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Chemosphere 303 (2022) 134944
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere
Ammonia volatilization mitigation in crop farming: A review of fertilizer

amendment technologies and mechanisms
Tianling Li a, c, Zhengguo Wang a, Chenxu Wang a, Jiayu Huang a, Yanfang Feng b,
Weishou Shen a, Ming Zhou c, *, Linzhang Yang b
a
Collaborative Innovation Centre of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and
Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210044, PR China
b
Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in Downstream of Yangtze Plain, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-
State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base, Ministry of Science and Technology, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, PR China
c
Centre for Clean Environment and Energy, Griffith University, Gold Coast campus, QLD, 4222, Australia
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• A vital step in reducing emissions is to

inhibit the conversion of fertilizer to
NH3.
• Enhanced efficiency fertilizers tech
nique can mitigate over 54% of NH3
emissions.
• Low environmental impact biofertilizers
provide more sustainable NH3 control.
• Biochar-based fertilizers can either pro
mote or inhibit NH3 volatilization.
• Membrane/film-based mulching methods
achieve NH3 mitigation via barrier effect.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Dr Y Yeomin Yoon Good practices in controlling ammonia produced from the predominant agricultural contributor, crop farming,
are the most direct yet effective approaches for mitigating ammonia emissions and further relieving air pollution.
Keywords: Of all the practices that have been investigated in recent decades, fertilizer amendment technologies are
Ammonia volatilization garnering increased attention as the low nitrogen use efficiency in most applied quick-acting fertilizers is the
Mitigation technology
main cause of high ammonia emissions. This paper systematically reviews the fertilizer amendment technologies
Agriculture
and associated mechanisms that have been developed for ammonia control, especially the technology devel
Nitrogen fertilizer
Farmland opment of inorganic additives-based complex fertilizers, coating-based enhanced efficiency fertilizers, organic
waste-based resource fertilizers and microbial agent and algae-based biofertilizers, and their corresponding
mechanisms in farmland properties shifting towards inhibiting ammonia volatilization and enhancing nitrogen
use efficiency. The systematic analysis of the literature shows that both enhanced efficiency fertilizers technique
and biofertilizers technique present outstanding ammonia inhibition performance with an average mitigation
efficiency of 54% and 50.1%, respectively, which is mainly attributed to the slowing down in release and hy
drolysis of nitrogen fertilizer, the enhancement in the adsorption and retention of NH+ 4 /NH3 in soil, and the
promotion in the microbial consumption of NH+ 4 in soil. Furthermore, a combined physical and chemical means,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ming.zhou@griffith.edu.au (M. Zhou).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134944
Received 1 March 2022; Received in revised form 7 May 2022; Accepted 9 May 2022
Available online 13 May 2022
0045-6535/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Li et al. Chemosphere 303 (2022) 134944
namely membrane/film-based mulching technology, for ammonia volatilization inhibition is also evaluated,
which is capable of increasing the resistance of ammonia volatilization. Finally, the review addresses the chal
lenges of mitigating agricultural ammonia emissions with the aim of providing an outlook for future research.
1. Introduction systems are the breakthroughs in developing ammonia control tech

nologies. These factors could be natural factors, such as meteorological
With the foreseeable growth of the global population in the years conditions (e.g., temperature, wind speed and water regime) (Gong
ahead, the reliance on fertilizer is predictably increasing to meet the et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2007; Peng et al., 2009), farmland properties (e.g.,
growing demand for crops (Li et al., 2019b). Due to the necessity of soil properties and crop features) (Corstanje et al., 2008; Griggs et al.,
nitrogen for crop growth, nitrogen fertilizer is generally adopted as the 2007; Hayashi et al., 2006; Rochette et al., 2009), and factitious factors,
mainstay of agriculture; hence, it is the most crucial nutrient being used such as fertilization and irrigation strategies (Barakat et al., 2016; Ding
in farming (De Campos Bernardi et al., 2016). The world agricultural et al., 2021; Dong et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2015; Zhong et al., 2021),
nitrogen fertilizer consumption increased from 2015 to 118.7 million fertilizer amendments (De Campos Bernardi et al., 2016; Minoli and
tons in 2020, with an average annual growth of 1.5% (Martínez-Dalmau Carozzi, 2015; Shan et al., 2015; Timilsena et al., 2015), and other
et al., 2021; Swarbreck et al., 2019). However, as much as 40–70% of factors. Many studies have revealed that improved fertilizer tech
nitrogen losses result from ammonia volatilization, denitrification, nologyies can effectively inhibit the volatilization of ammonia on
runoff, leaching and other ways (Chien et al., 2009; Li et al., 2019a; farmland, which have presented great development prospects and
Timilsena et al., 2015), leading to the accumulation of reactive nitrogen application potential. This review thus summarizes the recent advances
(i.e., organic nitrogen and inorganic nitrogen compounds exclude N2) in in the mitigation strategies of ammonia volatilization through fertilizer
the natural systems, which further contributes to a series of environ amendments techniques, which is of the most critical significance for
mental issues (Minoli and Carozzi, 2015). Ammonia volatilization ac improving nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency and subsequently mitigating
counts for a considerable amount (average of 10–14%) of total nitrogen environmental pollution risks. Furthermore, this review also discusses
loss (Bouwman et al., 2001; Pan et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2021a); it is, the effects and mechanisms of the reuse of organic waste in agriculture
therefore, one of the main pathways of nitrogen loss. The volatile on ammonia volatilization and the membrane/film-based mulching
ammonia is not only an indispensable precursor of the atmospheric fine technology for ammonia volatilization inhibition and future develop
particulates (e.g., PM2.5) but also an incentive of water eutrophication ment opportunities.
and soil acidification after atmospheric deposition, causing detrimental
effects on air, water and soil (Liu et al., 2020; Ti et al., 2019). Further 2. The mechanism of ammonia volatilization in farmland
more, some studies have revealed that ammonia volatilization is closely
implicated with the emissions of greenhouse gases such as N2O emission Ammonia volatilization refers to the loss of nitrogen fertilizer to the
from agriculture (David Ussiri, 2012; SN Behera et al., 2013), which is a atmosphere in the form of ammonia gas. After applying ammonium
crucial contributor to global warming. Therefore, many agricultural nitrogen fertilizer to the farmland, a series of biochemical and chemical
studies have taken ammonia volatilization as a necessary monitoring processes related to ammonia formation occurs regardless in paddy field
parameter for estimating agricultural systems, and the development of or dry field. As shown in Fig. 1, the hydrolysis of ammonium nitrogen
mitigation strategies has gained tremendous interest in both agronomic fertilizer (e.g., urea) is a critical initial step. On the one hand, the hy
and environmental research. drolyzed ammonium ion can dissolve in farmland surface water or soil
The factors that can affect ammonia volatilization in agricultural water and further be converted into ammonia gas (i.e., NH3) and other
Fig. 1. The nitrogen cycle in the agriculture system.
2
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of using complex fertilizer technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.
reactive nitrogen (e.g., NO and N2O) through nitrification and/or which cannot meet the nitrogen demand of crops throughout the whole
denitrification processes, ending up with volatilizing into the atmo growth period. Based on the above-mentioned problems, developing
sphere. After that, part of the volatile ammonia returns to the farmland advanced fertilizer amendment technologies is an effective way to
through atmospheric nitrogen deposition, and the rest reacts with at improve fertilizer utilization efficiency and reduce N loss through
mospheric gaseous pollutants (such as VOCs, NOx, SO2, etc.) to accel ammonia volatilization.
erate the formation of PM2.5, threatening human health. On the other
hand, chemical migration processes in soil allow part of hydrolyzed
ammonium to leach into the surface and underground water, contrib 3.1. Clay mineral and inorganic additives-based complex fertilizer
uting to water eutrophication (Recio et al., 2018). As only nitrate and technology
ammonium are “plant-available”, most of lost nitrogen fertilizers are no
longer available to the crops, dwindling both fertilizer utilization effi As shown in Fig. 2, complex fertilizers are generally composed of soil
ciency and potential crops yields. Meanwhile, some ammoniums are additives and nitrogen fertilizer. Clay minerals and some inorganic
retained in the soil through “exchange” (binding to soil particles or substances are two major soil additives. The used clay minerals are
utilizing by microorganisms) that could be eventually available, indi usually crystalline hydrated aluminosilicates of alkali or alkaline-earth
rectly reducing nitrogen loss. metals, structured in a three-dimensional rigid crystalline network
The transformation of ammonium to ammonia is a reversible pro with high-density pores, cavities and canals at the nanoscale. Such
cess, which strongly links to nitrogen fertilizer loss via volatilization; composition allows them to retain and release water content and ex
hence the conditions that stimulate the formation of ammonia promote change cations without changing the crystal structure (De Campos
the emission of ammonia. This insinuates that the emission of ammonia Bernardi et al., 2016). The high ion exchange capability and surface area
can be inhibited by restraint or control of ammonia volatilization pro of clay minerals (e.g., clinoptilolite zeolite and stilbite zeolite) for cat
moting processes or conditions. Given this, this study reviews a variety ions, such as ammonium, not only enhance fertilizer retention but also
of control technologies, mainly involving fertilizer amendments and achieve slow-release to minimize the rate of converting ammonium to
barrier effects that are developed to suppress nitrogen fertilization loss ammonia (Palanivell et al., 2015). Previous studies have shown that
through ammonia volatilization in various ammonia promotion related zeolite and bentonite can reduce ammonia volatilization by up to 50%
scenarios such as soil-water interface, water-air interface and soil-air and are beneficial to increase nitrogen fertilizer utilization and crop
interface. In addition, as the regional distribution pattern of ammonia yields (Palanivell et al., 2016; Pratt et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2019d).
emission also shows strong correspondence with local arable land areas Moreover, total ammonia volatilization and NH+ 4 -N and NO3 -N leaching
−
and agronomic strategies that can be briefly sorted out into soil fertil loss decreased with increasing rates of zeolite amendment (Latip et al.,
ization practices and irrigation practices (Barakat et al., 2016; SN Behera 2011; Sun et al., 2019d). A 25.3% of ammonia loss reduction was ach
et al., 2013), agronomic strategies capable of reducing ammonia vola ieved by using clinoptilolite zeolite to extend the retention of NH+ 4 and
tilization are systematically reviewed in the Supplementary Material. NO−3 in waterlogged condition soil (Palanivell et al., 2015). Also, the
ammonia loss reduction ratio was achieved 40–50% when applying
3. Current fertilizer amendment technologies for mitigating zeolite with sago wastewater irrigation under waterlogged soil, attrib
ammonia volatilization uting to the combined effects of high absorption ability of zeolite and
acidifying capacity of the irrigation wastewater (Omar et al., 2010).
To date, nitrogen fertilizers used in the farmland are mostly quick- Additionally, some inorganic substances can also be incorporated with a
acting fertilizers such as urea and ammonium bicarbonate. There are nitrogen fertilizer to mitigate ammonia volatilization due to their
two potential problems with using this type of fertilizer. On the one accessibility and low cost. The added inorganic substances retards the
hand, after fertilizer being applied to the soil, the concentration of sol hydrolysis of urea by reducing the urease activities and increases NH+ 4
uble nitrogen ions (e.g., NH+4 ) in the soil will increase rapidly in a short
retention by changing soil properties, such as acidifying the soil and
time, thereby promoting the N loss through ammonia volatilization. On enhancing soil cation exchange capacity. Using this principle, Soaud
the other hand, the fertilizer release duration is also relatively short, et al. employed S0 to amend alkaline and calcareous soils and investi
gated the varying rates of S0 application in sandy calcareous soils. The
3
Table 1
Mineral and inorganic additives for ammonia volatilization mitigation.
Type of additives Ammonia Mitigation mechanisms Soil/crop type Reference
mitigation
efficiency
Clinoptilolite zeolite 25.3% Improve the retention of NH+

