e-Journal of Surface Science and Nanotechnology 21, 121−127 (2023)

Sophisticated Double-Slit Interference Experiments

Using Electron Waves
Ken Harada,a, † Yoshio Takahashi b

a CEMS, RIKEN, Akanuma, Hatoyama, Saitama 350-0395, Japan

b R&D Group, Hitachi, Ltd., Akanuma, Hatoyama, Saitama 350-0395, Japan
† Corresponding author: kharada@riken.jp

Received: 11 October, 2022; Accepted: 18 November, 2022; Published: 10 May, 2023

Electron double-slit experiments, the essence of quantum me-

chanical “wave/particle duality”, have been extensively and con-
tinuously studied because their unrealistic interpretations have
attracted many researchers. Here, we discuss recent sophisticated
V-shaped double-slit experiments to elucidate electron-path in-
formation, i.e., which slit electrons pass through, which path they
pursue, and where they arrive and interfere on the image plane.
In a transmission electron microscope, an optically zero-propaga-
tion distance condition was realized, where the double-slit posi-
tion was imaged just on the detector plane. Interference fringes
composed of dot images were controlled by using two electron
biprisms. Using a V-shaped double slit, we confirmed that it is
possible to observe interference fringes only when the path information of individual electrons is not available. Furthermore, we
studied how the interference fringes would shift their detected positions when electron wave phases were modulated before il-
lumination to the double slit. Phase shifts were generated by tilting electron beams. We confirmed that each single electron as a
wave changed its phase even when it traveled alone inside the microscope.

Keywords Double slit; Electron wave; Wave/particle duality; Interference; Electron microscope

I. INTRODUCTION
Young’s double-slit experiment performed in the 1800s is
one of the world-famous experiments to prove the wave
nature of light, thus showing the essence of quantum physics
of the particle/wave duality.
Figure 1 shows a microscopical view of Young’s experi-
ment based on the simulation of interfered light rays after
passing through the double slit. These rays spread out and
generate Fresnel fringes, given in thick fringes and
high-contrast interference fringes in the region where two
rays were superimposed. In Figure 1, these fringes are illus-
trated on the floor. The presence of these fringes proves that
the light rays after passing through the double slit have a
wave-like nature. Figure 1: Illustration of a double-slit experiment. Rays passed
When these double-slit experiments were successfully through the double slit spread out and generate Fresnel fringes and
performed using electron waves, they would constitute ex- interference fringes in the region where two rays are overlapped.
periments for showing the wave nature of electrons, which The interference fringes prove that these rays are “waves”.

e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 121
was indicated in the discussion on the thought experiments an infocus imaging condition, we observed in one image the
by Feynman [1] and Tomonaga [2] in the 1960s. Then, the interference features of electrons under the pre-interference
following questions arise: “What is the wave nature of elec- condition, the interference condition, and the post-interfer-
trons?” and “How can we observe it experimentally?” An- ence condition [10]. From these interference data, we con-
swers to these questions are very important in that whether firmed that we can trace back the electron paths to which slit
or not we can explain the “wave/particle duality”, for exam- electrons passed through when electrons are under the pre-
ple, electrons are observed as particles in bright spots; how- or post-interference conditions, while with insufficient elec-
ever, as a whole, they create interference fringes showing tron path information not enough to identify which slit elec-
wave nature. Furthermore, this wave/particle duality is a trons passed through, we observe interference fringes when
very important and deep-rooted quantum mechanical con- electrons are under the interference condition. In this article,
cept regarding the observation problems and locality con- we discuss these findings in detail and additional interfer-
cept. ence experiments with phase-shifted electron waves.
The first double-slit experiment using electrons was re-
ported in 1961 by Jönsson [3, 4], a member of Möllenstedt’s
research team at Tübingen, who observed interference
II. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
fringes on the films using specially manufactured fine dou- A. Interference optical system using double slit
ble- and multi-slits. We note that this experiment was per-
formed independently from Feynman’s proposal. The ex- In conventional interference experiments using double
periment proposed by Feynman and by Tomonaga intended slits shown in Figure 2(a), the double slit is illuminated with
to observe single electrons independently, which form inter- coherent electron waves, which are always diffracted after
ference fringes as a whole, i.e., single electron buildup. passing through the two slits, spread spherically during the
These experiments were realized by using electron biprisms propagation process, and superimposed to form interference
[5] instead of double slits by Merli et al. in 1976 [6], Lichte fringes on the image plane; therefore, it is difficult to obtain
in 1988 [7], and Tonomura et al. in 1989 [8]. These experi- electron path information as to which slit these electrons
ments were known as good demonstrations of showing the passed through.
essence of quantum physics. To solve this problem, we devised an optical system [10]
Recently, we have been working on new experiments [9, [Figure 2(b)] for imaging the double slit on the image plane
10] using a holography transmission electron microscope under the infocus condition, i.e., the condition of an optical-
[11] equipped with a special optical system and electron ly zero propagation distance from the double-slit position
biprisms to fully understand the particle/wave duality con- (the object plane) to the detector position (the image plane)
cept and to clarify the relation between the electron path based on the optical conjugate relation between the object
information and interference. Using a V-shaped double slit and image planes. Waves spreading spherically after passing
under an optically zero-propagation distance condition, i.e., through the left and right slits on the object plane are con-

