1) What is SQL?

SQL stands for the Structured Query Language. It is the standard language
used to maintain the relational database and perform many different data
manipulation operations on the data. It is a database language used for
database creation, deletion, fetching and modifying rows, etc. sometimes

usages of SQL?

SQL is responsible for maintaining the relational data and the data
structures present in the database. Some of the common usages are given
below:
5

o To execute queries against a database

o To retrieve data from a database
o To inserts records in a database
o To updates records in a database
o To delete records from a database
o To create new databases
o To create new tables in a database
o To create views in a database
o To perform complex operations on the database.

4) Does SQL support programming language features?

SQL refers to the Standard Query Language. so, it is true that SQL is a
language but does not actually support the programming language. It is a
common language that doesn't have a loop, conditional statements, and
logical operations. It cannot be used for anything other than data
manipulation. It is a command language to perform database operations.
The primary purpose of SQL is to retrieve, manipulate, update, delete, and
perform complex operations like joins on the data present in the database.

subsets of SQL?
The following are the four significant subsets of the SQL:

o Data definition language (DDL): It defines the data structure that

consists of commands like CREATE, ALTER, DROP, etc.
o Data manipulation language (DML): It is used to manipulate
existing data in the database. The commands in this category are
SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, etc.
o Data control language (DCL): It controls access to the data stored in
the database. The commands in this category include GRANT and
REVOKE.
o Transaction Control Language (TCL): It is used to deal with the
transaction operations in the database. The commands in this
category are COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SET TRANSACTION, SAVEPOINT,
etc.

purpose of DDL Language?

DDL stands for Data definition language. It is the subset of a database that
defines the data structure of the database when the database is created. we
can use the DDL commands to add, remove, or modify tables. It consists of
the following commands: CREATE, ALTER and DELETE database objects
such as schema, tables, indexes, view, sequence, etc.

Example

1. CREATE TABLE Students

2. (
3. Roll_no INT,
4. Name VARCHAR(45),
5. Branch VARCHAR(30),
6. );

of DML Language?

Data manipulation language makes the user able to retrieve and

manipulate data in a relational database. The DML commands can only
perform read-only operations on data. We can perform the following
operations using DDL language:

o Insert data into the database through the INSERT command.

o Retrieve data from the database through the SELECT command.
o Update data in the database through the UPDATE command.
o Delete data from the database through the DELETE command.

Example

1. INSERT INTO Student VALUES (111, 'George', 'Computer Science')

purpose of DCL Language?

Data control language allows users to control access and permission

management to the database. It is the subset of a database, which decides
that what part of the database should be accessed by which user at what
point of time. It includes two commands, GRANT and REVOKE.

GRANT: It enables system administrators to assign privileges and roles to

the specific user accounts to perform specific tasks on the database.

REVOKE: It enables system administrators to revoke privileges and roles

from the user accounts so that they cannot use the previously assigned
permission on the database.

Example

1. GRANT * ON mydb.Student TO javatpoint@localhsot;

9) What are tables and fields in the database?

A table is a set of organized data in the form of rows and columns. It

enables users to store and display records in the structure format. Here
rows refer to the tuples, representing the simple data item, and columns
are the attribute of the data items present in a particular row. Columns can
categorize as vertical, and Rows are horizontal.
Fields are the components to provide the structure for the table. It stores
the same category of data in the same data type. A table contains a fixed
number of columns but can have any number of rows known as the record.
It is also called a column in the table of the database. It represents the
attribute or characteristics of the entity in the record.

Example

Table: Student

Field: Stud_rollno, Stud_name, Date of Birth, Branch, etc.

10) What is a primary key?

A primary key is a field or the combination of fields that uniquely identify

each record in the table. It is one of a special kind of unique key. If the
column contains a primary key, it cannot be null or empty. A table can have
duplicate columns, but it cannot have more than one primary key. It always
stores unique values into a column.

1. CREATE TABLE Student (

2. roll_number INT PRIMARY KEY,
3. name VARCHAR(45),
4. );

11) What is a foreign key?

