Section 8.

6 The Unit Step Source

P 8.6-1
Solution:
The value of the input is one constant, 10 V, before time t = 0 and a different constant, 7 V,
after time t = 0. The response of the first order circuit to the change in the value of the input will
be

vo  t   A  B e a t for t  0

where the values of the three constants A, B and a are to be determined.

The values of A and B are determined from the steady state responses of this circuit
before and after the input changes value.

Capacitors act like open circuits when the input is constant and the
circuit is at steady state. Consequently, the capacitor is replaced by
an open circuit.

The value of the capacitor voltage at time t = 0, will be

equal to the steady state capacitor voltage before the input
changes. At time t = 0 the output voltage is
vo  0   A  B e    A  B
a 0
The steady-state circuit for
t < 0.
Consequently, the capacitor voltage is labeled as A + B. Analysis
of the circuit gives

A  B  10 V

Capacitors act like open circuits when the input is constant and the
circuit is at steady state. Consequently, the capacitor is replaced by
an open circuit.

The value of the capacitor voltage at time t = , will be equal to

the steady state capacitor voltage after the input changes. At time t
=  the output voltage is
The steady-state circuit for
vo     A  B e
 a  
t > 0. A

Consequently, the capacitor voltage is labeled as A.

Analysis of the circuit gives

A = -7 V
Therefore
B = 17 V
 The value of the constant a is determined from the time constant, , which is in turn
calculated from the values of the capacitance C and of the Thevenin resistance, Rt, of the circuit
connected to the capacitor.
1
  Rt C
a

Here is the circuit used to calculate Rt.

Rt = 9 
Therefore
1 1
a  1.6

 9 66.7  10 3
 s


(The time constant is    9 66.7  103  0.6 s .) 
Putting it all together:
 10 V for t  0
vo  t    1.6t
7  17e V for t  0

P 8.6-2
Solution:
The value of the input is one constant, 4 V, before time t = 0 and a different constant, 8 V, after
time t = 0. The response of the first order circuit to the change in the value of the input will be
vo  t   A  B e a t for t  0
where the values of the three constants A, B and a are to be determined.
The values of A and B are determined from the steady state responses of this circuit
before and after the input changes value.

Capacitors act like open circuits when the input is constant

and the circuit is at steady state. Consequently, the capacitor is
replaced by an open circuit.
The value of the capacitor voltage at time t = 0, will be
equal to the steady state capacitor voltage before the input
changes. At time t = 0 the output voltage is
The steady-state circuit for
vo  0   A  B e
 a  0
t < 0.  A B
Consequently, the capacitor voltage is labeled as A + B.
Analysis of the circuit gives
4
A B   4   2.67 V
48
 Capacitors act like open circuits when the input is constant
and the circuit is at steady state. Consequently, the capacitor is
replaced by an open circuit.
The value of the capacitor voltage at time t = , will be equal
to the steady state capacitor voltage after the input changes.
At time t =  the output voltage is
The steady-state circuit for
vo     A  B e
 a  
t > 0. A
Consequently, the capacitor voltage is labeled as A.
Analysis of the circuit gives
8
A 8  5.33 V
48
Therefore
B = 2.67 V

The value of the constant a is determined from the time constant, , which is in turn
calculated from the values of the capacitance C and of the Thevenin resistance, Rt, of the circuit
connected to the capacitor.
1
  Rt C
a

Here is the circuit used to calculate Rt.

Rt 
 4 8  2.67 
48
Therefore
1 1
a  0.58
 2.67 .65 s

(The time constant is    2.67  0.65  1.74 s .)

Putting it all together:

 2.67 V for t  0
vo  t     0.58t
5.33  2.67 e V for t  0
P8.6-3
Solution:
The figure below shows the given op-amp circuit:

The input voltage is given as:

vs  t   3.6 V  1.8u  t  V

For t  0 ,

vs  t   3.6 V  1.8  0  V
 3.6 V

For t  0 ,

vs  t   3.6 V  1.8 1 V

 5.4 V

Also, at t  0 ,the capacitor is in steady state and acts as an open circuit as shown in figure below:

KCL at node ‘a’ gives:

va  3.6 V vb  va
  i2
48 kΩ 72 kΩ

For an ideal op-amp, i2  0 , and the potential at the inverting terminal is equal to the potential at
the non-inverting terminal. The non-inverting terminal being at zero potential highlights that
va  0 . Equate the same in the equation above,
 0 V  3.6 V vb  0 V
 0
48 kΩ 72 kΩ
 3.6 V 
vb     72 kΩ 
 48 kΩ 
 5.4 V

Since no current flows through the 32 kΩ resistor when the capacitor is in steady state, the
voltage drop across the capacitor is equal to vb . Therefore, the voltage drop across the capacitor
at t  0 is 5.4 V .