Figure 2: Optical setup for double-slit interference experiments; (a) a conventional setup, (b) setup under the optically zero-propagation dis-
tance condition, i.e., the infocus imaging condition, and (c) setup under the infocus imaging condition using two biprisms positioned above
and below the objective lens. The upper biprism is placed at the object plane. The lower biprism is placed between the objective lens and im-
age plane to superimpose two waves into the infocus condition.

e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 122
Figure 3: Experimental setups under the optically zero-propagation distance condition; (a) the deflection angle by the lower biprism is small
enough so that two waves after passing through the slit are not yet superimposed for interference on the image plane and only double-slit im-
ages are obtained. (b) the deflection angle is increased so that two slit images overlap on the image plane generating interference fringes. (c)
the deflection angle is further increased so that two waves are further deflected resulting in the condition that two slit images can no longer
overlap on the image plane and only double-slit image (exchanged) can be obtained. The figure is reproduced with some modifications from
Figure 1 in Ref. 11 [K. Harada et al., Appl. Phys. Express 14, 022006 (2021)].

verged by an objective lens to form an image of the double thus, called the interference condition. In Figure 3(c), the
slit on the image plane. With the objective lens with high deflection angle is further increased so that two waves are
enough spatial resolution to be able to neglect aberration of exchanged their places in the space above the image plane
the optical system, waves passed through the left slit (de- resulting in two slit images no longer overlapped and only
noted in red) always converge and image on the right side double-slit image (exchanged) being obtained on the image
on the image plane, while waves passed through the right plane; thus, called the post-interference condition.
slit (denoted in green) always converge and image on the Figure 3(a) indicates that waves passed through the
left side. left-side slit always form slit images on the right side in the
We further employed two biprisms in the optical system image plane due to the imaging optics. This means when a
[Figure 2(c)] to deflect the two waves to overlap the left and single electron is detected on the right-side slit image, it
right slit images on the image plane and to interfere with indicates that the electron has passed through the left-side
each other. In this way, overlapped regions of the two slit slit within the size of the spatial resolution. The same argu-
images can be controlled without changing any other condi- ment applies to the electron path behavior described in Fig-
tions of the optical system. We note that in Figure 2(c) the ure 3(c). From these arguments, we can also identify which
double biprism system is used for precise control of the side of the electron biprisms the electrons pass by during
overlapping conditions; however, only a single biprism suf- their propagation process. This means that if electrons are
fices for the present experiment in principle. considered to have a particle feature, their propagation paths
can be determined within the precision shown in Figure 3.
B. Double-slit experiments under optically
zero propagation distance condition C. Interference optical system with V-shaped
double slit
Figure 3 shows an experimental setup under the optically
zero propagation distance condition. Here the interference Figure 4 shows an optical setup of interference experi-
conditions are controlled by the deflection angle using the ments to realize the optically zero propagation distance con-
lower biprism placed below the objective lens. In Figure dition equipped with a V-shaped double slit and two bi-
3(a), the deflection angle is small enough so that two waves prisms. The V-shaped double slit was adopted to observe
after passing through the slit are not yet superimposed on interference features in one image under the pre-interference
the image plane and only double-slit images are obtained; condition, interference condition, and post-interference con-
thus, called the pre-interference condition. In Figure 3(b), dition. As described above in Figure 3, the V-shaped double
the deflection angle is increased so that two slit images slit on the object plane and the upper biprism filament have
overlap on the image plane generating interference fringes; an optically equivalent relation, i.e., the conjugate relation,