The foreign key is used to link one or more tables together. It is also known
as the referencing key. A foreign key is specified as a key that is related to
the primary key of another table. It means a foreign key field in one table
refers to the primary key field of the other table. It identifies each row of
another table uniquely that maintains the referential integrity. The primary
key-foreign key relationship is a very crucial relationship as it maintains the
ACID properties of the database sometimes. It also prevents actions that
would destroy links between the child and parent tables.
We can define a foreign key into a table as follows:

1. CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
2. FOREIGN KEY [foreign_key_name] (col_name, ...)
3. REFERENCES parent_tbl_name (col_name,...)

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12) What is a unique key?

A unique key is a single or combination of fields that ensure all values stores
in the column will be unique. It means a column cannot stores duplicate
values. This key provides uniqueness for the column or set of columns. For
example, the email addresses and roll numbers of student's tables should
be unique. It can accept a null value but only one null value per column. It
ensures the integrity of the column or group of columns to store different
values into a table.

We can define a foreign key into a table as follows:

1. CREATE TABLE table_name(

2. col1 datatype,
3. col2 datatype UNIQUE,
4. ...
5. );

To read more information, click here

.
between a primary key & unique key?

The primary key and unique key both are essential constraints of the SQL.
The main difference among them is that the primary key identifies each
record in the table. In contrast, the unique key prevents duplicate entries in
a column except for a NULL value. The following comparison chart explains
it more clearly:

Primary Key Unique Key

The primary key act as a The unique key is also a unique

unique identifier for each identifier for records when the primary
record in the table. key is not present in the table.

We cannot store NULL We can store NULL value in the unique

values in the primary key key column, but only one NULL is
column. allowed.

We cannot change or delete We can modify the unique key column

the primary key column values.
values.

To read more information, click here

14) What is a Database?

A database is an organized collection of data that is structured into tables,

rows, columns, and indexes. It helps the user to find the relevant
information frequently. It is an electronic system that makes data access,
data manipulation, data retrieval, data storing, and data management very
easy.

The following are the common features of a database:

o Manages large amounts of data

o Accurate
 o Easy to update
o Security
o Data integrity
o Easy to research data

15) What is meant by DBMS?

DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a software program

that primarily functions as an interface between the database and the end-
user. It provides us the power such as managing the data, the database
engine, and the database schema to facilitate the organization and
manipulation of data using a simple query in almost no time.

The following are the components of a DBMS:

o Software
o Data
o Procedures
o Database Languages
o Query Processor
o Database Manager
o Database Engine
o Reporting

16) What are the different types of database management systems?

The database management systems can be categorized into several types.

Some of the important lists are given below:

o Hierarchical databases (DBMS)

o Network databases (IDMS)
o Relational databases (RDBMS
o Object-oriented databases
o Document databases (Document DB)
o Graph databases
 o ER model databases
o NoSQL databases

17) What is RDBMS?

RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. It is a

database management system based on a relational model. It facilitates
you to manipulate the data stored in the tables by using relational
operators. RDBMS stores the data into the collection of tables and links
those tables using the relational operators easily whenever required.
Examples of relational database management systems are Microsoft
Access, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle database, etc.

18) What is Normalization in a Database?

Normalization is used to minimize redundancy and dependency by

organizing fields and table of a database.

There are some rules of database normalization, which is commonly known

as Normal From, and they are:

o First normal form(1NF)

o Second normal form(2NF)
o Third normal form(3NF)
o Boyce-Codd normal form(BCNF)

Using these steps, the redundancy, anomalies, inconsistency of the data in

the database can be removed.

19) What is the primary use of Normalization?

Normalization is mainly used to add, delete or modify a field that can be

made in a single table. The primary use of Normalization is to remove
redundancy and remove the insert, delete and update distractions.
Normalization breaks the table into small partitions and then links them
using different relationships to avoid the chances of redundancy.
20) What are the disadvantages of not performing database Normalization?

The major disadvantages are:

The occurrence of redundant terms in the database causes the waste of

space in the disk.

Due to redundant terms, inconsistency may also occur. If any change is

made in the data of one table but not made in the same data of another
table, then inconsistency will occur. This inconsistency will lead to the
maintenance problem and effects the ACID properties as well.

21) What is an inconsistent dependency?