For t  0 , the source voltage is 5.4 V , and the Thevenin’s voltage across the capacitor is:

Voc 
 5.4 V  72 kΩ 
 48 kΩ 
 8.1 V

Since i2  0 , the current through the 48 kΩ resistor is equal to the current through 72 kΩ
resistor, and their combined resistance is 72 kΩ  48 kΩ  120 kΩ . Also, the combined
resistance of 120 kΩ is parallel to 32 kΩ resistor such that the Thevenin’s resistance is:

Rt 
120 kΩ  32 kΩ 
120 kΩ  32 kΩ
 25.2 kΩ

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown below:

The time constant is given as:

  Rt C
 103 Ω   106 F 
  25.2 kΩ    8  F  
 1 kΩ   1 F 
 0.20 s

From the above Thevenin’s equivalent, one can write the voltage across the capacitor as:

v0  t   Voc  V  0   Voc  et / Rt C

Substitute the appropriate values,

v0  t   8.1 V  5.4 V  8.1 V  et /0.20 s

 8.1 V  2.7 Vet /0.20 s

Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor is v0  t   8.1 V  2.7 Vet /0.20 s .
P 8.6-4
Solution
  R C   5 105  2 106   1 s
Assume that the circuit is at steady state at t = 1. Then
v  t   4  4 e(t 1) V for 1  t  2
so v  2   4  4 e(21)  2.53 V
and v  t   2.53 e(t 2) V for t  2

0 t 1

Finally v(t )  4 4e (t 1) 1t  2
2.53e (t 2) t 2

P 8.6-5
Solution:
The capacitor voltage is v(0) = 10 V immediately before the switch opens at t = 0.

For 0 < t < 0.5 s the switch is open:

1 1
v  0   10 V, v     0 V,   3   s
6 2

so v  t   10 e 2 t V

In particular, v  0.5  10 e
 2  0.5
 3.679 V

For t > 0.5 s the switch is closed:

v  0  3.679 V, v     10 V, Rt  6 || 3  2 ,
1 1
  2  s
6 3
so
v  t   10   3.679  10  e
 3  t  0.5
V
 3  t  0.5
 10  6.321 e V

P 8.6-6
Solution:
For t < 0, the circuit is:

After t = 0, replace the part of the circuit connected to the capacitor by its Thevenin equivalent
circuit to get:

vc  t   30   12   30   e

 t / 80000.00001

 30  18 e1.25 t V
P 8.6-7
Solution:

The input changes abruptly at time t = 0. The voltage v(t) may

not be continuous at t = 0, but the capacitor voltage, vC(t) will
be continuous. We will find vC(t) first and then use KVL to
find v(t).

The circuit will be at steady state before t = 0 so the capacitor

will act like an open circuit.

6
v  0    v  0    7  4.2 V
6 4

After t = 0, we replace the part of the circuit connected to the

capacitor by its Thevenin equivalent circuit.
6 6  7
voc   7  14   4.2 V
10 10
Rt  6 4  2.4 

The time constant is

  R t C  1.1 s
1 1
 0.9
 s
So
v C  t   4.2   4.2  e0.9t   4.2  4.2  8.4e0.9t V for t  0

Using KVL

v  t   vs  t   vC  t   7  4.2  8.4e0.9t   2.8  8.4e0.9t V for t  0

P 8.6-8
Solution:
For t < 0

Using voltage division twice

35 40
v t   5  5  0.084 V
35  100 125  40
so
v  0   0.084 V
and
v  0    v  0   0.084 V

For t > 0, find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor.

Using voltage division twice

35 40
v oc   20   20  0.35 V
35  100 125  40

R t  100 || 35  125 || 40  56.2 

then
  56.2  0.0125  0.7 s
so
1 1
 1.43
 s

Now
v  t    0.084  0.35 e1.43t  1  1  0.27e1.43t V for t  0
P 8.6-9
Solution:
For t > 0, the circuit is at steady state so the capacitor acts like an open circuit. We have the
following situation.