e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 123
 III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Electron wave interference experiments
under the optically zero-propagation dis-
tance condition
We used the 1.2-MV field-emission transmission electron
microscope [12], which can produce the most coherent elec-
tron beams. An acceleration voltage was set at 400 kV for
flexible control of the electro-optical system. Images of the
V-shaped double slit and interference fringes were observed
and recorded by the direct detection camera system (K2®
Summit Camera, Gatan Inc.), which can successively record
electrons one by one arriving at the detector plane. The ex-
periments were performed at a low dose electron condition
(0.015 electron/pixel) and these electrons that reached the
image plane are described in white dots in Graphical Ab-
stract and Figure 5(b, c).
Figure 5(a) shows a series of interferograms of the
V-shaped double slit by changing the voltage applied to the
lower electron biprism, VBP, from 15 V to 27 V. With the
increase in VBP, slit images move toward each other and
overlap at the bottom in a diamond shape (15 V), where the
interference fringes are generated in the vertical direction.
With the further increase in VBP, the interference regions
move upward forming an X-form interference region in the
middle (21 V), and finally, these two slit images change
their sides (27 V).
Figure 5(b) shows an enlarged interferogram of Figure
5(a) for V = 21 V, where each electron was detected as a
white dot. The region surrounded by the red broken lines
corresponds to images from the left slit and the region sur-
rounded by the green broken lines corresponds to images
from the right slit. In these uniform intensity regions of the
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the optical system. The V-shaped pre-interference and post-interference conditions, interfer-
double slit is placed on the object plane above the first magnifying ence fringes, and instead uniform electron count distribu-
lens and is imaged on the first image plane, where the upper elec- tions appear. The diamond-shaped region surrounded by
tron biprism is placed. The double-slit and the upper biprism are pink broken lines corresponds to the interference region
under the infocus condition on the first image plane, i.e., they are generated by the superposition of two electron waves passed
in the conjugate relation. The lower electron biprism is placed through both slits, where interference fringes are observed.
between the two crossover spots. Infocus images of the V-shaped We conclude from these observations that electrons ob-
double slit are observed but the biprisms are not imaged because served in the pre-interference and post-interference regions
they do not come into contact with electron waves. Interferograms can be traced back to the double slit and can be identified
by changing the voltage applied to the lower biprism are observed which slit the electron passed through. On the other hand,
and recorded by using the camera systems. The figure is repro- electrons observed in the interference region neither can be
duced with some modifications from Figure 2 in Ref. 11 [K. traced back to the double slit nor can be identified which slit
Harada et al., Appl. Phys. Express 14, 022006 (2021)]. they passed through, indicating that the interference occurs
when sufficient information is not available regarding which
indicating that these two are optically placed on the same slit electrons passed through. The above statement indicates
plane. The lower biprism placed under the second magnify- that interference occurs when the path information is not
ing lens controls the interference conditions by deflecting available, while no interference occurs when the path infor-
two waves to overlap the slit images on the image plane. mation is available. In the former case, electron waves have
The V-shaped double slit was made of copper foil 1.3 μm passed through both slits and propagated through both paths.
thick by using a focused ion beam instrument (NB-5000, These findings confirm the early results by using a sophisti-
Hitachi High-Tech Co.). This double slit has two openings cated electron interference system.
of 0.2 μm wide, 1.3 μm long, and 1.3−2.4 μm spacing be- Figure 5(c) shows composite interferograms of five im-
tween two openings. ages in Figure 5(a). The contrast and the spacing between

e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 124
Figure 5: (a) Series of interferograms of the V-shaped double slit with different applied voltage to the lower electron biprism; 15, 18, 21, 24,
and 27 V. (b) Enlarged interferogram of applied voltage at 21 V. The region surrounded by red broken lines corresponds to images from the
left slit and the region surrounded by green broken lines corresponds to images from the right slit. The diamond-shaped region surrounded by
pink broken lines corresponds to the interference region created by superposing two electron waves passed through both slits. (c) Composite
interferogram of five images in Figure 5(a). The resulting constant fringe contrast and spacing indicate successful control of interference con-
ditions.

interference fringes are kept constant even though the over- ually controlled after electrons pass through the double slit.
lapped positions changed and only the conditions of ap- This strange phenomenon of causality, analogous to inter-
pearance of interference fringes are controlled by changing ference experiments using photons, remains to be explained
the voltage on the lower electron biprism positioned below [13].
the slit, indicating that electrons create dot images as parti-
cles; and that whether or not these electrons accumulate to B. Electron wave interference experiment
form interference fringes as waves is determined by the path controlled by phase shifts
information after these electrons passed through the double
slit. This means that the particle profile of whether electrons As indicated in the previous section, the profile of elec-
can be described in terms of particles or waves can be man- tron beams as waves after passing through the slit can be
described in terms of superposing two waves by controlling
the voltage of the lower electron biprism. Then the question
arises of how far wave profiles of electrons can be traced
back in the optical system. To answer this question, we
conducted an interference experiment shown in Figure 6 by
changing the phase of electron waves by tilting the illumi-
nating electron beams to the double slit under the assump-
tion that electron beams before the irradiation onto the dou-
ble slit can be described as waves. Figure 6(a) is the same
optical system as that of Figure 3(b), and Figure 6(b) is the
optical system for the double-slit experiment with phase
shifts created by tilting the illuminating electron beams onto
the V-shaped double slit. By changing the tilt angle from
0.00π (i.e., vertical direction) in Figure 6(a) to 2.00π in Fig-
ure 6(b), we observed the positions of reached electrons on
the image plane as a function of phase shifts.
Figure 7 shows a series of interferograms of the V-shaped
double slit controlled by tilting the illuminating electron
Figure 6: (a) Optical system for the double-slit experiment with beams to the double slit. Although electrons are observed as
zero propagation distance. (b) Optical system for the double-slit particles one by one on the image plane, the observed inter-
experiment with phase shifts. The illumination beams tilted from ferences indicate that these electrons interfere as waves even
the vertical direction to the double slit generates phase shifts be- under the phase-modulated condition. The rate of phase
tween the waves passed through as electron wave without changes change was at 0.1 rad/0.1 s in terms of the observed shift
in the optical system behind the double slit. amount of interference positions and 62 interferograms con-