An Inconsistent dependency refers to the difficulty of getting relevant data

due to a missing or broken path to the data. It leads users to search the
data in the wrong table, resulting in an error as an output.

22) What is Denormalization in a Database?

Denormalization is a technique used by database administrators to

optimize the efficiency of their database infrastructure. The
denormalization concept is based on Normalization, which is defined as
arranging a database into tables correctly for a particular purpose. This
method allows us to add redundant data into a normalized database to
alleviate issues with database queries that merge data from several tables
into a single table.

Denormalization doesn't mean that normalization will not be done. It is an

optimization strategy that takes place after the normalization process.

23) What are the different types of SQL operators?

Operators are the special keywords or special characters reserved for

performing particular operations. They are also used in SQL queries. We
can primarily use these operators within the WHERE clause of SQL
commands. It's a part of the command to filters data based on the specified
condition. The SQL operators can be categorized into the following types:

o Arithmetic operators: These operators are used to perform

mathematical operations on numerical data. The categories of this
operators are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division
(/), remainder/modulus (%), etc.
o Logical operators: These operators evaluate the expressions and
return their results in True or False. This operator includes ALL, AND,
ANY, ISNULL, EXISTS, BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, NOT, OR, UNIQUE.
o Comparison operators: These operators are used to perform
comparisons of two values and check whether they are the same or
not. It includes equal to (=), not equal to (!= or <>), less than (<),
greater than (>), less than or equal to (<=), greater than or equal to
(>=), not less than (!<), not greater than (!>), etc.
o Bitwise operators: It is used to do bit manipulations between two
expressions of integer type. It first performs conversion of integers
into binary bits and then applied operators such as AND (& symbol),
OR (|, ^), NOT (~), etc.
o Compound operators: These operators perform operations on a
variable before setting the variable's result to the operation's result. It
includes Add equals (+=), subtract equals (-=), multiply equals (*=),
divide equals (/=), modulo equals (%=), etc.
o String operators: These operators are primarily used to perform
concatenation and pattern matching of strings. It includes + (String
concatenation), += (String concatenation assignment), % (Wildcard),
[] (Character(s) matches), [^] (Character(s) not to match), _ (Wildcard
match one character), etc.

24) What is a view in SQL?

A view is a database object that has no values. It is a virtual table that

contains a subset of data within a table. It looks like an actual table
containing rows and columns, but it takes less space because it is not
present physically. It is operated similarly to the base table but does not
contain any data of its own. Its name is always unique. A view can have data
from one or more tables. If any changes occur in the underlying table, the
same changes reflected in the views also.

The primary use of a view is to implement the security mechanism. It is the

searchable object where we can use a query to search the view as we use
for the table. It only shows the data returned by the query that was declared
when the view was created.

We can create a view by using the following syntax:

1. CREATE VIEW view_name AS

2. SELECT column_lists FROM table_name
3. WHERE condition;

25) What is an Index in SQL?

An index is a disc structure associated with a table or view that speeds up

row retrieval. It reduces the cost of the query because the query's high cost
will lead to a fall in its performance. It is used to increase the performance
and allow faster retrieval of records from the table. Indexing reduces the
number of data pages we need to visit to find a particular data page. It also
has a unique value meaning that the index cannot be duplicated. An index
creates an entry for each value which makes it faster to retrieve data.

26) What are the different types of indexes in SQL?

SQL indexes are nothing more than a technique of minimizing the query's
cost. The higher the query's cost, the worse the query's performance. The
following are the different types of Indexes supported in SQL:

o Unique Index
o Clustered Index
o Non-Clustered Index
o Bit-Map Index
o Normal Index
o Composite Index
o B-Tree Index
o Function-Based Index

27) What is the unique index?

UNIQUE INDEX is used to enforce the uniqueness of values in single or

multiple columns. We can create more than one unique index in a single
table. For creating a unique index, the user has to check the data in the
column because the unique indexes are used when any column of the table
has unique values. This indexing does not allow the field to have duplicate
values if the column is unique indexed. A unique index can be applied
automatically when a primary key is defined.

