = 26.2, SD = 2.5, respectively. The mean absorption is close
to 25.5 (no standard deviation available) reported by Cardeña (2006) in his
group of high scorers in hypnotisability.
The main hypothesis tested is an exploratory two-tailed main
instructions effect or an interaction of instructions by order considering
possible decline or learning effects.

Instructions Effect

Mean scores with the OBE and ESP inductions were M = 3, SD =

.74 and M = 2.75, SD = .96, respectively. The statistical comparison with the
Wilcoxon paired test gave a nonsignificant result (z = .57).

Session Effect

Ten out of 12 participants obtained a better hit score in the first

session than in the second. If we compare directly the data obtained in the
first session with the second one, we obtain: first: M = 3.33, SD = .65; second:
M = 2.41, SD = .79. The statistical comparison with the Wilcoxon statistic
gives a z = 2.39, p = .021, two-tailed; effect size d = 1.24; CI: 2.4–.36. The
mean hit score of the first session is well above the MCE, π = .60; CI: .28–.91;
Contrast: ∆π = .10 (Rosenthal & Rubin 1989).

Order Effect

When the order of instructions was OBE followed by ESP, all six
participants scored better in the first condition. Their mean scores in the
two conditions were: OBE, M = 3.33, SD = .52; ESP, M = 2.17, SD = .75. A
direct comparison with the nonparametric statistic Wilcoxon paired test
 ESP Under Hypnosis: Role of Induction Instructions and Personality 129

gives a z = 2.33, p = .02, two-tailed. On the other hand, when the order
of instructions was ESP followed by OBE, only four out of six participants
scored better in the first condition. The corresponding means were: OBE,
M = 2.67, SD = .82; ESP, M = 3.33, SD = .82. The statistical comparison gives
z = 1.16, p = .24, two-tailed.

Correlations with Absorption and Transliminality Scores

The correlation between hits obtained in the first and second session
with absorption and transliminality scores are presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Correlations (Rs) Between Hits and Absorption
and Transliminality Scores

Session Absorption Transliminality

1 .38 .53*
2 .56* .22
ESP .53* .58*
OBE .23 .05
*p < .05, one-tailed

The combined relationship of both absorption and transliminality

scores on hit scores was R = .37 (ns) and R = .14 (ns) for the first and second
session, respectively, and R = .52 (p = .04, one-tailed) and R = .14 (ns) on the
ESP and OBE instruction conditions, respectively. Even if interesting, further
correlations splitting session and instruction conditions were omitted as
they were based on only six data. The correlation between the scores of the
two personality variables was rs =.28 (ns) whereas the correlation between
the hits in the ESP and OBE conditions was rs = -.25 (ns).

Discussion

The main result obtained in this investigation is the session effect.

The 33% of correct hits obtained in the first session is well above an MCE
of 25%. The percentage of correct hits obtained in the first session is close
to the 37.5% obtained by Del Prete and Tressoldi (2005) using the same
apparatus, design and OBE instructions.
In the second session, the 24.1% of correct hits is in the range
of MCE. The drop from the first to the second session is plausibly
another instance of the “decline effects” (Bierman, 2001; Kennedy
2003) the mechanisms of which are still unknown. One possible cause
could be fatigue from maintaining the optimal mental condition. We
would like to remind that for each trial, participants needed twenty to
130 The Journal of Parapsychology