Notice that v(t) is the node voltage at node a.

Express the controlling voltage of the dependent
source as a function of the node voltage:

va = v(t)

Apply KCL at node a:

 15  v  t   v  t   3 
      v  t   0
 10  6  4 

90  6v  t   10v  t   45v  t   0  v  t   3.1 V

So v  0    v  0    3.1 V

For t > 0, we find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor, i.e. the part of the circuit to the left of terminals a – b.

Notice that voc is the node voltage at node a. Express

the controlling voltage of the dependent source as a
function of the node voltage:

va = voc

Apply KCL at node a:

 9  voc  voc  3 
    v 0
 10  6  4 oc 

54  6voc  10voc  45voc  0  voc  1.86

Find Rt:

We’ll find isc and use it to calculate Rt. Notice that

the short circuit forces

va = 0

Apply KCL at node a:

  9  0 0  3 
    0 i  0
 10  4  4  sc

9
i sc   0.9 A
10

voc 1.86 31
Rt    
i sc 0.9 15

Then
 31  3  1 1
    0.15 s   6.67
 15   40   s
and
v  t    v  0    voc  et   voc   3.1   1.86  e6.67t   1.86
 1.24e6.67t -1.86 V for t  0

Notice that v(t) grows exponentially as t increases.

P 8.6-10
Solution:
When t  0 and the circuit is at steady state, the inductor acts like a short circuit.

The mesh equations are

   
2 i x  4 i x  i 0   3i x  6 i x  i 0   0
1i  0    3 i x  0
so i 0   i 0   0

For t  0 , we find the Norton equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
inductor. First, simplify the circuit using a source transformation:

Identify the open circuit voltage and short circuit current.

Apply KVL to the mesh to get:

10  2  3 i x 15  0  ix  1 A

Then
v oc  3 i x  3 V
 Express the controlling current of the
CCVS in terms of the mesh currents:

i x  i1  i sc

The mesh equations are

10 i1  2  i1  i sc   3  i1  i sc   15  0  15 i1  5 i sc  15
and
i sc  3  i1  i sc   0  i1 
4
i sc
3
so
4 
15  i sc   5 i sc  15  i sc  1 A
3 
The Thevenin resistance is
3
Rt  3
1

L 5 1 1
The time constant is given by     1.67 s so  0.6 .
Rt 3  s
The inductor current is given by

i L  t    i  0    i sc  et   i sc   0  1 e0.6t  1  1  e0.6t A for t  0

P 8.6-11
Solution:
When t  0 and the circuit is at steady state, the
inductor acts like a short circuit. The initial condition
is
0 4
i  0    i  0     0.04 A
150 100

For t  0 , we find the Norton equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
inductor. First, simplify the circuit using source transformations:

i sc  40  40  80 mA

100 150
R t  100 ||150   60 
100  150

L 4 1 1
The time constant is given by     0.0666 s so  15 .
R t 60  s
The inductor current is given by

i L  t    i  0    isc  et   isc   40  80 e15t  80  80  40e15t mA for t  0

P 8.6-12
Solution:

When t  0 and the circuit is at steady state, the

capacitor acts like an open circuit. The 0 A current
source also acts like an open circuit. The initial
condition is
v 0   v 0   0 V

For t  0 , we find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor.

 136
16  8   16  40
24
voc  
136  24  136  24 
64
  12.8 V
5

Rt  6 
16  96  8  40   39.6 
16  96   8  40 

The time constant is   R t C   39.6   0.8  103   0.03 s s so

1 1
 33.3 .
 s
The capacitor voltage is given by


v  t    v  0    v oc  et   v oc   0  12.8 e33.3t  12.8  12.8 1  e33.3t  V for t  0
P 8.6-13
Solution:
When t  0 and the circuit is at steady
state, the capacitor acts like an open circuit.
The 0 A current source also acts like an
open circuit.

After a couple of source transformations,

the initial condition is calculated as

21
v 0    v 0   25.6  15.186 V
14.4  21

For t  0 , we find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor. Using source transformations, reduce the circuit as follows.

Now recognize R t  14.5  and v oc  0.95 V .

The time constant is   R t C  14.5  32 103   0.5 s s so

1 1
2 .
 s
The capacitor voltage is given by
v  t    v  0    v oc  et   v oc  15.186  0.95 e2t  0.95  0.95  14.24 e2t V for t  0

(checked: LNAP 7/15/04)

P 8.6-14
Solution:

When t  0 and the circuit is at steady state,

the inductor acts like a short circuit. The 0 V
voltage source also acts like a short circuit.