We can create it by using the following syntax:

1. CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

2. ON table_name (index_column1, index_column2,...);

Example
 1. CREATE TABLE Employee(
2. ID int AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
3. Name varchar(45),
4. Phone varchar(15),
5. City varchar(25),
6. );

Suppose we want to make a Phone column as a unique index. We can do

this like below:

1. CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name_phone ON Employee (Phone);

To read more information, click here

28) What is clustered index in SQL?

A clustered index is actually a table where the data for the rows are stored.
It determines the order of the table data based on the key values that can
sort in only one direction. Each table can have only one clustered index. It
is the only index, which has been automatically created when the primary
key is generated. If many data modifications needed to be done in the
table, then clustered indexes are preferred.

To read more information, click here

29) What is the non-clustered index in SQL?

The indexes other than PRIMARY indexes (clustered indexes) are called
non-clustered indexes. We know that clustered indexes are created
automatically when primary keys are generated, and non-clustered indexes
are created when multiple joins conditions and various filters are used in
the query. The non-clustered index and table data are both stored in
different places. It cannot be able to alter the physical order of the table
and maintains the logical order of data.

The purpose of creating a non-clustered index is for searching the data. Its
best example is a book where the content is written in one place, and the
index is at a different place. We can create 0 to 249 non-clustered indexes
in each table. The non-clustered indexing improves the performance of the
queries which use keys without assigning the primary key.

30) What are the differences between SQL, MySQL, and SQL Server?

The following comparison chart explains their main differences:

SQL MySQL SQL Server

SQL or Structured MySQL is the popular SQL Server is an

Query Language is database RDBMS database
useful for managing management system system mainly
our relational used for managing the developed for the
databases. It is used to relational database. It Windows system to
query and operate the is a fast, scalable, and store, retrieve, and
database. easy-to-use database. access data
requested by the
developer.

SQL first appeared in MySQL first appeared SQL Server first

1974. on May 23, 1995. appeared on April
24, 1989.

SQL was developed by MySQL was developed SQL Server was

IBM Corporation. by Oracle Corporation. developed by
Microsoft Company.
 SQL is a query MySQL is database SQL Server is also a
language for software that uses SQL software that uses
managing databases. language to conduct SQL language to
with the database. conduct with the
database.

SQL has no variables. MySQL can use SQL Server can use
variables constraints variables constraints
and data types. and data types.

SQL is a programming MySQL is software, so SQL Server is also

language, so that it it gets frequent software, so it gets
does not get any updation. frequent updation.
updates. Its
commands are always
fixed and remain the
same.

31) What is the difference between SQL and PL/SQL?

The following comparison chart explains their main differences:

SQL PL/SQL

SQL is a database structured PL/SQL or Procedural

query language used to Language/Structured Query Language
communicate with is a dialect of SQL used to enhance the
relational databases. It was capabilities of SQL. Oracle Corporation
developed by IBM developed it in the early 90's. It uses
Corporations and first SQL as its database language.
appeared in 1974.

SQL is a declarative and PL/SQL is a procedural and application-

data-oriented language. oriented language.

SQL has no variables. PL/SQL can use variables constraints

and data types.
 SQL can execute only a PL/SQL can execute a whole block of
single query at a time. code at once.

SQL query can be PL/SQL cannot be embedded in SQL as

embedded in PL/SQL. SQL does not support any
programming language and keywords.

SQL can directly interact PL/SQL cannot directly interact with the
with the database server. database server.

SQL is like the source of PL/SQL provides a platform where SQL

data that we need to data will be shown.
display.

32) Is it possible to sort a column using a column alias?

Yes. We can use the alias method in the ORDER BY instead of the WHERE
clause for sorting a column.

33) What is the difference between clustered and non-clustered indexes in SQL?

Indexing is a method to get the requested data very fast. There are mainly
two types of indexes in SQL, clustered index and non-clustered index. The
differences between these two indexes are very important from an SQL
performance perspective. The following comparison chart explains their
main differences:

Clustered Index Non-Clustered Index

A clustered index is a table or view where the data The indexes other than
for the rows are stored. In a relational database, if PRIMARY indexes
the table column contains a primary key, MySQL (clustered indexes) are
automatically creates a clustered index named called non-clustered
PRIMARY. indexes. It has a structure
separate from the data row.
The non-clustered indexes
 are also known as
secondary indexes.