4 and NO3 in soil.
−
Typic paleudults Palanivell et al.
(Bekenu series) soil (2015)
Clinoptilolite zeolite 33.2% Increase the cation exchange capacity of the amended soil due to the Tipik tualemkuts (Latip et al., 2011)
inclus ion of zeolite can maintain more NH+ 4 in the soil. (Bekenu series) soil
Cuban zeolite 33% Allow NH+ 4 to enter the porous structure of zeolites so is held to convert Fertilizer pellets in (Espécie Bueno
into NH3. aqueous solutions et al. 2015)
Clinoptilolite zeolite 26% Increase the affinity of clinoptilolite zeolite for NH+4. Typic paleudults Palanivell et al.
(Bekenu series) soil (2016)
Andosols 0.2% 1) Lower the soil pH; Volcanic ash soil with Hayashi et al.
2) Increase the effective cation exchange capacity; wheat (2011)
3) Increase the nitrification potential for a high consumption rate of the
applied ammonium.
Vermiculite + bentonite 50% Improve the effectiveness of NH+ 4 adsorption/fixation to clays. Sandy sodosol soil Pratt et al. (2016)
Zeolite + sago wastewater 40–50% 1) Form channels in zeolites that effectively absorb ammonium ions and Mineral soil Omar et al. (2010)
release them slowly;
2) Acidify the soil, and lower soil pH by introducing the sago wastewater,
facilitating the formation of ammonium ions over ammonia.
Clinoptilolite zeolite + 35–37% Enhance soil adsorption capacity for NH+ 4 and more crystallized urea and Rice paddy soil Sun et al. (2019d)
alternate wetting and drying urease being sequestered in the zeolite pores. Zeolite can retain NH+ 4
irrigation within a short time after N fertilization due to its high cation exchange
capacity, which buffer the excessive N supply significantly and produce a
better efficiency in reducing NH3 volatilization.
Clinoptilolite + cellulose 85–96% 1) Increase NH+ 4 retention on cation-exchange sites; Calcareous riviera fine He et al. (2002)
2) Enhance microbial growth and activities. sand
Zeolite + triple superphosphate 34–49% Significantly increase soil-exchangeable Ca, K and Mg, and benefit the Sandy clay loam Haruna Ahmed
formation of NH+ 4 over NH3 compared with urea without additives. (Typic kandiudult) et al. (2008)
Zeolite + triple superphosphate >30% 1) Encourage the formation of NH+ 4 over NH3 via hydrolysis of Sandy clay loam Ahmed et al. (2006)
+ humic acid superphosphate that can acidify the soil, lower soil pH; (Typic kandiudult)
2) Increase the retention of NH4 on the humic acid and zeolite;
+
3) Promote the formation of metastable reaction products such as Ca

(NH4)2(HPO4)2 would help to conserve NH+ 4.
Gypsum 13% Decrease the pH. Coastal saline alluvial Zhu et al. (2020)
soil
Boric acid 11–16% Significantly slow down the rate of urea hydrolyzation, prolonging its Chernozem and red Gao et al. (2021)
half-life. soil
Calcium superphosphate 39.2% Alleviate the negative effect of pH of the flood water. Yellow-brown soil Shan et al. (2015)
with cabbage
Urea + pyrite + CuSO4 30.3% Induce a strong inhibitory effect on urease activity by using Cu2+, and Alfisol soil (Typic (Damodar Reddy
Urea + KCl + CuSO4 24.6% acidify alkaline urea microsites by using pyrite or KCl. haplustalf) with and Sharma, 2000)
sunflower
Urea + Cu + B 37% 1) Block the enzyme site and reduce its activity in the soil through the Dystrophic red latosols (Eduardo Lopes
Cu2+ produced by the reaction of the ion with the sulfhydryl group from with maize Cancellier et al.,
urease, thus promoting N maintenance in amidic form; 2016)
2) Reduce the pH around the granules by introducing B.
results showed that the neutralization effect between alkaline urea and pollution and rise potential environmental risks (De Campos Bernardi
H2SO4 generated from S0 suppresses the conversion of NH+ 4 to NH3. In et al., 2016).
this way, up to 55% ammonia loss has been reduced (Soaud et al., 2011).
A similar investigation focused on the effect of co-application of potas 3.2. Coating and inhibition-based enhanced efficiency fertilizer
sium chloride and copper sulfate on ammonia volatilization found that technology
25% of ammonia loss reduction was achieved due to the strong inhibi
tory effect of Cu2+ on urease activity and acidification of alkaline urea Several attempts have been made to develop means for ammonia
microsites by KCl (Damodar Reddy and Sharma, 2000). Moreover, there evolution controlling during urea hydrolysis. A prevalent strategy is
were other studies suggested that triple superphosphate and some acidic using enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEF) with additional coating and
additives (such as boric acid and humic acid) possess good abilities for urease/nitrification inhibitors. As demonstrated in Fig. 3, the added
ammonia volatilization control and can be used as effective nitrogen coating controls fertilizer nutrient release by suppressing one or more
fertilizer additives (Ahmed et al., 2006; He et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2020). nitrogen transformation processes responsible for the N losses (Liu et al.,
Table 1 summarizes some common mineral and inorganic additives for 2020; Timilsena et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2020b).
mitigating ammonia volatilization. It can be seen that in the investigated The most used coated fertilizer, also known as controlled/slow-
studies, the inhibition effect of a single additive on ammonia volatili release fertilizer, includes polymer coating, inorganic/organic addi
zation (average inhibition efficiency ca. 23%) is inferior to the combined tives coating, etc. The coating additives regulate the release rate of ni
effects of two or more additives (average inhibition efficiency ca. trogen fertilizer, thus maintaining a low level of ammonium nitrogen in
42.8%), and the total average inhibition efficiency is about 33.5%. To the soil or field water and supporting the long-term supply of N for crop
sum up, clay mineral and inorganic additives-based complex fertilizers absorption, thereby reducing ammonia loss and boosting nitrogen uti
have the advantage of being low-cost, most indigenously available from lization efficiency (Tang et al., 2018; Tian et al., 2017). In recent years, a
natural minerals or industrial by-products. However, excessive appli wide variety of coated fertilizers have been developed. Compared with
cation of such additives can induce soil acidification and compaction or traditional urea, coated fertilizers have been proven to significantly
damage the soil structure, which may cause secondary environmental reduce ammonia volatilization. The research conducted by Lam et al.
4
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of using enhanced efficiency fertilizer technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.
found that polymer-coated fertilizers can reduce ammonia volatilization m− 2 compared with 1.90 g m− 2 in the application of urea only (Singh
by 80% in tenosol soil grown with perennial ryegrass (Lam et al., 2019). et al., 2013). The study conducted by Ahmed et al. showed that an even
Later, Shan et al. suggested that sulfur-coated fertilizers can also reduce higher ammonia volatilization reduction efficiency (up to 90%) could be
ammonia volatilization, with a reduction rate ranging from 60.7% to achieved by the combined use of NBPT and dicyandiamide, which
68.8% in yellow-brown soil planted with cabbage (Shan et al., 2015). On significantly improved the utilization of nitrogen fertilizer (Ahmed
this basis, Tian et al. collaboratively applied polymer-coated and et al., 2018). In addition, other urease inhibitors, such as
sulfur-coated fertilizers to calcaric ochri-aquic cambosol soil planted Benzoylthiourea-type urease inhibitor (RTB68), Benzimidazole-type
with cotton, achieving an ammonia loss reduction of as much as 105% urease inhibitor (BZI1) and Limus®, have also been proven to be
(Tian et al., 2017). Besides, the studies carried out by Sun et al. and Shan capable of controlling ammonia volatilization, reaching 10%, 22% and
et al. revealed that bulk-blend controlled-release fertilizer performed 55–60% loss reduction, respectively (Barberena, 2019; Li et al., 2017b).
different effects on ammonia volatilization inhibition under different Table 2 summarizes some coated fertilizers and urease inhibitors for
farmland types, specifically, when being applied in hydroagric stagnic mitigating ammonia volatilization. It is observed that this type of fer
anthrosol planted with rice paddy and in yellow-brown soil planted with tilizer amendment technique shows a high ammonia volatilization in
cabbage, this type of EEF can reduce ammonia loss by 22.8% and hibition performance with an average inhibition efficiency of 54.3%,
77.7–83.1%, respectively (Shan et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2016). Lately, among which the coated fertilizers can effectively hinder ca. 63.6%
Pan et al. used meta-analysis to comprehensively analyze the effects of a ammonia volatilization while urease inhibitors mitigate ca. 45.6%, in
variety of common coated fertilizers on ammonia volatilization. The the investigated 37 studies. In general, such coating and
analysis revealed that controlled/slow-release fertilizers can reduce inhibition-based EEF realize ammonia reduction and nitrogen fertiliza
ammonia volatilization by 68% on average. Among them, thermoplastic tion efficiency enhancement by hindering the hydrolysis of nitrogen
resin-coated urea, sulfur-coated urea, and polyfin-coated urea can fertilizer and coordinating nitrogen supply pattern so that they usually
mitigate ammonia loss by 82.7%, 78.4% and 69.4%, respectively (Pan present the characteristics of “long-acting, slow-release, energy-saving,
et al., 2016). and environmental-friendly”. However, there are also some drawbacks,
Urease inhibitors are another important type of EEF for ammonia such as expensive price, vulnerable coating material, potential damage
volatilization control. As a hydrolase that acts on amide bonds, urease to the soil structure, and the inability of nutrient release characteristics
can catalyze the conversion of urea and organic nitrogen, contributing to to fully match the nutrient requirements of the crop during the growth
the formation of ammonium nitrogen. Since the urease activity can period. Therefore, the solutions to these existing problems will be the
directly affect the ammonia volatilization process on the soil, urease future development directions of such ammonia volatilization mitiga
inhibitors can be added to control the urease activity so that urea enters tion technology.
the deep soil before hydrolysis and forms an exchange complex with the
soil, resulting in decreasing the NH+ 4 concentration produced by hy
drolysis, and ultimately reducing the loss of ammonia volatilization 3.3. Microbial agent and algae-based biofertilizer technology
(Sigurdarson et al., 2018; Silva et al., 2017). Many studies have sug
gested that the application of urease inhibitors has a critical effect on the Another critical practice already in use to minimize ammonia
reduction of ammonia volatilization in farmland. For example, emissions is the application of biofertilizers (Fig. 4). This type of fertil
N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) is recognized as a izer is considered the alternative to chemical fertilizers, which can
high-efficiency urease inhibitor, which has been studied and applied in a directly or indirectly improve soil structure, restore soil fertility, main
variety of farmland types (Cantarella et al., 2018). Awale’s research tain rhizosphere microflora balance, and degrade toxic substances.
found that applying NBPT in sandy loam soil and silty clay soil can Differ from synthetic fertilizer, microbial agent-based biofertilizers are
effectively reduce the ammonia volatilization loss by 32.3% and 71.4%, approved to alleviate ammonia volatilization mainly by reducing the
respectively (Awale and Chatterjee, 2017), while Singh et al. also amount of NH+ 4 -N that remained in the soil, including both reducing the
revealed that, in temperate pasture soil, NBPT could reduce ammonia accumulation of NH+ 4 -N by inhibiting the conversion of nitrogen fertil
volatilization losses by 22–47% and increase nitrogen uptake to 7.61 g izers into NH+ 4 -N and increasing the consumption of NH4 -N, that is,
+
accelerating nitrification of NH4 -N, which present more economical and