After a replacing series and parallel resistors by

equivalent resistors, the equivalent resistors,
current source and short circuit are all
connected in parallel. Consequently

i 0    i 0   4 A

For t  0 , we find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor.

Replace series and parallel resistors by an

equivalent resistor.

36  24  48  24 

Do a source transformation, then replace series

voltage sources by an equivalent voltage
source.

Do two more source transformations.

Now recognize R t  16  and i sc  5 A .

The time constant is given by

L 4 1 1
   0.25 s so  4 .
R t 16  s
The inductor current is given by

i L  t    i  0    i sc  et   i sc   4  5 e4t  5  5  e4t A for t  0

(checked: LNAP 7/15/04)

P8.6-15
Solution:
This is a first order circuit containing a capacitor. First, determine v C  t  .

Consider the circuit for time t < 0.

Step 1: Determine the initial capacitor voltage.

The circuit will be at steady state before the t  0 , at steady state:
source voltage changes abruptly at time t  0 .
The source voltage will be 5 V, a constant.
The capacitor will act like an open circuit.

Apply KVL to the mesh to get:

1
10  2  3 i x  5  0  ix  A
3
Then
v C  0  3 i x  1 V

Consider the circuit for time t > 0.

Step 2. The circuit will not be at steady state immediately after the source voltage changes
abruptly at time t  0 . Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit
connected to the capacitor. First, determine the open circuit voltage, v oc :

Apply KVL to the mesh to get:

10  2  3 i x 15  0  ix  1 A

Then
v oc  3 i x  3 V

Next, determine the short circuit current, i sc :

 Express the controlling current of the
CCVS in terms of the mesh currents:

i x  i1  i sc

The mesh equations are

10 i1  2  i1  i sc   3  i1  i sc   15  0  15 i1  5 i sc  15

i sc  3  i1  i sc   0  i1 
4
And i sc
3
4 
so 15  i sc   5 i sc  15  i sc  1 A
3 
The Thevenin resistance is
3
Rt  3
1
Step 3. The time constant of a first order circuit containing
an capacitor is given by
  Rt C
Consequently
1 1 1
  Rt C  3   0.25 s and a   4
 12   s

Step 4. The capacitor voltage is given by:

 
v C  t   v oc  v C  0   v oc e at  3  1  3 e4t  3  2 e4t for t  0

Step 5. Express the output current as a function of the source voltage and the capacitor voltage.
d 1 d
io t   C v C t   v C t 
dt 12 dt
Step 6. The output current is given by

io t  
1 d
12 dt
 1
 2
3  2 e4t   2  4  e4t  e4t for t  0
12 3

P 8.6-16
Solution:
Simplify the circuit by replacing the series inductors by an equivalent inductor. Then, after a
couple of source transformations, we have
 For t < 0 the circuit is at steady state and so the
inductor acts like a short circuit. The voltage
source voltage is 6 V so

i  0    i  0    60 mA

For t > 0 we find the Norton equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
inductor. In this case we recognize voc = 9V and Rt = 100  so isc = 90 mA.

L 20 1 1
The time constant is    0.2 s  5
R t 100  s
Then
i  t    i  0    i sc  et   i sc   60  90  e5t  90  90  150e5t mA for t  0

(checked: LNAP 7/12/04)

P 8.6-17
Solution:
Simplify the circuit by replacing the series capacitors by an equivalent capacitor. Then, after
doing some source transformations, we have

For t < 0 the circuit is at steady state so the

capacitor acts like an open circuit. The voltage
source voltage is 8 V so

v 0   v 0   8 V

For t > 0 we find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor. In this case we recognize voc = 40 V and Rt = 8 .

The time constant is

  R t C  8  60 103   0.48
1 1
  2.08
 s
Then
v  t    v  0    v oc  et   v oc  8  40  e2.08t  40  40  32e2.08t V for t  0

(checked: LNAP 7/13/04)

P 8.6-18
Solution:

The resistor voltage, v(t), may not be

continuous at time t = 0. The inductor will be
continuous. We will find the inductor current
first and then find v(t). Label the inductor
current as i(t).