Clustered indexes store the data information and the Non-clustered indexes
data itself. stores only the information,
and then it will refer you to
the data stored in clustered
data.

There can only be one clustered index per table. There can be one or more
non-clustered indexes in a
table.

A clustered index determines how It creates a logical ordering

data is stored physically in the of data rows and uses
table. Therefore, reading from a pointers for accessing the
clustered index is faster. physical data files.
Therefore, reading from a
clustered index is slower.

A clustered index always contains an index id of 0. A non-clustered index

always contains an index
id>0.

To read more information, click here

34) What is the SQL query to display the current date?

There is a built-in function in SQL called GetDate(), which is used to return

the current timestamp.
35) Which are joins in SQL? Name the most commonly used SQL joins?

SQL joins are used to retrieve data from multiple tables into a meaningful
result set. It is performed whenever you need to fetch records from two or
more tables. They are used with SELECT statement and join conditions.

The following are the most commonly used joins in SQL:

o INNER JOIN
o LEFT OUTER JOIN
o RIGHT OUTER JOIN

36) What are the different types of joins in SQL?

Joins are used to merge two tables or retrieve data from tables. It depends
on the relationship between tables. According to the ANSI standard, the
following are the different types of joins used in SQL:

o INNER JOIN
o SELF JOIN
o LEFT OUTER JOIN
o RIGHT OUTER JOIN
o FULL OUTER JOIN
o CROSS JOIN

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37) What is INNER JOIN in SQL?

Inner join returns only those records from the tables that match the
specified condition and hides other rows and columns. In simple words, it
fetches rows when there is at least one match of rows between the tables
is found. INNER JOIN keyword joins the matching records from two tables.
It is assumed as a default join, so it is optional to use the INNER keyword
with the query.

The below visual representation explain this join more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the INNER JOIN:

1. SELECT column_lists
2. FROM table1
3. INNER JOIN table2 ON join_condition1
4. INNER JOIN table3 ON join_condition2
5. ...;

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38) What is the Right JOIN in SQL?

The Right join is used to retrieve all rows from the right-hand table and
only those rows from the other table that fulfilled the join condition. It
returns all the rows from the right-hand side table even though there are
no matches in the left-hand side table. If it finds unmatched records from
the left side table, it returns a Null value. This join is also known as Right
Outer Join.

The below visual representation explain this join more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the RIGHT JOIN:

1. SELECT colum_lists
2. FROM table1
3. RIGHT JOIN table2
4. ON join_condition;

To read more information, click here

39) What is Left Join in SQL?

The Left Join is used to fetch all rows from the left-hand table and common
records between the specified tables. It returns all the rows from the left-
hand side table even though there are no matches on the right-hand side
table. If it will not find any matching record from the right side table, then
it returns null. This join can also be called a Left Outer Join.

The following visual representation explains it more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the RIGHT JOIN:

1. SELECT colum_lists
2. FROM table1
3. LEFT JOIN table2
4. ON join_condition;

To read more information, click here

40) What is Full Join in SQL?

The Full Join results from a combination of both left and right join that
contains all the records from both tables. It fetches rows when there are
matching rows in any one of the tables. This means it returns all the rows
from the left-hand side table and all the rows from the right-hand side
tables. If a match is not found, it puts NULL value. It is also known as FULL
OUTER JOIN.
The following visual representation explains it more clearly:

The following syntax illustrates the FULL JOIN:

1. SELECT * FROM table1

2. FULL OUTER JOIN table2
3. ON join_condition;

To read more information, click here

41) What is a "TRIGGER" in SQL?

A trigger is a set of SQL statements that reside in a system catalog. It is a

special type of stored procedure that is invoked automatically in response
to an event. It allows us to execute a batch of code when an insert, update
or delete command is run against a specific table because the trigger is the
set of activated actions whenever DML commands are given to the system.

SQL triggers have two main components one is action, and another is an
event. When certain actions are taken, an event occurs as a result of those
actions.
We use the CREATE TRIGGER statement for creating a trigger in SQL. Here
is the syntax:

1. CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

2. (AFTER | BEFORE) (INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE)
3. ON table_name FOR EACH ROW
4. BEGIN
5. --variable declarations
6. --trigger code
7. END;

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42) What is self-join and what is the requirement of self-join?