thirty minutes. This drop reminds all experimenters how difficult it is to

maintain the “mental set” necessary to achieve the best performance in
these experiments. Unfortunately, this effect was not expected and, as a
consequence, no information was collected to monitor if this happened,
for example interviewing participants about their mental status or the
strategies used to solve the task. The advice we can draw from this result
is to reduce the number of trials to the minimum necessary within each
session. It is interesting to observe that this recommendation has also been
made by Kahneman (2003) to prevent the so-called cognitive System1,
the cognitive system which permits intuition, to be interfered with by the
cognitive System2, based on reasoning.
A direct comparison between the two instructions seems to suggest
a slight advantage of the OBE, given the statistical difference from the ESP
instruction when it is used in the first session and the lack of statistical
difference when applied after the ESP session. However, in this case, the
percentage of correct hits of 26.7% is very close to the MCE. For this reason,
it seems more plausible to accept the interpretation that there are no
differences between the two types of instructions.
The roles of absorption and transliminality as mediating factors
for ESP are confirmed by the relationship of transliminality with hits
in the first session and absorption in the second session, and by its
differential influence depending on the induction instructions. This
differential effect is at odds with the result obtained by Del Prete &
Tressoldi (2005), who found an R = .75 using only OBE instructions
alternated with self-relaxation. Owing to this, we can give only speculative
interpretations. For example, it is possible for the effects of absorption
and transliminality to be reduced when OBE instructions are alternated
with ESP ones, since the latter exploit the specific characteristics of
absorption and transliminality, i.e., immersion in sensations and visual
imagery; letting feeble sensations rise to the level of consciousness, and
so on, whereas the OBE instructions essentially ask the mind to leave the
body and travel to perceive the target. However, more direct testing of
these hypotheses is necessary.
To summarize the main results obtained in the present
investigation, we have a replication of the findings obtained by Del
Prete and Tressoldi (2005) whereby a combination of hypnosis and
special induction instructions tailored for the ESP task facilitate
the performance in participants with a medium to high level of
absorption or transliminality scores, confirming the Cardeña
et al. (2007) hypothesis that the experiences of people high in
hypnotisability in “deep” hypnosis, and we add, with special induction
instructions, are more likely to be conducive to psi phenomena.
Future investigations will be necessary to learn how to increase
the hits score from the level obtained by these procedures.
 ESP Under Hypnosis: Role of Induction Instructions and Personality 131

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Revised Transliminality Scale: Reliability and validity data from
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Rosenthal, R., & Rubin. D. B. (1989). Effect size estimation for one-sample
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* Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale

Via Venezia 8
35131 Padova, Italy
patrizio.tressoldi@unipd.it
**Advanced Mind Development Center “Shambhala”
Frattamaggiore, Naples, Italy
guidodelprete@interfree.it

Acknowledgments

We thank Marina Canapero for her careful revision of grammar

and orthography, the two anonymous referees and the editor for their
useful suggestions to improve the quality of the paper.

Abstracts in Other Languages

Spanish

RESUMEN: En este estudio comparamos directamente la eficacia de dos tipos de

instrucciones de induccion hipnótica sobre una tarea de clarividencia de respuesta
limitada (forced-choice) en una muestra de participantes seleccionados por
puntuaciones medianas o altas de absorción o de transliminalidad. Las pimeras
intrucciones, sobre percepción extrasensorial (PES), enfatizaron la capacidad de
visualizar una ilustración remota liberando la mente de actividades de pensamiento.
Las segundas instrucciones, sobre experiencias fuera del cuerpo, enfatizaron salir
del cuerpo y dejar la mente ir al lugar en donde se encontraba el objetivo. Las dos
intrucciones fueron usadas en un diseño intra-sujeto para controlar por diferencias
individuales. En las 2 sesiones de 10 ensayos cada una, el promedio de éxitos
fue: primera sesión: M = 3.33 (SD = .65); segunda sesión: M = 2.41 (SD = .79).
El promedio de éxitos en la primera sesión fue sobre lo esperado al azar, π = .60;
CI: .28–.91; contraste: ∆π = .10. No hubo diferencias substanciales entre las dos
clases de instrucciones. Estos resultados replican los hallazgos de Del Prete y
Tressoldi (2005), y apoyan la hipótesis de que una combinación de la hipnosis y
 ESP Under Hypnosis: Role of Induction Instructions and Personality 133

de instrucciones especiales de inducción adaptadas para la prueba de PES facilitan

el desempeño en los participantes con puntuaciones medianas o altas de absorción
y transliminalidad.

German

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: In der vorliegenden Studie wurde ein direkter Vergleich