+
5
Table 2
Coated fertilizers and inhibitors for ammonia volatilization mitigation.
mitigation
efficiency
Polyaspartic acid (PASP) with a 47.5% Capture the NH+ 4 by the negative charge ions of Fluvo-aquic soil with maize Yang et al.
molecular weight of 7568 PASP. (2019)
Sulfur-coated urea 60.7–68.8% Prevent the direct contact of urea and soil water Yellow-brown soil with cabbage Shan et al.
by the sulfur-coat and microcrystalline wax in (2015)
this fertilizer, thus delaying the hydrolysis of
urea.
Bulk-blend controlled-release fertilizer 77.7–83.1% Enhance the slow-release effect and promote N Yellow-brown soil with cabbage Shan et al.
uptake to a greater extent. (2015)
22.8% Delay the availability of nutrients. Hydroagric stagnic anthrosol with rice Sun et al. (2016)
paddy
Cyclohexyl phosphoric triamide 86.6% Inhibit urease activity by slowing down and A meta-analysis of 824 observations Pan et al. (2016)
Methylene urea 87.5% minimizing urea hydrolysis.
Thermoplastic resin-coated urea 82.7%
Sulfur-coated urea 78.4%
Polyfin-coated urea 69.4%
Polyurethane-coated urea; degradable 42.3–65% Lower NH+4 concentration and pH in the Loam paddy soil with late rice Li et al. (2017a)
polymer-coated urea; water-based floodwater.
polymer-coated urea
Polymer-coated urea 80% Slow urea release from the fertilizer granules. Tenosol soil with perennial ryegrass Lam et al.
(2019)
Polyolefin-coated urea 59–91% Maintain lower surface water pH and NH+
4 Ferralic cambisol soil with double-rice Xu et al. (2013)
concentration.
Controlled release polymer-coated urea 84.2% in sandy Slow urea release by the polymer-coating. Ulen sandy loam (sandy, mixed, frigid Awale and
loam aeric calciaquoll) Chatterjee
(2017)
Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4)-coated urea with 58–81% Temporarily inhibit urease enzyme activity by Crowley silt loam, mowata silt loam and Adotey et al.
Boron boron compounds and thus slowing urea kinder silt loam soil (2017)
hydrolysis and NH3 volatilization.
Neem coated urea 27.5% Inhibit the urease producing microbial Vertisol soil Jadon et al.
activities via the presence of alkaloids in the (2018)
neem oil, resulting in a low urea hydrolysis rate
that reduces the NH3–N loss.
Pine oleoresin (POR) coated urea 41.1% Change the antimicrobial properties and
microsite pH through the POR-induced urea
hydrolysis reduction by inhibiting urease-
producing microbes.
A fertilizer mixture of sulfur-coated urea 65–105% Prevent the direct contact of urea and soil Calcaric ochri-aquic cambosol soil with Tian et al.
and polymer-coated urea moisture, so slow down the rate of urea cotton (2017)
hydrolysis.
Polymer-coated urea (environmentally 5–6% Slow down the rate of urea hydrolysis by using Cancienne loam soil with cotton Tian et al.
smart nitrogen [ESN] with methylene polymer-coated urea and induce different (2015)
di-urea as conditioner, 44% N) influences on NH3 emissions according to
different cropping systems and the source of
polymer-coated urea.
Oxamide 38.3–62.7% Inhibit Ammonia volatilization via the slow Hydromorphic paddy soil with rice Tang et al.
hydrolysis of oxamide achieved by its slight (2018)
water solubility.
Phosphoric acid diamide-amended urea 50% Inhibit urease activity. Wheat Khalil (2011)
Green UreaNV® (urea coated with the 45–55% Inhibit urease activity and delay urease Tenosol soil with perennial ryegrass Lam et al.
urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) hydrolysis by the urease inhibitor, NBPT. (2019)
thiophosphoric triamide, NBPT) 44% Vertosol soil with bluegrass Lam et al.
(2018)
SuperU® (urea containing urease and 45% Delay the SuperU hydrolysis through the urease Judith clay loam (fine–loamy, (Keshavarz
nitrification inhibitors) inhibitor. carbonatic, frigid typic calciustolls) Afshar et al.
2018)
Urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) 58–63% Inhibit urea hydrolysis by using NBPT in Cancienne loam soil with cotton Tian et al.
thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) different types of soil and cropping systems, (2015)
and under different climate influences.
45% Weaken enzymatic activity to decrease the Calcaric fluvisol soil with sunflower crop Sanz-Cobena
exchangeable NH+ 4 pool. et al. (2008)
22–47% 1) Inhibit urea hydrolysis and the diffusion of Temperate pasture soil Singh et al.
non-ionic urea molecules in the presence of (2013)
urea inhibitors;
2) Reduce diffusion of NH+ 4 ions in the absence
of urea inhibitors.
32.3% in sandy Adsorb significant amounts of NH+ 4 and reduces Temperate pasture soil ulen sandy loam Awale and
loam and 71.4% in NH+ 4 availability for NH3 production by high (sandy, mixed, frigid aeric calciaquoll), Chatterjee
silty clay soil cation exchange capacity. and fargo silty clay (fine, smectitic, frigid (2017)
typic epiaquert)
52% Delay urease hydrolysis by using NBPT. A meta-analysis of 121 observations Silva et al.
(2017)
55–60% Delay urease hydrolysis by using Limus®. Li et al. (2017b)
(continued on next page)
6
Table 2 (continued )
mitigation
efficiency
Limus® (a urease inhibitor consisting of Fluvo-aquic soil and alluvial soil with
75% N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric maize
triamide (NBPT) and 25% N-(n-propyl) 77–88% Delay urease hydrolysis and increase fertilizer Agricultural soil with winter wheat Li et al. (2015)
thiophosphoric triamide (NPPT)) N retention by the urease inhibitor.
Benzimidazole-type urease inhibitor 22% Slightly delay urease hydrolysis. Clayey yellow oxisol soil Barberena
(BZI1) (2019)
Benzoylthiourea-type urease inhibitor 10%
(RTB68)
Urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) 81.9% Significantly delay urease hydrolysis.
thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT)
N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide 6.3–24.5% Inhibit urease enzyme activity by using NBPT/ Soil samples from 79 agricultural fields Sunderlage and
(NBPT) + N-(n-propyl) thiophosphoric NPPT. from various cropping systems, tillage Cook (2018)
triamide (NPPT) practices, landscape positions, and soil
textures throughout the United States
Urea coated with potassium sulfate with 25.4–35.6% Inhibit urease hydrolysis by using NBPT. Wheeling silt loam soil Frame et al.
N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (2012)
(NBPT)
Urea coated with calcium sulfate with N- 24.1–35.1%
(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide
(NBPT).
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of using biofertilizer technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.
beneficial in mitigating ammonia volatilization, increasing crop pro mechanism of mitigating ammonia volatilization by using algae-based
ductivity, enhancing fertilizer utilization efficiency, and protecting the biofertilizers was revealed by Castro et al., who found out that the
ecological environment (Vassilev et al., 2015). Studies have shown that physical barrier forming on the paddy field water allowed it to hinder
microbial agents-based biofertilizers, such as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens the ammonia exchange between water/soil and air phase, thus reducing
biofertilizer and Bacillus subtilis biofertilizer, can effectively inhibit volatilization (Castro et al., 2020). Free-floating algae in rice field has
ammonia volatilization by 68% and 44%, respectively (Sun et al., attracted researchers’ attention because, as a kind of nitrogen source to
2020a; Xue et al., 2021). Similar results were also found in several later rice field, they can directly or indirectly change the physical, chemical
representative works. For example, Wang et al. have found that both and biological properties of soil and soil-water interface (Castro et al.,
viable Trichoderma viride (T. viride) and nonviable T. viride bio 2020). In the study conducted by Castro et al., microalgal biofilm was
fertilizer can control ammonia volatilization from alkaline soil, confirmed to be capable of reducing ammonia volatilization by 75.6%
achieving ammonia loss reduction by 42.21% and 32.42%, respectively through slow-release nitrogen from the degradation of microalgae
(Wang et al., 2018). These advantages of biofertilizers are achieved via a organic matter (Castro et al., 2017). As a common hydrophyte, Azolla
unique mechanism promoted by various compounds in the fertilizer. showed outstanding ammonia volatilization inhibition ability when
Firstly, it avoids the high soil pH that is usually induced while using applying to rice fields in both gleyi-stagnic anthrosolos and hydragric
conventional urea-based fertilizer (Wang et al., 2018). Meanwhile, it anthrosolos soils, contributing to the reduction of ammonia loss by
enhances soil nitrification capacity by increasing the abundance of ni 42–55.4% (Yang et al. 2020a, 2021; Yao et al. 2018a, 2018b). Another
trifying microorganisms, which promotes the conversion of NH+ 4 -N to common alga in the paddy field, duckweed, was also validated for
NO−3 -N and reduces the proportion of nitrogen loss in the form of having ammonia volatilization mitigation capability (Li et al., 2009).
ammonia volatilization (Wang et al., 2018). Recently, another hidden When it is used in combination with sewage irrigation in rice fields, the
7
Table 3
Biofertilizers for ammonia volatilization mitigation.
Type of biofertilizers Ammonia Mitigation mechanisms Soil/crop type Reference
mitigation
efficiency
Viable Trichoderma viride (T. viride) 42.2% 1) Lower soil pH and NH+ 4 -N concentration; Alkaline soil pre- Wang et al.
biofertilizer 2) Promote the absorption of fertilizer nitrogen in sweet sorghum and cultivated with two (2018)
Nonviable T. viride biofertilizer 32.4% increase the utilization rate of fertilizer; sorghum plants
3) Enhance nitrification by increasing the abundance of functional
genes of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria (AOB).
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA) 68% Reduce the transformation of fertilizer nitrogen to NH+ 4 -N, and Alkaline farmland soil Xue et al.
biofertilizer simultaneously accelerate NH+ 4 -N into the nitrification process. with pakchoi (2021)
Bacillus subtilis biofertilizer 44% Reduce the “source” and increase the “sink” of NH4 -N through the
+
Alkaline fluvo-aquic soil Sun et al.
application of B. subtilis biofertilizer, contributing to reducing the with pakchoi (2020a)
retention of NH+ 4 -N in alkaline soil and mitigating NH3 volatilization.
Azolla biofertilizer 42% Prevent the rapid increase of the floodwater temperature and uptake Gleyi-stagnic anthrosol Yao et al.
of NH+ 4 -N by the Azolla physical barrier that suppresses the algal soil with rice (2018a)
growth.
Microalgal biofilm 75.6% Reduce NH3 loss via the slow N release nature of algal biomass Dystrophic red-yellow Castro et al.
resulting from organic matter degradation. latosol soil (2017)
Paddy Azolla 52.2–55.4% Lower the NH+ 4 -N concentrations, pH, and temperature. Hydragric anthrosolos Yang et al.
soil with rice (2020a)
Duckweed (Lemna minor L.) 20–53.7% The duckweed cover lowers the total ammoniacal nitrogen Clayey blue-purple Li et al.
concentration, pH, and temperature of the floodwater. paddy soil with rice (2009)
Floating duckweed with irrigation with 55.2% Duckweed takes in N and decreases the floodwater pH and Hydroagric stagnic Sun et al.
wastewater generated by livestock temperature or provides a physical barrier to hinder NH3 anthrosol with rice (2016)
production volatilization. paddy
Paddy Azolla 50.3% Lower surface water ammonia concentration and pH. Hydragric anthrosol with Yang et al.
rice paddy (2021)
Paddy Azolla combination with deep 47% 1) Azolla cover can act as a physical barrier to trap liberated NH3; Gleyi-stagnic anthrosol Yao et al.
placement 2) More rice roots proliferate under the Azolla mat and even grow into with rice paddy (2018b)
the Azolla mat, which could promote the absorption of N released
from Azolla.
ammonia volatilization can be decreased by up to 55.2% (Sun et al., found that compared with traditional fertilization, ammonia volatiliza
2016). Some common biofertilizers for ammonia volatilization mitiga tion loss was reduced by 72–79%, mainly through the decrease of soil pH
tion have been summarized in Table 3. The excellent average mitigation (Win et al. 2009, 2010). Moreover, Feng’s research also found that hy
efficiency (ca. 50.1%) suggests it is a promising fertilizer amendment drothermal carbonization aqueous products (HCAP) could reduce
technique for ammonia inhibition. In recent years, biofertilizers devel ammonia loss by 7.6–11.2% by affecting the NH+ 4 -N concentration in
opment has emerged as a rising research direction for ammonia control surface water, ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) abundance, pH and
technology. However, due to their strict requirements on environmental soil urease activity in rice paddy soil (Feng et al., 2021). Table S1
conditions, there is still a long way to go in developing biofertilizers with summarizes some organic and organic waste-based fertilizers for
high-efficiency ammonia inhibition capabilities and fast adaptability to ammonia mitigation. It can be seen that the organic waste-based fertil
the environment. It is predicted to be the priority in the development of izers are usually applied together with other agronomic measures, and