A SELF JOIN is used to join a table with itself. This join can be performed
using table aliases, which allow us to avoid repeating the same table name
in a single sentence. It will throw an error if we use the same table name
more than once in a single query without using table aliases.

A SELF JOIN is required when we want to combine data with other data in
the same table itself. It is often very useful to convert a hierarchical structure
to a flat structure.

The following syntax illustrates the SELF JOIN:

1. SELECT column_lists
2. FROM table1 AS T1, table1 AS T2
3. WHERE join_conditions;
Example

Suppose we have a table 'Student' having the following data:

If we want to get retrieve the student_id and name from the table where
student_id is equal, and course_id is not equal, it can be done by using the
self-join:

1. SELECT s1.student_id, s1.name

2. FROM student AS s1, student s2
3. WHERE s1.student_id=s2.student_id
4. AND s1.course_id<>s2.course_id;

Here is the result:

To read more information, click here

43) What are the set operators in SQL?

We use the set operators to merge data from one or more tables of the
same kind. Although the set operators are like SQL joins, there is a
significant distinction. SQL joins combine columns from separate tables,
whereas SQL set operators combine rows from different queries. SQL
queries that contain set operations are called compound queries. The set
operators in SQL are categories into four different types:
A. UNION: It combines two or more results from multiple SELECT queries
into a single result set. It has a default feature to remove the duplicate rows
from the tables. The following syntax illustrates the Union operator:

1. SELECT columns FROM table1

2. UNION
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

B. UNION ALL: This operator is similar to the Union operator, but it does
not remove the duplicate rows from the output of the SELECT statements.
The following syntax illustrates the UNION ALL operator:

1. SELECT columns FROM table1

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

C. INTERSECT: This operator returns the common records from two or

more SELECT statements. It always retrieves unique records and arranges
them in ascending order by default. Here, the number of columns and data
types should be the same. The following syntax illustrates the INTERSECT
operator:

1. SELECT columns FROM table1

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

D. MINUS: This operator returns the records from the first query, which is
not found in the second query. It does not return duplicate values. The
following syntax illustrates the MINUS operator:

1. SELECT columns FROM table1

2. MINUS
3. SELECT columns FROM table2;

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44) What is the difference between IN and BETWEEN operators?

The following comparison chart explains their main differences:

BETWEEN Operator IN Operator

This operator is used to selects It is a logical operator to determine

the range of data between whether or not a specific value exists
two values. The values can be within a set of values. This operator
numbers, text, and dates as reduces the use of multiple OR
well. conditions with the query.
 It returns records whose It compares the specified column's
column value lies in between value and returns the records when
the defined range. the match exists in the set of values.

The following syntax The following syntax illustrates this

illustrates this operator: operator:
SELECT * FROM table_name SELECT * FROM table_name
WHERE column_name WHERE column_name IN
BETWEEN 'value1' AND ('value1','value 2');
'value2';

45) What is a constraint? Tell me about its various levels.

The constraint is used to specify the rule and regulations that allows or
restricts what values/data will be stored in the table. It ensures data
accuracy and integrity inside the table. It enforces us to store valid data and
prevents us from storing irrelevant data. If any interruption occurs between
the constraint and data action, the action is failed. Some of the most
commonly used constraints are NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY,
AUTO_INCREMENT, UNIQUE KEY, etc.

The following syntax illustrates us to create a constraint for a table:

1. CREATE TABLE table_name (

2. column1 datatype constraint,
3. column2 datatype constraint,
4. .........
5. );

SQL categories the constraints into two levels:

Column Level Constraints: These constraints are only applied to a single

column and limit the type of data that can be stored in that column.
Table Level Constraints: These constraints are applied to the entire table
and limit the type of data that can be entered.

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48) What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements in SQL?

The main difference between them is that the delete statement deletes data
without resetting a table's identity, whereas the truncate command resets
a particular table's identity. The following comparison chart explains it more
clearly:
 No. DELETE TRUNCATE

1) The delete statement removes The truncate command deletes

single or multiple rows from the whole contents of an
an existing table depending existing table without the table
on the specified condition. itself. It preserves the table
structure or schema.