e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 125
Figure 7: (a−g) Interferograms for every 2π/6 rad phase shift and (h) an integrated image for one cycle of phase shift (62 interferograms).
Each interferogram in Figure 7(a−g) has interference fringes composed of a single-dot image of electrons. In the integrated image in Figure
7(h), however, interference images disappeared; This is not due to electron waves being incoherent.

stitute one cycle of the phase changes. The experiments IV. CONCLUSION
were performed at the low-dose condition (0.015 elec-
trons/pixel) as used in Figure 5. In this paper, we discussed electron double-slit experi-
Figure 7(a) through Figure 7(g) shows a series of inter- ments to show the quantum-mechanical essence of
ferograms for every 2π/6 rad phase shift, and Figure 7(h) “wave/particle duality” by using a V-shaped double slit un-
shows an integrated image for one cycle of phase shifts (62 der the optically zero-propagation distance condition (info-
interferograms). In the integrated image in Figure 7(h), the cus imaging condition). This condition was realized based
contrast of interference images seems to be lost. The only on the concept of the optical conjugate relation between the
modulation applied to the optical system was the changes in object and image planes. This optical system is one example
tilting angles of illumination to the V-shaped double slit and of using electron microscopes to study fundamental physics
no other modulations were applied to the optical system concepts. We found that it is possible to observe the inter-
below the double slit. However, as shown in Figure 7(a−g), ference fringes only when the path information of the indi-
the only changes we observed were the horizontal positions vidual electrons is not available and that it is possible for
of interference fringes in the region shown in diamonds uniformly distributed electrons not forming interference
where slit images overlapped. On the other hand, in the re- fringes to be traced back to the double slit as to which slit
gion where slit images did not overlap, no changes were they have passed through, i.e., the electron path information
observed in the density and distribution of single-electron is available. Further, by controlling only the phase of elec-
images. These results again indicate that changes in tron waves illuminating the double slit, we found that only
wave-nature characteristics of electrons can be detected, the phase position in interference fringes shifted, which in-
while no changes in particle-nature characteristics of elec- dicates that electrons have wave-like nature even before
trons can be detected. Furthermore, since interference fring- entering the double slit. This seems to be the first finding
es are created by accumulating single-electron images, the regarding the electron features before entering the double
modulation of phases should be attributed to the wave-na- slit. We will continue to study these interference fringe
ture characteristics of a single electron. This experimental characteristics made by electrons passed through double slits
result indicates that the wave picture of electrons can be by using electron microscopes hoping to clarify the real
traced back to the upper stream of the double slit, i.e., the physical concept of the “which-way experiment”.
top of the optical system, indicating that electrons behave as
waves before entering the double slit. We note that the dis- Acknowledgments
appearance of interference images in Figure 7(h) is not due
We would like to thank Prof. Shigeo Mori and Prof. Hiroshi
to electron waves being incoherent; or rather this indicates
Nakajima of Osaka Metropolitan University, Prof. Tetsuji Kodama
further experiments should be performed to clarify the dif- of Meijo University, Dr. Yoshimasa A. Ono and Ms. Keiko Shi-
ference between interference characteristics of a single elec- mada of RIKEN, and Dr. Tetsuya Akashi and Mr. Noboru Moriya
tron and statistical interference of many electrons.

e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 126
of Hitachi, Ltd. for their support during the course of these experi- [8] A. Tonomura et al., Am. J. Phys. 57, 117 (1989).
ments. Part of the work discussed in the present paper was sup- [9] A. Tonomura, Electron Holography, 2nd ed. (Springer, Berlin,
ported by KAKENHI, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) Heidelberg, 1999).
(Grant no. 18H03475). [10] K. Harada et al., Sci. Rep. 8, 1008 (2018).
[11] K. Harada et al., Appl. Phys. Express 14, 022006 (2021).
Note [12] T. Akashi et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 106, 074101 (2015).
[13] C. K. Hong et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 59, 2044 (1987).
This paper is an English translation of a Japanese paper pub-
lished in Vac. Surf. Sci. 66, 299 (2023).

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e-J. Surf. Sci. Nanotechnol. 21, 121−127 (2023) | DOI: 10.1380/ejssnt.2023-039 127