future ammonia volatilization control technology (Vassilev et al., 2015). the investigated average mitigation efficiency of ammonia volatilization
is about 45.6%. It is advocated to use organic fertilizers to replace
chemical fertilizers from the perspective of crop growth and environ
3.4. Organic waste-based resource fertilizer technology
mental protection. However, since the research on organic waste-based
fertilizers is still relatively limited, although they can reduce ammonia
As more and more innovative fertilizers have been developed to meet
volatilization to a certain extent, their long-term impacts on crop growth
today’s requirement for low environmental impacts, using sustainable
and soil properties need to be further studied.
resources and introducing recycled waste as fertilizer sources are inev
It is worth mentioning that biochar is a typical organic waste-based
itable trends for resource conservation and sustainable development.
fertilizer. This carbon-rich solid material is obtained from thermo
The research on the reduction of ammonia emissions during the appli
chemical conversion of biomass under oxygen-limited or anaerobic
cations of these waste-based organic fertilizers has gained popularity
conditions (Fidel et al., 2018). According to the pyrolysis carbonization
(Erwiha et al., 2020). Organic fertilizer and organic waste-based fertil
method and the hydrothermal carbonization method, it can be divided
izers are usually processed from biological materials, animal and plant
into pyrolysis carbon and hydrothermal carbon, named hydrochar (Chu
wastes, and plant residues. It plays a vital role in improving the physical
et al., 2020a). Biochar usually possesses high porosity, large specific
and chemical properties and biological activity of the soil, providing
surface area, rich in negatively charged functional groups, and good
comprehensive nutrition for crops and reducing the loss of N through
adsorption performance. These superior features support its widely used
runoff, ammonia volatilization and nitrogen leaching (Dai et al., 2021).
in farmland ecosystems to deal with resource utilization, soil improve
It has been confirmed that the combined application of organic and
ment, environmental pollution, and other issues (Spokas et al., 2012;
inorganic fertilizers can slow down the loss of nitrogen by delaying the
Zhang et al., 2022). Attributing to biochar’s unique properties, it can
process of organic nitrogen mineralization, thereby effectively reducing
change the physical and chemical properties of the soil after being
ammonia volatilization by 8.8–12.7% (Shan et al., 2015). In addition,
applied to the soil, thereby directly or indirectly regulating the soil ni
organic fertilizers incorporated with a low application rate or deep
trogen cycle. However, agricultural practitioners should be careful when
placement, instead of inorganic fertilizers, could reduce ammonia
using biochar for reducing nitrogen loss via ammonia volatilization
volatilization loss by 24.6% and 89%, respectively, while ensuring crop
because it can either decrease or increase ammonia volatilization ac
yields (Shang et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2017). Win et al. applied
cording to the biochar characteristics.
anaerobically digested cattle slurry and wood vinegar to a rice field and
8
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of using biochar technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.
Fig. 5 demonstrates the mechanism of applying biochar for ammonia On the other hand, some biochar can promote ammonia volatiliza
volatilization reduction. The main feature determining a biochar’s tion, alkaline biochar specifically, as it promotes a high soil pH, which
function in regulating ammonia release from farmland is its acid-base favors the conversion of NH+ 4 to NH3. Other than this, alkaline biochar
property. Specifically, neutral or acidic biochar can reduce ammonia would also promote nitrogen loss via ammonia volatilization through
volatilization. The mechanism is obvious. The low pH of neutral or different pathways: i) It inhibits the nitrification process, thereby
acidic biochar can induce a neutralizing effect when applied to soil, increasing the accumulation of ammonium in soil; ii) It increases soil
which lowers the soil pH, thus inhibiting the conversion of NH+ 4 to NH3. respiration, thereby increasing the exchange of soil gas (e.g., ammonia);
In addition to this, studies have revealed other mechanisms that assist in iii) It enhances soil microbial activity, which accelerates the decompo
cutting down nitrogen loss via ammonia volatilization: addition of sition of soil organic nitrogen, thereby increasing the concentration of
biochar can i) promote nitrification process and then increases soil mi mineralized ammonium (Feng et al., 2017; Purakayastha et al., 2019;
crobial nitrogen fixation capacity; ii) improve physical/chemical Sha et al., 2019). With these in mind, some studies have shown that
adsorption capacity through biochar’s large surface area and special applying fresh wheat straw biochar (pH 9.2, CEC 24.3 cmol kg− 1, and
functional groups; iii) enhance soil cation exchange capacity to increase surface area 9.0 m2 g− 1) to rice field can increase ammonia volatilization
soil nitrogen fixation capacity (Amin, 2020; Purakayastha et al., 2019; by 3.1–48% (Dong et al., 2019), and the amount of ammonia loss in
Sha et al., 2019). A representative work that was adapting these creases with the elevated temperature during the biochar pyrolysis due
mechanisms in reducing ammonia volatilization was conducted by to a higher temperature leads to a higher biochar pH. The study revealed
Mandal et al., who applied three kinds of biochar produced from 250 ◦ C that rising the temperature from 500 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C led to ammonia
to 700 ◦ C, they are, poultry manure biochar, green waste compost bio volatilization loss increase from 40.8% to 70.9% (Feng et al., 2017).
char and wheat straw biochar to calcareous soil and found all of them Interestingly, the study conducted by Wu et al. suggested that biochar
were capable of inhibiting ammonia volatilization, reducing ammonia produced from wheat straw with a pH of 9.42, total C content of 602 g
loss by 53%, 38% and 35%, respectively (Mandal et al., 2018). Later, kg− 1, total N content of 11.20 g kg− 1, and maximum NH+ 4 -N adsorption
Amin et al. found that although applied to alkaline sandy soil, calotropis capacity of 2.68 g kg− 1, could increase ammonia volatilization (25.8%)
biochar, produced at 250 ◦ C with a low pH of 7.15, can still reduce while also increase rice yield by 26.5–35.3% (Wu et al., 2019). Similarly,
ammonia volatilization by up to 71.5% by enhancing soil cation ex Chu et al. added chlorella vulgaris-derived hydrochar made with water
change capacity (Amin, 2020). In addition, many other studies also or citrate acid as the reaction medium to a rice field and found that they
manifested that various biochar could increase crop yields while could increase ammonia volatilization by 53.8% and 72.9%, respec
reducing ammonia volatilization (Chu et al., 2020c; Sun et al., 2019b). tively, and also increased rice yield by 10.5–26.8% (Chu et al., 2020b).
For example, poultry litter biochar, having a property of pH 8.66, sur However, it is not always the case that hydrochar application improves
face area 12.8 m2 g− 1 and pore volume 0.015 ± 0.15 cm3 g− 1, can not crop yield. For example, a contrary finding was observed in Sun’s
only reduce ammonia volatilization by 70.5% in wheat fields but also research, which demonstrated that biochar actually cut down crop
increase dry wheat weight by 24.24% and improves nitrogen uptake by yields by 12.6% and lower nitrogen utilization efficiency by 3.0–8.4%,
76.11% (Mandal et al., 2016). The work carried out by Sun et al. un along with increasing ammonia volatilization by 25.6–43.7% (Sun et al.,
veiled the effects of the combined use of wheat straw biochar and 2019a). Due to the complex structure and properties of biochar pro
duckweed on ammonia volatilization, and the results suggested that duced from a variety of materials, its influence on farmland ammonia
ammonia volatilization could be reduced by 50.6–54.2%, while crop volatilization is related to many factors. Therefore, more studies are
yield was increased by 0.1–0.3 t ha− 1, and the nitrogen utilization ef expected to provide insightful data to support scientific applications of
ficiency was promoted by 11.4–23.2% (Sun et al., 2019b). In the biochar for reducing nitrogen loss and enhancing yields. Table 4 sum
meanwhile, a more complex hydrochar derived from sewage sludge by marizes the effects of applying biochar on ammonia volatilization under
Chu et al. was found to be capable of reducing the yield-scale ammonia different agricultural conditions. A quantitative analysis of nearly 20
loss by 20.3–41.2% in the rice field; While compared with the treatment studies on the inhibitory effect of biochar on ammonia volatilization
without adding hydrochars, the dry grain weight was enhanced by realves that its extensive inhibitory efficiency (4.4%–82%) indicates
1.2–1.31 fold (Chu et al., 2020c). that the inhibitory effect of biochar on ammonia volatilization is deeply
9
Table 4
Effects of adding biochar on ammonia volatilization.
Type of biochar Effect on ammonia volatilization Effect on crop yield and nitrogen use Soil/crop type Reference
efficiency (NUE)
Wheat straw biochar Increase the NH3 loss by 25.6–53.6%. Total N concentrations of soil are Coastal saline soil Sun et al.
maintained at the same levels under (2017)
with or without biochar treatments.
Increase the NH3 losses by 25.8%. Increase rice yield by 26.5–35.3%. Rice paddy soil Wu et al.
amendments with (2019)
vermicompost
NH3 loss increase with the biochar – Coastal saline alluvial soil Zhu et al.
application rate in moderately saline soil. (2020)
Increase the cumulative NH3 loss by Lower rice yield and reduce fertilizer Homestead anthrosol with Sun et al.
15
91.4–107% during the flooded rice season. N use efficiency by 32.6–76%. paddy rice-wheat rotation (2019b)
Increase the NH3 loss by 14.1% in the first Increase rice yield by 7.4–16.5% and Rice field He et al.
rice season and decrease NH3 loss in the NUE from 29.4% to 42.5%. (2018)
second rice growth season by 6.8%.
Increase the NH3 loss by 25.6–43.7%. Decrease the grain yield by 12.6% and Hydragric anthrosol with Sun et al.
lower NUE by 3.0–8.4%. rice paddy (2019a)
Wheat straw pyrolyzed at 500 C and
◦
Increase the NH3 losses by 40.8–70.9%. – Rice paddy Feng et al.
700 ◦ C (2017)
Sawdust biochar Increase the NH3 loss by 26.7–43.2%. Increase NH+ 4 -N and total N content of Paddy rice soil Feng et al.
top (0–15 cm) soil. (2018)
Biochar-based fertilizer (BF) Increase the NH3 loss by 0.41%. Significantly improve yield, plant N Vegetable crops (water Zhou et al.
uptake, and NUE of water spinach and spinach, ipomoea aquatica) (2021b)
minimize N losses via leaching.
Biochar Increase the total NH3 loss by 8.6–17.9%. Increase rice yields by 4.2–5.2%. Gleyi-stagnic anthrosol Wang et al.
with a wheat-rice rotation (2017)
system
Calotropis biochar at 650 ◦ C Increase the cumulative NH3 loss by 73.3%. – Alkaline sandy soil Amin (2020)
Greenwaste biochar applied in the soil NH3 loss increase with the pH increase, and – Bauxite residue sand Chen et al.
with different pH (5, 7, 8, 9) with the additional increase of biochar rate at (2013)
the same pH.
Chlorella vulgaris-derived hydrochar Increase the total NH3 loss by 53.8%. Increase the grain yield by 13.5–26.8%. Hydroagric stahnic Chu et al.
employ water as the reaction anthrosol soil with rice (2020b)
medium paddy
Chlorella vulgaris-derived hydrochar Increase the total NH3 loss by 72.9%. Increase the grain yield by 10.5–23.4%. Hydroagric stahnic Chu et al.
employ citrate acid solution as the anthrosol soil with rice (2020b)
reaction medium paddy
Fresh wheat straw biochar Increase the NH3 losses by 3.1–48%. Both field-aged and fresh biochar Rice-wheat rotation system Dong et al.
Aged wheat straw biochar Reduce the NH3 losses by 13.3–36.8%. reapplication improve rice and wheat (2019)
NUE but no significant increase in rice
and wheat yields.
Wheat straw biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by 17.6–29.4%. Increase the wheat plant biomass, grain Silt clay loam soil with Dawar et al.
yield, and total N uptake by 10–21%, wheat (2021)
5–15%, and 11–25%, respectively.
Wood vinegar application alone or with Increase rice grain yields up to 11.2% Rice paddy soil amendment Sun et al.
biochar has no significant effect on total NH3 and increase the NH+ 4 -N contents of with wood vinegar (2020b)
volatilization reduction, but yield-scale NH3 topsoil by 10.9–17.8% and 16.1–36.2%.
loss is reduced by 13.6%.
Chicken litter biochar Reduce the NH3 losses by 6%. – Typic paleudults acid soil Palanivell
under waterlogged et al. (2017)
condition
Poultry litter biochar Reduce the NH3 loss up to 70.5%. Increase wheat dry weight and N uptake Wheat Mandal et al.
Macadamia nutshell biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by 64.1%. as high as by 24.2% and 76.1%, (2016)
respectively.