For t < 0 the circuit is at steady state and the

inductor acts like a short circuit. The initial
condition is

i 0    i 0   0 A

For t > 0 use source transformations to

simplify the part of the circuit connected to the
inductor until is a Norton equivalent circuit.

Recognize that

𝑅1 = 4𝛺 and 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 2.67 A

𝐿 3 1 1
The time constant is 𝜏=𝑅 =4 => = 1.333 𝑠
𝑡 𝜏

Then i(t) = [i(0+) – isc]e-t/τ + isc = 2.67 (1 – e-1.333t) A for t ≥ 0

Returning to the original circuit we see that

𝑑
𝑣(𝑡) 3 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑
=𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡)
2 3 𝑑𝑡

= 2.67 1 − 𝑒 −1.333𝑡 + −1.333 2.67 −𝑒 −1.333𝑡 = 2.67 + 0.889𝑒 −1.333𝑡

Finally
𝑣 𝑡 = 5.34 + 1.778𝑒 −1.333𝑡 V for 𝑡 > 0
P 8.6-19
Solution:

Label the inductor current, i(t).

We will find i(t) first, then find
v(t).

For t < 0 the circuit is at steady

state and the inductor acts like a
short circuit. The initial condition
is
 6 
i  0    i  0    4 2 A
 6  6 

For t > 0 use source

transformations to simplify the
part of the circuit connected to the
inductor until it is a Norton
equivalent circuit.

Recognize that

R t  4  and i sc  6 A

The time constant is

L 0.25 1 1
   0.0625 s   16
Rt 4  s
Then
i  t    i  0    isc  et   isc   2  6 e16t  6  6  4e16t A for t  0

Returning to the original circuit

 d 
0.25 i  t 
 
v t   6  i t   dt
6 
d d
  
 0.25 i  t   6i  t   0.5 i  t   6 6  4e 16t  0.5 64e 16t
dt dt

 

 36  8e16t V for t  0
P 8.6-20
Solution:

Label the capacitor voltage, v(t). W will

find v(t) first then find vo(t).

For t < 0 the circuit is at steady state and

the capacitor acts like an open circuit.
The initial condition is

v 0   v 0   6 V

For t > 0 we replace series and then

parallel resistors by equivalent resistors in
order to replace the part of the circuit
connected to the capacitor by its Thevenin
equivalent circuit.

We recognize
R t  8  and v oc  12 V
The time constant is
1 1
  8  0.125  1 s  1
 s
The capacitor voltage is given by

t

 
v  t   v  0    v oc e   v oc   6  12 et  12  12  6et V for t  0

Returning to the original circuit and applying KCL we see

d 12  v  t  vo  t 
0.125 v t   
dt 12 4
so
v t 
vo  t   0.5
d
dt
v t   4 
3
 
 0.5 6e t  4  4  2e t  e t V for t  0
P 8.6-21
Solution:
Apply KCL at the inverting input of the op amp to get
v o t   v t  v t   R2 
  v o  t   1   v t 
R2 1000  1000 
We will determine the capacitor voltage first and then use it to determine the output voltage.
When t  0 and the circuit is at steady state,
the capacitor acts like an open circuit. Apply
KCL at the noninverting input of the op amp to
get
3  v 0 
 0  v 0   3 V
R1
The initial condition is

v 0   v 0   3 V
For t  0 , we find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the part of the circuit connected to the
capacitor.

2  voc 2 voc
 0  voc  2 V  i sc  Rt   R1
R1 R1 i sc

The time constant is   R t C  R t 106  . From the given equation for v o  t  ,

1 1
 50 , so
 s
6
R t 106  
1 10
 R1  R t   20 k
50 50
The capacitor voltage is given by

v  t    v  0   v oc  et   v oc   3  2  e50t  2  2  e50t V for t  0

R2
So v o t   5 v t   5  1   R 2  4 k
1000

(checked LNAPTR 7/31/04)

P8.6-22
Solution:
The capacitor voltage can be represented by the equation v  t   A  B e 4t for t  0. Given that
A + B = v(0) = 2.5 V and A = v() =  V we determine v  t   4.2  6.7 e 4t .

 2  4.2 
ln  
6.7 
Let t1 be the time at which v(t1) = 2.0 V. Then t 1    0.01939 s .
4

 2  4.2 
ln  
6.7 
Let t2 be the time at which v(t2) = 2.0 V. Then t 2    0.27841 s .
4

The transition requires 0.27841 0.01939 = 0.25902 s.