der Wirksamkeit zwischen zwei Arten hypnotischer Induktionsinstruktionen
bei einem Hellsehtest mit begrenzten Wahlmöglichkeiten vorgenommen. Die
Stichprobe bestand aus ausgewählten Probanden, die mittlere bis hohe Trefferscores
bei ‚Absorption’ oder ‚Transliminalität’ erzielten. Die erste Versuchsinstruktion
(ASW) betonte die Fähigkeit, ein räumlich entferntes Bild zu visualisieren, indem
sich der Geist von jeder reflektierenden Aktivität frei machen sollte. Mittels
der zweiten Instruktion (Außerkörperliche Erfahrung, AKE) sollte der Körper
verlassen werden und der Geist sollte sich an diejenige Stelle begeben, an der
sich das Zielobjekt befand. Die beiden Instruktionen wurden der jeweils gleichen
Versuchsperson gegeben, um individuelle Unterschiede besser kontrollieren zu
können. In den beiden Sitzungen mit jeweils zehn Versuchsdurchgängen wurden
folgende mittlere Trefferquoten erzielt: Erste Sitzung : M = 3.33 (SD = .65);
zweite Sitzung: M = 2.41 (SD = .79). Die mittlere Trefferquote der ersten Sitzung
lag deutlich über der Zufallserwartung MCE, π = .60; CI: .28–.91; Kontrast: ∆π =
.10. Die beiden Instruktionsarten führten zu keinen wesentlichen Unterschieden.
Die Befunde replizieren die Ergebnisse von Del Prete und Tressoldi (2005) und
unterstützen die Hypothese, dass eine Kombination von Hypnose mit speziell auf
eine ASW-Aufgabe zugeschnittenen Versuchinstruktionen die Trefferleistung bei
Probanden begünstigen, die bei ‚Absorption’ oder ‚Transliminalität’ mittlere bis
hohe Trefferscores erzielen.

French

RESUME: Dans la présente étude, nous comparons directement l’efficacité de

deux types d’inductions hypnotiques sur une tâche de clairvoyance à choix forcé,
avec un groupe de participants sélectionnés pour leurs scores moyens et élevés
en absorption et en transliminalité. Le premier type d’instructions (PES) met en
avant la capacité de visualiser une image à distance, libérant l’esprit de toutes les
activités de pensée. Le second type d’induction, la sortie hors du corps (OBE),
met l’accent sur le fait de quitter son corps et de permettre à son esprit d’aller là
où la cible est présentée. Les deux inductions ont été employées dans un dispositif
avec des sujets permettant de mieux contrôler les différences individuelles. Dans
les 2 sessions de 10 essais chacune, le taux de score moyen fut : première session :
M = 3.33 (SD = .65); seconde session: M = 2.41 (SD = .79). Le score moyen à
la première session fut bien au dessus de ce qu’on pouvait attendre du hasard, π
= .60; CI: .28–.91; contraste: ∆π = .10. Aucune différente substantielle n’a été
obtenue avec les deux types d’induction. Ces données répliquent les découvertes
obtenues par Del Prete & Tressoldi (2005), supportant l’hypothèse qu’une
134 The Journal of Parapsychology

combinaison d’hypnose et d’inductions spécifiquement crées pour les PES facilite

la performance des participants ayant des scores moyens et élevés d’Absorption
et de Transliminalité.
 ESP Under Hypnosis: Role of Induction Instructions and Personality 135

Appendix A

Correct Hits of Each Participant for Each Session

ID Session 1 Session 2 Order

1 3 2 OBE-ESP
2 3 2 OBE-ESP
3 3 2 OBE-ESP
4 4 3 OBE-ESP
5 3 1 OBE-ESP
6 4 3 OBE-ESP
7 4 2 ESP-OBE
8 3 4 ESP-OBE
9 4 3 ESP-OBE
10 3 2 ESP-OBE
11 2 3 ESP-OBE
12 4 2 ESP-OBE
M 3.33 2.41
SD .65 .79
136 The Journal of Parapsychology

Appendix B

Abbreviated Description of the Instructions

OBE:

Reception phase:

There is a light point on the ceiling… you are attracted to it… you want to take it
… imagine your hands, arms, feet, stomach, head, lifting toward it.

… as you approach this lighting point you see it becoming larger and larger like
a sun wrapping you in its warmth. You feel as if you are floating on air.

Now you are tired. You are gently leaving your body. You feel light ... you are
flying in the air.

Now cross the wall of the room where you saw the monitor on which the target
should be presented ... the target image is there now… look at it … it is getting
clearer… still clearer …

You will remember this image only for two minutes. When I say “erase” you
will forget it forever.

Identification phase:

Remember that you are in a dream. You can also open your eyes.

Now look at the four images on the screen … show the image you saw in the
room.

Now forget this. Do not think, do not act.

ESP:

Reception phase:

Do not think, do not act.

The target image is now presented on the monitor in the room you visited.

Let this image raise spontaneously in your unconscious mind.

There is a fog, but this image emerges from the fog ... it is getting more and
more clear.
 ESP Under Hypnosis: Role of Induction Instructions and Personality 137

Now you recognize it.

Identification phase:

Remember that you are in a dream. You can also open your eyes ...

Now look at the four images on the screen … show the image you saw in the
room.

Now forget this. Do not think, do not act.

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