Calotropis biochar at 250 ◦ C Reduce the cumulative NH3 loss by 71.5%. – Alkaline sandy soil Amin (2020)
Rice straw biochar Reduce the ammonia loss by 4.4%. Increase the grain yield from 6.6% to Rice field Sun et al.
32.5%. (2019c)
Aged acidic Eucalyptus Pilularis Reduce the NH3 losses by 82%. The acidic biochar treatment can retain Alkaline bauxite residue Esfandbod
biochar (collected after 44 years about 73% of N, compared with <25% sand et al. (2017)
from wildfire occurred in 1961) in alkaline biochar treatments.
Eucalyptus wood biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by 14%. – Agricultural clay soil Puga et al.
cultivated with maize and (2020)
sorghum
Rice straw biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by 10.8%–20.9%. – Deserted field of high Liu et al.
salinity soil (2021)
Poultry manure biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by an average of 53%. – Calcareous soil Mandal et al.
Green waste compost biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by an average of 38%. (2018)
Wheat straw biochar Reduce the NH3 loss by an average of 35%.
Sewage sludge-derived hydrochars Reduce the yield-scale NH3 loss by Enhance the dry grain weight by 1.20- Hydroagric stahnic Chu et al.
20.3–41.2%. fold–1.31-fold. anthrosol soil with paddy (2020c)
rice
Clay hydrochar composites derived Reduce the NH3 loss by 41.8%. Improve the rice yield by 18.8% and Paddy rice Chu et al.
from poplar sawdust via plant NUE by 37.4%. (2020a)
hydrothermal carbonization (BHTC)
mixed with bentonite
(continued on next page)
10
Table 4 (continued )
Type of biochar Effect on ammonia volatilization Effect on crop yield and nitrogen use Soil/crop type Reference
efficiency (NUE)
Biochar mixed with calcium Reduce the NH3 loss by 39.2%. – Rice paddy fields with N- Sun et al.
superphosphate rich wastewater generated (2016)
by livestock irrigation
Wheat straw biochar with duckweed Reduce the NH3 loss by 50.6–54.2%. Increase the grain yield by 0.1–0.3 t Hydragric anthrosol soil Sun et al.
ha− 1 and promote the NUE by with rice paddy (2019a)
11.4–23.2%.
Wheat straw biochar with co- Reduce the NH3 loss by 12.3%. Biofertilizer and/or biochar increases Rice paddy soil Sun et al.
application of biofertilizer rice grain yield by 16.5–38.3%. (2021)
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of using membrane mulching technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.
affected by various factors such as biochar source type and soil type, in a rice field, and the results demonstrated that the cumulative
with an average inhibitory efficiency of 36.6%. ammonia volatilization was reduced by 9.61%, 5.63% and 12.46%,
respectively (Wang et al., 2019). Another comparative experiment on
3.5. Membrane/film-based barrier effect technology Polylactic acid (PLA) and Lecithin (LEC) also indicated that they could
increase rice yields by 21% and 24.1% while reducing ammonia loss by
Membrane/film-based mulching technology is a technique that uses 19.9% and 14.2% (Wang et al., 2020). It is expected that these mem
membrane as a means to suppress ammonia volatilization from paddy branes/films can be degraded naturally without causing secondary
fields. It (Fig. 6) inhibits ammonia loss through physical and chemical pollution, presenting good environmental and economic benefits.
effects without changing the properties of nitrogen fertilizer and fertil However, the existing membranes/films have problems such as unstable
ization methods. Besides, the use of membrane/film can also reduce film formation, easy breakage, high cost and easy aggregation. There
water evaporation, increase surface water temperature, inhibit the fore, research on the property improvement and the appropriate appli
growth of algae, and improve nitrogen utilization efficiency, thereby cation of these membrane/films will become one of the hotspots in
saving fertilizer, water, and increasing yield. Table 5 summarizes some future ammonia volatilization control technology research.
typical membrane/films for ammonia volatilization control that in
dicates the average mitigation efficiency of ammonia volatilization is ca. 4. Conclusions and future outlooks
29%.
To date, Polyethylene film and organic surface molecular membrane In general, all attempts that can inhibit the conversion of nitrogen
are two prominent ammonia suppression films commonly used for rice fertilizers into ammonia can be breakthroughs in ammonia volatiliza
fields. Both Yang et al. and Li et al. have found that polyethylene film tion control. This study systematically reviews the inhibitory effects and
can control the ammonia volatilization rate by 50%, i.e., reduced inhibitory mechanisms of agricultural ammonia volatilization from the
ammonia loss of 1.09 kg N ha− 1 on average, by restricting the exchange perspectives of fertilizer amendments. Specifically, various fertilizer
of ammonia between soil and the atmosphere (Li et al., 2021; Yang et al., improvement technologies can extend the process of nitrogen fertilizer
2015). There were also a few comparative researches have observed the release into the soil by changing soil structure and physicochemical
same effect. A simulation experiment conducted by Yin et al. showed properties, soil microbial activity, fertilizer properties, and hydrolysis
that compared with pure ammonium sulfate solution, the ammonia rate so that more nitrogen fertilizers can be utilized by crops instead of
volatilization rate in the ammonium sulfate solution spraying with the loss via volatilization. Moreover, membrane/film-based mulching tech
octadecanol surface molecular membrane was greatly reduced, and the nology achieves ammonia volatilization mitigation by increasing the
ammonia loss can be reduced by up to 90% (Yin et al., 1996). Mean resistance of ammonia volatilization and reducing the gas exchange
while, Wang et al. compared the effects of three molecular membranes, between the soil/water-air interface. In particular, among the studies
i.e., Polylactic acid (PLA), Span60 and Zein, on ammonia volatilization investigated, enhanced efficiency fertilizer technology performs the
11
Table 5
Ammonia volatilization mitigation based on membrane/film technology.
Type of membrane/film Application rate/ Ammonia mitigation efficiency Mitigation mechanisms Crop type and yield Reference
application
method
Cetyl alcohol molecular membrane Spread on the Ammonia flux densities exceed Decrease the rate constant and increase Flooded rice field Cai et al.
water, average in 0.66 kg N ha− 1 h− 1 on the control the half-life by more than five-fold. (1988)
13.7 kg ha− 1. area but never exceeded 0.34 kg N
ha− 1 h− 1 on the area treated with
cetyl alcohol.
Octadecanol dissolved in water with Spread on the Reduce the accumulative loss of Decrease the volatilization rate Water solution (Yin et al.,
film-forming material water. ammonia by 90%. constant. containing 50 g N 1996)
m− 3 in the form of
ammonium sulfate
High carbon alkanol molecular Spread on the Reduce ammonia loss by 30%. Reduce the gas exchange between gas Rice paddy and Shunyao
membrane water, 3.5 g m− 2. and liquid phases. enhanced rice yield (2002)
by 10%.
A mixture of 16–18-octadecanols Spread on the Reduce cumulative NH3 loss by Change the resistance of NH3 Rice filed Zhuang and
emulsified with sodium dodecyl water, 3.5–8 g 12.8 kg ha− 1 in the rice field. volatilizing from liquid to air. Wang
sulfate and polyalkoxylated m− 2. (2009)
polyolols surface film-forming
material (SFFM)
Polylactic acid (PLA) molecular Spread on the Reduce ammonia loss by 9.6%. Reduce pH in surface water. Rice-wheat rotation (Wang
membrane water, 8 g m− 2. system et al., 2019)
Span60 molecular membrane Spread on the Reduce ammonia loss by 5.63%. Reduce NH+ 4 concentration in surface Rice-wheat rotation (Wang
water, 1 g m− 2. water. system et al., 2019)
Zein molecular membrane Spread on the Reduce ammonia loss by 12.46%. Reduce both pH and NH+ 4 Rice-wheat rotation (Wang
water, 2 g m− 2. concentration in surface water. system et al., 2019)
Polylactic acid (PLA) molecular Spread on the Reduce ammonia loss by 19.9%. 1) Form a physical barrier to reduce Rice-wheat rotation (Wang
membrane water, 8 g m− 2. ammonia volatilization; system and enhance et al., 2020)
2) Inhibit the algae growth to reduce rice yield by 21%.
the water pH.
Lecithin (LEC) molecular Spread on the Reduce ammonia loss by 14.2%. 1) Reduce pH in surface water; Rice-wheat rotation (Wang
membrane water, 8 g m− 2. 2) Increase NH+ 4 concentration in soil. system and enhanced et al., 2020)
rice yield by 24.1%.
Polyethylene film Film mulching Reduce ammonia loss by 1.09 kg N Restrict the gas flow between the soil Wheat Yang et al.
ha− 1 on average. and the atmosphere to decrease (2015)
ammonia emissions.
Polyethylene film Film mulching Reduce average fertilizer ammonia Mitigate ammonia volatilization Wheat Li et al.
loss rates in two growth seasons by through a physical barrier or blocking, (2021)
ca. 50%. which enhances the topsoil water
content and soil temperature, mineral
nitrogen (NH+ 4 -N and NO3 -N).
−
most effective inhibition capacity of ammonia volatilization (ca. 54.3%), volatilization loss in combination with crop yield and nitrogen utiliza
followed by biofertilizer technology (ca. 50.1%). The organic and tion efficiency. iv) Comprehensively evaluate the cheapness, ease of
organic waste-based fertilizers technology are often applied with operation, and feasibility of large-scale promotion of these developed
various agronomic measures with an average ammonia mitigation effi fertilizer amendment-based technologies.
ciency of 45.6%, and typical biochar addition technology can either Overall, with continued developments and applications in tandem
increase or decrease ammonia volatilization deeply depending on the with emerging environmentally friendly materials and methods, the
biochar source types and soil properties. Traditional complex fertilizer ammonia mitigation technology is developing in a more diverse, effi
technology can inhibit ammonia volatilization by 33.5%, while current cient and maintainable way. The advances in mitigation technologies of
membrane/film-based control technology can alleviate ammonia vola ammonia volatilization from agriculture not only contribute to reducing
tilization by 29%. environmental pollution and maximizing agricultural yield but also
Although a number of technologies have been developed and suc generate new opportunities in nitrogen reuse, supporting resource-
cessfully applied to achieve ammonia volatilization control, as the saving sustainable agriculture development.
agriculture system is an open and complex ecosystem, there are still
some future development prospects, including i) Improve the pertinence Credit author statement
of fertilizer amendment technologies. This involves the classification of
crops depending on their fertilizer requirements and customization of Tianling Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Formal
new fertilizer so that an optimized fertilizer nutrients release pattern can analysis, Writing – original draft. Zhengguo Wang: Investigation, Data
be achieved during the specified crop growth period and congruously curation, Writing – editing. Chenxu Wang: Investigation, Data curation,
meet the needs of crops. ii) Enhance the environmental friendliness of Writing – editing. Jiayu Huang: Investigation, Data curation. Yanfang
fertilizer amendment-based technologies, especially in the selection of Feng: Investigation, Data curation. Weishou Shen: Investigation, Data
fertilizer additives, coating materials and membrane/film materials. curation. Ming Zhou and Linzhang Yang: Conceptualization, Meth
Besides, further development in minimizing the interference of added odology, Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision.
materials on the natural soil and its original material circulation and
investigations into both short-term and long-term effects on the agro Declaration of competing interest
ecological system. iii) Strengthen field-scale rather than laboratory-scale
research. Specifically, future research should focus more on in situ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
verification of the ammonia volatilization inhibition performance of any interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
developed technologies by comprehensive assessments of soil ammonia the work reported in this paper.
12
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On July 14th a messenger arrived early in the morning, having
very kindly been sent overland by Mr. Gors, of Port Moresby, to say
that the Alice May had been delayed on her way to call for us; so I
decided to make a trip inland, and had a chat with the Archbishop to
arrange details. It was settled that Brother Alexis should take us to
Veifaa, and we were to start by boat early in the afternoon with four
native carriers, so we hastily got our things together.
Unfortunately there was the usual delay in starting, owing to the
carriers not coming promptly from the village, but at last we got
away, and then unluckily the wind slackened.
However, in due time we reached Pinupaka, which is the port of
this district, owing to the shelter afforded by a sand spit jutting out
from a monotonous coast-line of miles upon miles of mangrove
swamps.
Pinupaka is a miserable village, and poor Brother George, who had
lived in the district for twelve years, looked wan and worn, as well
he may, living in this wretched fever-stricken hole. Two months later
the devoted Brother died of hæmaturia. At high tide the sea comes
up to the mission premises, not a clear healthy sea, but muddy
water from mangrove swamps. Brother George offered us
refreshment, but being desirous to push on we would not delay, for
every minute was precious.
Off we started at a rapid pace along a sand beach flanked by
mangroves. The sand was nearly black, and with but few shells or
stones. The land here appears to be sinking, as there are stumps of
mangroves exposed at low water, and many of the trees bordering
the beach are dead. I may say that there are several species of
mangroves, and those at Pinupaka are not the kind that encroach on
the sea and accumulate land in their wake.
After about three-quarters of an hour we reached the first creek or
mouth of a river, but in this part of the world the rivers themselves,
far inland, are also called “creeks.” We waded this bare-legged, and
continued as fast as possible, for the sun was setting and the tide
rising fast, and on a low, sandy, windward shore this combination
has a sinister meaning. The second creek was known to be deeper
than the first, and the tide was also higher, so we took off our scanty
clothing, rolling it up into bundles to hold over our heads. Wilkin and
I got along all right, but Ray, being shorter of stature, found himself
getting out of his depth, walking on shifting sand and buffeted by
breakers; so Wilkin and I each seized one of his arms, and this
enabled him to hold his own, and we all safely gained the opposite
side. In all these estuaries crocodiles abound, and we were very
thankful to have escaped these brutes. In the muddy water their
presence could not be seen, so there was no means of escaping
them should they happen to be present; but usually crocodiles avoid
noisy or numerous parties. By this time the sun had set, and the
short tropical twilight was too quickly passing, whilst we still had a
goodish bit of beach yet to traverse.
The tide was quickly gaining on the mangroves, and we had now
to watch our opportunity to bolt forward as a wave retreated, and
dodge up among the mangroves as it advanced; our progress was
therefore slow and laborious, as fallen trees put further difficulties in
our way. Eventually the high tide forced us altogether from the
beach, and we then took to the scrub and wended our way in the
dark till we came to another creek. After crossing this we halted and
put on socks and shoes, for the swamp was here crossed by a
“corduroy road,” that is, a road made of logs placed transversely and
kept more or less in position by upright stakes.
It was a comfort to get on firm earth again, and after a half-hour’s
walk through plantations we were right glad to reach the hospitable
house of Fathers Cochard and Burke at Mohu.
A glass of white wine kept us going till dinner was ready. We had
for dinner a mound bird (Megapodius), which Father Cochard had
shot that morning, and we all thoroughly enjoyed our well-earned
dinner. In the evening Ray gave a phonograph entertainment. On his
visit a few days earlier he recorded a speech by Matsu, the chief, in
which he exhorted the people to make the Government road, and
finished off with a hunting song. This speech sounded very fine; it
begins with the customary loud clearing of the throat, and the
sentences come in bursts, the intervals of silence being evidently
part of the orator’s art.
As soon as it was sufficiently light next morning I strolled round to
have a look at the village. There was a wonderful variety in the style
of its houses, perhaps more so than in any other village in British
New Guinea. On his previous visit Wilkin made notes of these and
photographed some of them.
The marea had an enormously long projecting gable, which slants
upwards. Suspended from various parts of the marea were long
grass fringes, and carved and painted wooden boards.
After an early breakfast we again started on our travels. The path
we followed was of dry mud and somewhat uneven, showing that it
must be very swampy in wet weather. All the country for many miles
round is low alluvial soil.
In forty minutes we reached Babiko, but had only time to glance
at the interesting marea. Half an hour later we struck the
Government road leading from the sea to Veifaa, the Government
station of the Mekeo district.
The road passed over a plain covered with a tall, coarse grass,
growing higher than our heads, and preventing any little wind there
was from reaching us. Fortunately the sky was cloudy, or it would
have been simply sweltering. There were numerous scattered trees,
a kind of eucalypt, a few pandanus, and occasional cycads. After
leaving this grassy plain our road lay through the forest. On first
entering the forest we passed through one of the smaller market
places which characterise this locality.
PLATE XXII
MOHU, MEKEO DISTRICT
MAREA AT MOHU
Women from different villages or districts meet at appointed
places, usually at the boundary between two tribes, and there barter
their specialities for commodities from other localities. The bartering
is done by women only, but they are accompanied by a few armed
men, who, however, do not go amongst the market women, but
stand a little way off. The men bring a drum with them, which is
beaten at the opening and close of the market.
The “market-place” we passed on this occasion was only a small
one, but round about were remnants of the simple booths that the
natives erect when trading. After traversing a small patch of forest
and a grass plain, we crossed a river by a good wooden bridge, and
shortly came to a large forest. There was another small market-place
where the road entered the forest.
It was very enjoyable walking along the shady forest paths, and
noting for the first time typical tropical scenery. The trees were tall,
but by no means gigantic. Some had slab-like buttresses, which the
natives utilise as boards; there were wild bread-fruit trees, with their
beautiful foliage of a deep, glossy green, but in this species covered
with inedible fruit; half a dozen different kinds of palms; ferns,
bamboos, and a great profusion of shrubs and plants.
Our road passed at one point close to the Angabunga (St. Joseph
River), a swiftly-running river of dirty water. It is a noteworthy fact
that in this district many words have the ng (as in “singing”), but
this peculiarity is scarcely found elsewhere in British New Guinea.
Although very common in the western tribe of Torres Straits, it does
not occur in Murray Island.
We had a short rest at Inawa. Whilst sitting on a platform of a
house in process of construction I saw a man cutting wooden arrow
points with a boar’s tusk, and bought the lot, much to his
amusement.
We reached Inawi at noon, and found there was to be a large
gathering of the Sacred Heart Missioners to celebrate an anniversary
of the founding of their mission at Inawi. After lunch Wilkin and I
went to the village, which consists of one long street, with three
rows of houses on each side, and a population of some four hundred
people.
There are several different types of houses here. The chief’s house
is a picturesque pile-dwelling, built in the form of a cross, and
adorned with long fringes of grass and carved and painted boards;
from one of the latter, hanging in front of the house, depended a
mask. Each chief in the Mekeo district builds a marea, and has his
own designs on it, which no one may copy, as this would constitute
a valid reason for a quarrel. The chief only has a right to hang a
painted board in front of his house; it is, in fact, a sign of
chieftainship, since when a chief is appointed he receives a board at
the same time.
In the Mekeo district there appear to be two main divisions of
family groups, each of which has its chief. I have more than once
alluded to a dual division of a community in this part of the world,
but here it seems to have been made the basis of a higher social
development than has been hitherto recorded in New Guinea. The
chief of one division is the war, or administrative chief; the other
headman is afu (or taboo) chief. The office of the latter is hereditary.
A somewhat similar division of function has occurred elsewhere.
To take two examples only: in ancient Gaul there were war chiefs
and peace chiefs; the sachem of certain North American aboriginees
was a peace chief. It is not improbable that in the afu chieftainship
we have the commencement of a priestly dynasty after the order of
Melchisedek, but at the Papuan stage of culture the secret of his
power is probably a magical control over harvests rather than the
authority due to purely religious functions. The mage has not yet
become a priest.
On December 6th, 1897, the afu chief of Inawi put afu (taboo) on
the coconuts and areca nuts, as these crops were failing in his
district. Brother Alexis, who happened to be there, described the
ceremony to me.
A small feast was made consisting of five pigs, five cassowaries,
and plenty of native food, i.e. yams, sweet potatoes, taro, bananas,
etc.; at about five o’clock Brother Alexis was invited to a place of
honour on the marea, and one pig, one cassowary ham, and two
banana leaves of native food were given him. The Afu chief of the
village then made a speech proclaiming afu, stating that the
coconuts and areca nuts would run short if this were not done. A
piece of cassowary and pig meat with native food was placed in each
person’s oro, or cooking-pot, and then the afu was planted. This
consisted of three bamboos, to the lower part of each was tied a leaf
of the sago palm, and coconuts were tied to the bamboos. The
bamboos were erected, grouped like a “Prince of Wales” feathers, to
the noise of conch shells and a wailing shout sounding like a siren.
So far as I could discover, the bull-roarer is not known in this district.
Leafy fringes, like women’s petticoats, were put round the supports
of the bamboos. (This afu still remained on the occasion of our visit,
except that the central bamboo had disappeared.) In the evening
there was a dance, and fifteen coconuts and a bunch of areca nuts
were given Brother Alexis.
For the three days following the ceremony the nuts might be
taken, but on the third day a small feast was held, and thenceforth
no nuts could be picked.
Fig. 28. Afu, or Taboo Signal, at Inawi
Another family than that to which the afu chief belongs (there
seem to be only these two divisions or family groups in the village)
has the responsibility of seeing that the afu is observed, and some
fourteen or fifteen men of this group, called fulaari, form a sort of
constabulary. Every evening they go round the village armed with
clubs, and disguised either in masks similar to that which was
hanging up before the chief’s house, or they were so covered with
leaves as to be unrecognisable. At Waima all the enforcers
(kaivakuku) of a taboo wear masks (Pl. XXI., B, p. 256); at Inawa
and Veifaa they paint the face and cover up part of the body, but
they sometimes wear masks; at Aipiana they cover over the whole
body with leaves. In the Gulf district there are several important
ceremonies at which masks are employed; in the Mekeo district this
custom is in the various stages of attenuation and disappearance.
All the time the fulaari are in office they may not chew the betel
nut, nor drink coconut water, lest the areca and coco nuts should not
grow. They may not live with their wives; indeed, they may not even
look at a woman, and if they pass one they must keep their eyes on
the ground. Women must not go outside their houses whilst the
fulaari are going their rounds, but if a woman is seen, the fulaari
places his club at her feet, and she must remain standing there until
a fine has been paid for her. If the fulaari convict a man of eating
the tabooed nuts he is tied to the tree from which he gathered the
forbidden fruit, and is only released on the payment of a pig as a
fine.
The village from time to time gives presents of food to the fulaari.
When there is again a good show of nuts the afu chief proclaims
that on a particular day the restriction will be removed. We were at
Inawi on July 15th and 16th, and the 18th the taboo would be
removed from the nuts, after an interval of thirty-two weeks.
We saw the preparations for a big feast, for which eighty-six wild
boars had been caught, besides numerous kangaroos and a large
supply of native food. We were very sorry that we could not stay to
witness the feasting and dancing.
During the afternoon and evening the missionaries arrived in
detachments, and our unexpected party of four rather complicated
Father Vitale’s arrangements, but he was so hospitable and friendly
and all were so kind that we did not feel de trop. We had two
interesting phonograph exhibitions in the afternoon and evening,
and one chief made a speech into it amid great excitement.
During our short stay at Inawi we bought a fair number of
ethnographical objects, especially lime gourds with burnt designs
and stone blades of the now obsolete stone adzes; no handles of
these were to be had. These stone adze heads were ruder than any
I had previously seen from New Guinea. The Papuan stone
implements are usually characterised by being neatly ground and
finely polished. These implements were roughly hewn and polished
only at the cutting edge.
We also bought some whipping-tops; these are common here, and
the following game is played. Two rows of four or five boys stand a
considerable distance apart; each lad spins his own top, and they
gradually increase the severity of the lashing, till the tops career in
mid air across the space between the two rows, the object being to
hit one of the opponent’s tops. When this is accomplished the
conqueror cries out, “Ango ango angaia!” (“My top has bitten you”).
The tops (ango ango) are conical pieces of wood about two and a
half to three inches in length.
The whips (ngapu ngapu) are ordinary pieces of stick or cane to
which a lash is attached composed of a three-ply plat of strips of
bark-cloth from the ipi tree. It is pretty certain that the whipping-top
has not been brought to New Guinea by the white man, for Dr.
Lawes has previously found it among the Kabadi tribe, where the
natives had not been under the influence of the foreigner.
The following day, July 16th, some of the missionaries arrived, and
all went to High Mass in the morning. We had so much else to do
that we thought it was not necessary to show our sympathy to the
extent of going to the service. We had quite a feast in the middle of
the day, and all were very merry. Just before grace after meat,
Brother Philip left the table, and in another part of the verandah
played the air of our National Anthem in honour of the guests. This
act of courtesy pleased us much.
In the afternoon we separated. Our party walked to Veifaa, a
distance of forty minutes only, making a slight détour on the way to
visit the village Aipiana. Veifaa was reached in good time for the
evening meal. The boys’ schoolhouse was placed at our disposal,
and three beds were put up for us in the inner room.
Sunday, July 17th.—We all went to early morning Mass, and Ray
afterwards exhibited the phonograph to a very large audience of
demonstrative, excitable natives and delighted missionaries. I was
particularly struck with the calm, strong, sweet face of the Sister
Superior. She is a Parisienne, with a narrow face and a finely-shaped
nose. The two Savoyarde Sisters contrasted with her in having round
faces and snubby noses; their more homely countenances were
brimful of simple-hearted kindliness. An instructive demonstration of
two European races when I was on the look-out for a lesson in
Papuan ethnology! The phonograph selection was decidedly mixed,
but that did not matter in the least. The Sisters appeared most
pleased with the European orchestral marches.
The people about here wear native clothing almost exclusively,
and it is, fortunately, quite rare to see a man or woman in European
garments. The men of the Mekeo district wear a wider perineal band
than is worn in the other places we visited, and these belts are here
prettily painted in a manner quite new to me, and we were fortunate
enough to secure several of them.
The women wear short black leaf petticoats, shorter than any we
had previously seen. I was informed that their dress in the
mountains is even scantier, as it consists merely of a broad perineal
band.
The missionaries, wisely, do not care about introducing European
clothing into ordinary use, but they expect the women and girls to
wear calico gowns when attending the services. It was very comical
to see the women and girls, just before a service, go to the girls’
schoolhouse, bring out their gowns, or throw gowns to other women
waiting outside, and then proceed to dress themselves in the
courtyard. It was still funnier when, after the service, the reverse
process was gone through, and their native dress alone remained as
the garments of civilisation were doffed. Here, as in most other parts
of New Guinea, the women are extremely modest and virtuous,
another of the many examples that the amount of clothing worn
bears no relation whatever to modesty, though prudery is usually
developed in direct proportion to dress.
Our host knew I was very anxious to obtain ethnographical
specimens from this place, and made no difficulty whatever about
our trading on Sunday, as “ours were not commercial transactions.”
Indeed after service the good Father told his congregation to bring
us things for sale, and thus we obtained a fair number of specimens,
chiefly lime gourds and belts. Father Bouellat persuaded two girls to
stand still whilst I copied their tattoo patterns.
In the afternoon I made friends with the children, who played
some of their own games for us. For the first time I saw children
playing games that mimicked the hunting expeditions of their
fathers. In this instance a pig hunt and a kangaroo drive were very
vividly acted. The “kangaroos” hopped about on the grass, some hid
under bushes. They were stalked and surrounded by “men,” and a
rush was made, and the flying kangaroos were chased all over the
ground. “Man” and “kangaroo” would tumble about in a close
embrace, the latter giving characteristic vigorous backward kicks
with his legs.
The “pigs” walked about on all fours, hands and feet. They were
chased by “men” with sticks to represent spears. When the men
came close to the pigs, the latter jerked their heads sideways with
an upward movement, as if trying to rip up the men with their tusks.
One pig was eventually captured, and two boys got a pole and the
pig clasped it with his hands and hooked his knees ever it, his body
hanging down, and so, like a tied-up pig, he was carried to a place
where some boys had laid sticks across one another to represent a
fire. The pig was placed on this amid much laughter. The shouting
and noise during these games was considerable.
Fig. 29. Boys at Veifaa dressed up as Fulaari
Various other games were played, and towards the end of the
afternoon several boys ran off and stayed away some time. When
they returned they presented a remarkable appearance. They had
bound round their bodies and limbs green or sere banana leaves,
and looked for all the world like miniature knights of old in leafy
armour. The head was entirely covered, the leaves in some cases
being prolonged above into a long spike, like certain helmets. Flaps
hung down from all the head-pieces like frilled capes. One or two
boys had a fringe round the waist, and all had leaves radiating from
their ankles; which gave them a very curious appearance, so that
they looked like Cochin China fowls. Usually the hands were swathed
in green strips, and the bandaging of the right arm was continued in
some on to a stick held in the hand, so that it was uninterruptedly
swathed.
The boys thus grotesquely accoutred chased the girls about and
made them scream. These naughty little fellows were mimicking the
fulaari of Aipiana!
I was immensely pleased to see an existing important social
function imitated by children, and the game presumably also gave us
an idea of what the real costume was like. We measured a few men
in this village, and altogether had a most enjoyable and instructive
time.
We started about 7 a.m. on Monday, July 18th, after breakfast,
intending to visit Waima (Maiva) viâ Bereina; but at Inawi we
received an urgent message from Yule Island that the Alice May had
arrived there, and would sail on the 19th. This necessitated our
giving up the much-desired visit to Waima, and returning instead to
Yule Island. We therefore retraced our walk of Friday, except that we
kept to the Government road leading direct to the sea. As it was low
water the three creeks we had to cross presented no difficulties, but
Brother Alexis was very exhausted when we reached Pinupaka at 4
p.m., after our eighteen miles’ walk, as he was suffering from an
attack of fever.
Brother George gave us a good meal, and we then had three and
a half hours’ beat to windward in the small Mission cutter, not
arriving at the Mission on Yule Island till after 10 p.m. All had gone
to bed by that time, but a frugal supper was somehow raked
together, and we then retired, fairly tired out by our long day.
Next morning we spent in packing, as Captain Inman wished to
start early in the day, and we left the good Fathers and Brothers,
with very pleasant memories of the kindness and hospitality of all
the members of the Sacred Heart Mission.
Before we left Yule Island for our little inland trip a Sister from
Veifaa arrived very ill indeed. She was carried in a hammock by
some natives, and shielded from the sun by a Sister holding an
umbrella. So far as Father Guis could tell, she suffered from acute
rheumatism, dropsy, and malarial fever. It seems a pity that with so
many missionaries of both sexes there should not be one qualified
medical man, or at all events one who has especially studied
medicine. Father Guis has a very good practical knowledge of
diseases and their treatment, but it is scarcely fair to expect an
accomplished literary man to be responsible for the health and lives
of his colleagues in so unhealthy a district. It would also seem
desirable that the Brothers, who are often untutored working men,
should be ordered to take more precautions, and especially to be
careful as to the quality of their drinking water.
Part II
CHAPTER XVIII
JOURNEY FROM KUCHING TO BARAM
We left Singapore at ten o’clock of the morning of December 10th,
on the Vorwärts, and arrived at Kuching about 1.30 on the 12th. The
voyage up the twenty-three miles of the Sarawak river was charming
as the steamer glided along between the fringe of nipa palms and
other luxuriant vegetation.
Immediately on landing I called on the Honourable C. A.
Bampfylde, the Resident of the division, and who was acting for the
Rajah, who was then in England. He kindly invited us to stay with
him for a few days, and we had luxurious quarters in a most lovely
garden, with a lawn that would not disgrace a Cambridge college,
surrounded by choice shrubs and trees, conspicuous among the
latter being a kind of areca palm that has a brilliant red stem.
The various members of the British population were very kind and
hospitable, and did their best to render our stay in Kuching
enjoyable, and we look back upon our visit to Kuching with
considerable pleasure.
Dr. A. J. G. Barker, the principal medical officer of Sarawak,
entertained Seligmann, and the two doctors had great talks about
the tropical diseases in which they were both so keenly interested.
Sarawak is to be congratulated on having so able and enthusiastic a
medical officer as Dr. Barker unquestionably is. Seligmann took
advantage of his stay in Kuching to visit a friend in the Land Dayak
country.
Ray stayed at the hotel and spent most of his time in studying the
Malay language.
Mr. R. Shelford put me up, and we both enjoyed talking about
Bornean natural history and over mutual Cambridge friends. As there
was no chance of our getting away from Kuching for nearly three
weeks, I devoted my time to work in the museum and in laying a
foundation for a study of the decorative art of the natives of
Sarawak. I photographed nearly a hundred Sea Dayak fabrics, and
recorded the names of a large number of the designs on them.
The Resident gave his customary usual Christmas Eve dinner to
his colleagues and friends, to which we were invited, and Mr. Smith,
the then Manager of the Sarawak branch of the Borneo Company,
invited us to his usual New Year’s Eve dinner, when we again met
“everybody,” and saw the old year out in the orthodox fashion. Mr.
Smith’s garden is on a height that overlooks Kuching and the river.
In a township of beautiful gardens this was noted for its orchids, and
the plants in Mr. Smith’s garden truly were a sight to behold,
especially one avalanche of the trailing flower spikes of an
Arachnanthe Lowii, which reached a length of some fourteen feet.
The annual regatta took place on Monday, the 2nd of January. The
poop deck of the Vorwärts was the grand stand, and most of the
white inhabitants were there.
It was a very gay and animated scene, on the shore crowds of
quiet people in all kinds of gay dress and undress. On the water
were boats of every size, from a tiny dug-out canoe that could
scarcely support even a light native to canoes cut out of giants of
the forests that would hold fifty to sixty men two abreast. These
darted about hither and thither, smoothly gliding like fish or
rampaging with flashing paddles and spurting spray.
The natives in the boats gave themselves up to exuberant
pleasure, and there was no lack of shouting and merriment. There
were large numbers of roofed boats in which one could get
occasional glimpses of bedecked and bejewelled women and girls;
nor were they ill provided with good things to eat. We could
imperfectly see one gorgeously dressed woman in one of the
covered boats eating her tiffin with a metal spoon. Some native
nurses on board the steamer, who were looking after the children,
were greatly interested to discover who could be showing off in this
way by eating like a white woman, and they threw pieces of cake at
the boat in order to attract the attention of the woman, who was
hidden under the low roof of the boat. At length their tactics were
successful, and on her showing herself they made grimaces at her.
PLATE XXIII
REGATTA AT KUCHING
VIEW FROM KABAN HILL, WITH THE BRUNEI HILLS IN THE

DISTANCE
I took some snapshots of the scene and of some of the races, but
the day was dull; in the morning there was rarely a gleam of watery
sunshine, and it rained all the afternoon.
All the white inhabitants, the half-castes, and the more important
Malays and Chinamen lunched in the court-house. The races lasted
from 9 a.m. till 4.30 or 5 p.m. A sort of comic side-show was
provided in the shape of a greased boom along which competitors
had to walk in order to secure a small flag that was stuck at the end.
The successful as well as the unsuccessful fell into the water, a
matter of no moment to the amphibious people.
Kuching, the capital of Sarawak, is only a small town. On the left
bank of the river, and situated in beautiful grounds, is the Astana,
the simple residence of the Rajah. Separated from it by a gully are
the fort and the barracks, the headquarters of the miniature Sea
Dayak army of Sarawak. On the right bank of the river is the town
itself. At the entrance to the wooden wharf at which the steamers tie
up is the custom-house, beyond is a square in which are grouped all
the Government offices. Immediately opposite the custom-house
and for a short distance down stream is the large bazaar or Chinese
quarter, where everything required for native or European use can
be purchased at reasonable rates. The comparatively large
establishment of the Borneo Company is at the extremity of the
business end of the town. To the right, beyond the Government
offices, is the Malay town.
The few Europeans, who are all Government officials or connected
with the Borneo Company or the missions, live in the bungalow
surrounded by charming gardens well stocked with varied and
beautiful shrubs and trees. From most of the houses one obtains
interesting views of distant isolated mountains uprising from the
somewhat flat country, and the sunset effects with the lowering
clouds of the rainy season are often very fine.
Despite the strange tropical vegetation, the township has a
peculiar home-like appearance, due to the prevalence of carefully
trimmed lawns, green hedges, and well-built roads. There is an air
of neatness and quiet beauty which was very refreshing after much
wandering on watery ways and the glare and bustle of some tropical
towns and the frank unfoliaged ugliness of others. The rampant
verdure of luxuriant vegetation is here kept within due bounds,
though not without some difficulty. By day there is the sweet singing
of birds, and at night myriad insects chirp with varied note, ranging
from crude stridulation to what may be termed a musical song.
A very good native band plays twice or thrice a week in the
evening in a public garden, and gives an excuse for social
foregathering. The social centre for the white man is naturally the
club. Deserted during the day, it wakes up in the evening, and about
six o’clock members begin to drop in; but all leave shortly before
eight, to bathe, and dress for dinner. There are a couple of tennis
courts, but during the rainy season very little tennis is possible.
Generally one or two members play billiards, but the great game is
American bowls; this gives plenty of exercise, and is really a fine
game for the tropics.
On the hill is a large reservoir, formed by a dam thrown across an
irregular depression. The winding shore of this artificial lake,
embowered with rank vegetation, makes a most lovely walk. By the
side of the reservoir is the ice factory, which had only very recently
been completed, but now ice is regularly supplied at a cheap rate by
the Government.
On the slope of the same hill is the museum, and the picturesque
house of the curator. Close by is the large demesne of the Anglican
Church, with the bishop’s house, rectory, and official buildings. A
considerable part of the grounds is taken up with a cricket field for
the Mission boys, and with golf-links; but new golf-links have
recently been laid elsewhere.
Owing to the sporting proclivities and fondness of horses of the
present Rajah, Kuching possesses one of the most picturesque
racecourses in the Far East. The roads, too, in and around the town
are in excellent condition, and they extend for a considerable
distance into the country in various directions.
The museum is a very pet institution of the Rajah’s, which he has
wisely and liberally endowed. In his address on the occasion of the
opening of the museum on the 4th of August, 1891, the Rajah
admitted that it had cost a good deal both of trouble and money,
“but,” he continued, “I consider that every country worthy of being
called a country should have a museum, and I hope that ours will be
equal, at any rate in time, to any other country in the East, including
even India. It has been for many years a great wish of my heart to
see a good museum established here, and at last I hope that wish is
accomplished.”
The building is an attractive edifice, built in Queen Anne style,
consisting of three lower and three upper rooms, built in the form of
an H. It is very well lighted, and at the same time there is an
abundance of wall space. The foundation of the ethnographical
collections was the very valuable Brooke Low Collection, which the
Rajah bought in England and reshipped to its native land. This has
been added to from time to time, and although there is a good deal
to be done before all the arts and crafts of the natives of Sarawak
are adequately represented, the museum contains the best and most
instructive collection extant illustrating the ethnography of Sarawak.
The fauna of Sarawak is also most fully represented. All the
specimens are well labelled and attractively set out. Dr. G. D.
Haviland was the first curator. He was succeeded by Mr. E. Bartlett,
and Mr. R. Shelford, the present curator, was appointed in 1897.
The museum is a favourite resort for natives, and every day
numbers of Chinese, Malays, and Dayaks come to have a look round.
Often women and children come too, and very picturesque are some
of the groups, as fortunately the natives retain their own costumes,
and do not ape European clothing, which, whatever its effect when
worn by ourselves, is ugly and incongruous when adopted by most
native races. The Dayak men often have very little on, but that is an
advantage, as one can then admire their shapely limbs. Their
“chawats,” or loin cloths, are varied in colour, and however bright
they may be, they always harmonise with the beautiful deep
cinnamon-coloured skin of the wearer.
Mr. Shelford has a Chinese clerk or assistant, who speaks English
well and has a very good knowledge of the zoology of Borneo. He is
a Catholic, and beats the big drum of the Catholic band with gusto.
It is also amusing to see a Dayak boy, clothed only in a small
chawat, sorting and drying bird skins. Several Dayak collectors are
attached to the museum, and they continually bring in all kinds of
zoological specimens. When I was working in the museum two of
them got into trouble, one for carrying pig-meat through the bazaar,
and the other for firing off crackers on Christmas Day at an
unauthorised time. Pork may be carried along the high-roads, but
not along the smaller streets of the bazaar, on account of the
sentiments of the Mohammedans.
The enthusiastic curator had quite a menagerie in and under his
house. On one occasion when I was staying with him he had nine
hornbills in one cage, three different species being represented. In
another cage were four lemurs (Nycticebus). He had also a
binturong, and another small carnivore, three chained-up monkeys,
one being a gibbon, and an owl. There were always a lot of live
jungle insects about, and in the dining-room were a number of
gigantic stick insects unceasingly munching away at leaves; the
allied mantidæ are insectivorous. Mr. Shelford is anxious to induce
the Rajah to add a small zoological garden to the other attractions of
the museum.
We left Kuching early on January 4th in the Adeh, a small but
comfortable coasting steamer. The morning was fine, but it rained all
the afternoon when we were ascending the Rejang. As soon as it
was dark we anchored, as it is against standing orders for the
steamers to sail in the rivers between six o’clock in the evening and
six o’clock in the morning.
By ten o’clock next day we reached Sibu, ninety miles up the river.
On landing we called on the Resident, the Honourable H. F. Deshon.
Mr. Johnson took us to the bazaar, the Malay town, and round the
small, low island that forms the central station of the large and
important Rejang district.
In the afternoon we went down river in a Government boat to see
some Kanauit natives at Saduan who made beautiful baskets. I was
anxious to see them at work, and to learn their names for the
patterns; but our boatmen made a mistake, and took us to see a
Sea Dayak house at Sanamari. It was a hopelessly wet afternoon,
but still it was an enjoyable little trip.
We visited a native cemetery on the way back. Sheds were built
over the graves, and under wall-less shelters were numerous pots,
baskets, articles of clothing, and all sorts of objects that appealed
very strongly to my collecting instincts, which, however, were
rigorously kept under control. Most of the objects appeared to me to
have been old and probably useless. Under one shed, or mausoleum
as I suppose one ought to call it, was an old Kayan shield and a tiny
model of another shield, also a mancala board. Mancala, the national
game of Africa, is played with pebbles, or similar objects, on a board
provided with parallel rows of depressions; the game has travelled
nearly all over the world, the extent of its distribution depending
upon negro or Arab influence. I think this is the first record from
Borneo, though it is known in the Philippines.
Over another grave was an imitation parang with a wooden blade.
A parang is a locally made steel sword, which is used for cutting
down the jungle, chopping wood, and as a sword when fighting.
Apparently the survivors considered that the spirits would be
satisfied in some cases with the essence of things offered to them.
The cemetery was bountifully decorated with parti-coloured red and
yellow flags; there were also two long poles covered with what
appeared to be straw decorations.
We had tea at Mr. Deshon’s on our return to Sibu, and some Sea
Dayak women came, by appointment, to show me some patterns.
The remainder of the evening was very pleasantly spent at the
Residency.
The steamer started at 5 a.m. next morning, and we reached the
sea at one o’clock, and proceeded on our eastward journey.
Unfortunately, we had arrived at the season when it is impossible
to cross the bar at the mouth of the Baram River, so we had to
continue our journey to Limbang, and thence to proceed by a long
overland détour to our destination.
The station at Limbang is situated at a bend of the river on its
right bank below the range of the Kaban Hills. In coming up the river
one first passes the Malay town, built as usual on piles, the houses
being either near the water’s edge or, as the Malays seem to prefer,
actually over the running water. Here were several sago factories.
Later we passed the bazaar, or Chinese quarter, for nearly all the
shopkeepers in Sarawak are Chinamen. Then we arrived at the fort,
a two-storied wooden building, in which are the Government offices;
beyond were the barracks, stables, and other outbuildings.
On the spur of the hills behind and above the fort is the
Residency, a commodious house, with a very large deep verandah,
from which an extensive view is obtained of all the lower valley of
the Limbang as far as the Brunei Hills.
Mr. O. F. Ricketts takes a great interest in his garden, and has laid
it out very tastefully in well-mown grassy terraces with flower-beds,
flowering shrubs, areca palms, and other tropical foliage. Mr. Ricketts
has a large selection of cannas and hibiscus, so that there are
always some bright flowers open. He has a delicate violet hibiscus
brought from Celebes, which I believe is a very rare variety; he has
also raised a colias with deep brown leaves that do not show a trace
of green. He procures all his canna seeds from England!
One evening we went up to the top of Kaban Hill, known popularly
as Mount Pisgah, and had a magnificent panoramic view from Mount
Mulu in one direction to Labuan in the other. The great swampy
plains were intersected by the sinuous courses of several rivers. By
the aid of a glass we could see part of the town of Brunei fringing
Brunei Lake, and at the horizon were the Brunei Hills. (Plate XXIII.,
B, p. 280.)
A very considerable portion of Sarawak appears to be low-lying
land; in some places the hills come down to the coast, but for about
a hundred miles inland the country is flat and more or less swampy.
Here and there solitary mountains rise above the level, and these
are sculptured into peaks and precipices. It seems as if relatively
recently the country as a whole has been slightly raised from the
sea. Before this upheaval the isolated mountains had been islands
which have since been embraced by the advancing land. Thus
Sarawak would still be a land in the making, to which the rivers
contribute their quota of alluvial soil.
The river banks in the interior, with their layers of pebbles,
alluvium, and leaf beds, tell an unmistakable tale, and the spit at the
mouth of Baram River demonstrates the gradual extension of the
land into the sea. The innumerable gigantic tree trunks floated down
by the river are deposited by the action of prevailing winds and
currents mainly on the eastern or right side of the estuary, and river
sediment and leaf deposits are entangled in the natural breakwater,
and so by the conjoint efforts of the river and the sea the spit
gradually grows. The swampy soil is soon rendered more coherent
by the growth of casuarinas and other trees, and as the spit
advances, so marches the appropriate vegetation behind it in
marshalled order.
The river scenery in the low lands is somewhat monotonous. As
far as the influence of salt water extends, palisades of nipa palms
usually line the banks. These trunkless palms, whose long leaves
spring from the water’s edge, are of varied use to man, for their
leaves are utilised as thatch, their sap produces sugar, and, when
burnt, their ashes provide salt.
Behind the serried array of nipa palms are swamp trees, and
beyond these again, on firmer soil, are tall jungle trees. When one
paddles up the creeks a greater variety of vegetation manifests itself,
and many beautiful vistas open out which the wealth and luxuriance
of the tropical jungle tempt one to explore. We had our first
experience of this at Sibu.
Immediately on our arrival Mr. Ricketts had sent messengers by
jungle tracks to Mr. Hose, to acquaint him of our arrival, so that he
might send boats to meet us on his side of the spur of Mount Mulu.
As all this would take time we were obliged to remain at Limbang for
some days, and a very enjoyable time we had there in the beautiful
Residency, thanks to the kindness and hospitality of our host. I
cannot refrain from once more remarking on the wonderful
generosity and friendliness that was exhibited to us throughout our
travels. Any verbal acknowledgment can but feebly express the
gratitude we feel to those numerous friends who assisted and
cheered us on our way.
We devoted one morning to visiting a small Malay sago factory by
the side of the river. At the edge of the river bank were several
lengths of the stems of sago palms, and beside them was a heap of
bark that had been stripped off the trunks.
Under a shed, roofed with nipa palm leaves and supported on two
horizontal poles, was a peeled log of sago, part of which had been
scraped away by means of a long spiked rasp. A Malay showed us
how their grating was done, and on the floor were two heaps of the
triturated pith of the sago palm.
The man then removed some of the coarse powder to a mat on a
neighbouring platform, which more or less overhung the river, and
trod the grated pith, pouring water on it from a kerosene tin which
was suspended by a cord from the end of a long, slender pole. This
contrivance for scooping up water from the river is similar to the
shaduf so extensively employed in Egypt and the East, and is
doubtless another example of indirect Arab influence.
The dancing of the man separates, so to speak, the chaff from the
wheat, and the farinaceous water pours into an old canoe that lies
alongside of the platform. This canoe is covered over to prevent
extraneous matter from getting into the sago, and the lower end is
boarded up. The canoe thus forms a trough in which the sediment is
deposited, while the superfluous water dribbles away from one end
into the river.
The sago thus crudely manufactured by the Malays is sold to the
Chinese factors, who give it extra washings and strain it through a
fine cloth. The fine mud is spread out to dry in the sun. The white
impalpable sago powder is packed in bags and shipped to Europe viâ
Kuching. The granulation of the sago is a subsequent process. A
considerable portion of the sago consumed at home must come from
Borneo. The amount of sago flour exported from Sarawak in 1899
was 228,989 piculs (or over 12,000 tons), the value being $790,583
(or £79,058), which brought in an export duty to the Sarawak
Government of $19,503.01 (£1,950).
The 14th of January was a memorable day for us, as the Resident
invited us to accompany him to Brunei, which is one of the oldest of
Malay towns. It was first described by Pigafetti, who visited “Bornei”
in July, 1521. Even then the town was large and important, and the
Sultan was powerful and wealthy; consequently the Malays must
have been established in the country for at least five hundred years.
The former sultans held nominal sway over a considerable portion
of northern Borneo; but though the Malays brought with them a
relatively high civilisation, they only affected the coastal population,
no influence was exercised for the improvement of the condition of
the interior natives. The Malay traders have always been
adventuresome, and they introduced various trade goods up the
rivers; but the up-river tribes, such as the Kayans and Kenyahs, do
not appear to have acknowledged the authority of the sultans, or to
have paid them tribute.
The power of the sultans and of their subordinates, from the
highest to the lowest, has for a long time been exerted to extract
the maximum amount of revenue out of those unfortunate coastal
tribes who, by their propinquity, could not escape from their cruel
and rapacious neighbours. Whatever it may have been in the past,
the history of the Brunei administration for the last half-century has
been marked by rapine, bloodshed, extortion, injustice, and utter
hopelessness.
The fall of the power of Brunei is probably owing to causes that
have hastened the fall of other empires and cities. The State was
founded by a civilised and even a polished people, expert in the arts
of life; but success and power became undermined by wealth,
luxury, and sensuality, which destroyed the energy that created
those conditions in which alone they could thrive. Strength of
character sunk into aimless cruelty.
The isolation of the town also prevented that intercourse with
different peoples which affords the necessary stimulus for
advancement. It is true that there were trading and diplomatic
relations with China even in very early times, but that was in the
days when Brunei was a living force, as it also must have been when
centuries ago a Sultan of Brunei conquered the Philippines and the
neighbouring islands.
Founded by a pagan, the State soon became converted to
Islamism, and the religious fervour of the converts, backed by
belligerent tenets of their faith, were doubtless important factors in
the building up of the power of Brunei. But all that is now past, and
Brunei has sunk into senile decay.
The name Brunei is variously spelt Bruni or Brunai; an old form of
it was Brauni or Braunai, and another was Burni. Pigafetti called it
Bornei. Voyagers, applied the name of the town to the island as a
whole; but the name of Borneo is unknown to the natives of
Sarawak, who call it Pulo Kalamantan.
Most Europeans derive the term Kalamantan, or Klamantan, from
an indigenous sour wild mango, which is called Kalamantan; but
Hose believes this term is a corruption of lemanta, “raw sago.” There
is no obvious reason why Borneo should be known as the island of
an inconspicuous wild fruit, while it is very appropriately “the island
of raw sago.”
Owing to an ineffective and rapacious system of government,
great dissatisfaction with the Sultan has for a long time been felt by
the natives, and as a result the Sultanate has shrunk to the small
triangular area which constitutes the drainage basins of the Balait,
Tutong, and Brunei rivers. At the present time natives of the Balait
and Tutong have hoisted the Sarawak flag, and are urging the Rajah
to take them over. It is obvious that the days of Malay dynasty in
Borneo are numbered.
Owing to their having taken territory from him, the Rajah of
Sarawak and the British North Borneo Company pay the Sultan a
yearly tribute as cession money of about $30,000 (£3,000), paid
half-yearly in advance, and practically this is the main source of his
revenue.
Unfortunately we had for our excursion a dull day, unredeemed by
a single glint of sunshine, and it drizzled during part of the morning.
We went down the Limbang in the Government steam launch, the
Gazelle, and owing to the tide being low we stuck for an hour and a
half in a sandbank near the mouth of the river. When the tide turned
we left the Limbang and entered the mouth of Brunei River. Owing
to the hills on the left bank of the lower reaches of this river the
scenery is much prettier than that of the corresponding portions of
other rivers of Sarawak. The right bank is merely the coast of a large
alluvial island deposited in the combined delta of the Limbang,
Brunei, and Kadayan rivers.
About six miles from its present mouth Brunei River extends into a
sort of elongated lake. The town is situated along the left or
northern shore, and opposite to it is some high land. The waters of
the Brunei and Kadayan rivers pass between this hill and the range
of hills behind the town. In other words Brunei is situated at the
conjoint mouths of the small Brunei and Kadayan rivers, and in close
proximity to the large Limbang River. Originally this spot was on the
coast of the Brunei Bay, but the growth of the largest of the delta
islands, which is mainly due to the action of the Limbang, has made
the site of Brunei appear as if it were actually up a river.

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Ammonia volatilization mitigation in crop farming: A review of fertilizer

• A vital step in reducing emissions is to

1. Introduction systems are the breakthroughs in developing ammonia control tech­

Fig. 1. The nitrogen cycle in the agriculture system.

Clinoptilolite zeolite 25.3% Improve the retention of NH+

3) Promote the formation of metastable reaction products such as Ca

accelerating nitrification of NH4 -N, which present more economical and

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of using biofertilizer technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of using biochar technology to mitigate ammonia volatilization.

MOHU, MEKEO DISTRICT

VIEW FROM KABAN HILL, WITH THE BRUNEI HILLS IN THE

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1. Introduction systems are the breakthroughs in developing ammonia control tech