2) DELETE is a DML command. TRUNCATE is a DML

command.

3) We can use the We cannot use the

WHERE clause in the DELETE WHERE clause with
command. TRUNCATE.

4) DELETE statement is used to TRUNCATE statement is

delete a row from a table. used to remove all the
rows from a table.

5) DELETE is slower because it TRUNCATE statement

maintained the log. is faster than DELETE
statement as it deletes entire
data at a time without
maintaining transaction logs.

6) You can roll back data after It is not possible to roll

using the DELETE statement. back after using the
TRUNCATE statement.

7) DELETE query takes more TRUNCATE query occupies

space. less space.
.

49) What is the ACID property in a database?

The ACID properties are meant for the transaction that goes through a
different group of tasks. A transaction is a single logical order of data. It
provides properties to maintain consistency before and after the
transaction in a database. It also ensures that the data transactions are
processed reliably in a database system.
The ACID property is an acronym for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and
Durability.

Atomicity: It ensures that all statements or operations within the

transaction unit must be executed successfully. If one part of the
transaction fails, the entire transaction fails, and the database state is left
unchanged. Its main features are COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and AUTO-
COMMIT.

Consistency: This property ensures that the data must meet all validation
rules. In simple words, we can say that the database changes state only
when a transaction will be committed successfully. It also protects data
from crashes.

Isolation: This property guarantees that the concurrent property of

execution in the transaction unit must be operated independently. It also
ensures that statements are transparent to each other. The main goal of
providing isolation is to control concurrency in a database.

Durability: This property guarantees that once a transaction has been

committed, it persists permanently even if the system crashes, power loss,
or failed.

50) Is a blank space or zero the same as a NULL value?

No. The NULL value is not the same as zero or a blank space. The following
points explain their main differences:

o A NULL value is a value, which is 'unavailable, unassigned, unknown

or not applicable.' It would be used in the absence of any value. We
can perform arithmetic operations on it. On the other hand, zero is a
number, and a blank space is treated as a character.
o The NULL value can be treated as an unknown and missing value, but
zero and blank spaces differ from the NULL value.
o We can compare a blank space or a zero to another blank space or a
zero. On the other hand, one NULL may not be the same as another
 NULL. NULL indicates that no data has been provided or that no data
exists.

51) What are functions and their usage in SQL?

SQL functions are simple code snippets that are frequently used and re-
used in database systems for data processing and manipulation. Functions
are the measured values. It always performs a specific task. The following
rules should be remembered while creating functions:

o A function should have a name, and the name cannot begin with a
special character such as @, $, #, or other similar characters.
o Functions can only work with the SELECT statements.
o Every time a function is called, it compiles.
o Functions must return value or result.
o Functions are always used with input parameters.

SQL categories the functions into two types:

o User-Defined Function: Functions created by a user based on their

needs are termed user-defined functions.
o System Defined Function: Functions whose definition is defined by
the system are termed system-defined functions. They are built-in
database functions.

SQL functions are used for the following purposes:

o To perform calculations on data

o To modify individual data items
o To manipulate the output
o To format dates and numbers
o To convert data types

52) What is meant by case manipulation functions? Explains its different types in SQL.

Case manipulation functions are part of the character functions. It converts

the data from the state in which it is already stored in the table to upper,
lower, or mixed case. The conversion performed by this function can be
used to format the output. We can use it in almost every part of the SQL
statement. Case manipulation functions are mostly used when you need to
search for data, and you don't have any idea that the data you are looking
for is in lower case or upper case.

There are three case manipulation functions in SQL:

LOWER: This function is used to converts a given character into lowercase.

The following example will return the 'STEPHEN' as 'stephen':

1. SELECT LOWER ('STEPHEN') AS Case_Reault FROM dual;

NOTE: Here, 'dual' is a dummy table.

UPPER: This function is used to converts a given character into uppercase.

The following example will return the 'stephen' as 'STEPHEN':

1. SELECT UPPER ('stephen') AS Case_Reault FROM dual;

INITCAP: This function is used to converts given character values to

uppercase for the initials of each word. It means every first letter of the
word is converted into uppercase, and the rest is in lower case. The
following example will return the 'hello stephen' as 'Hello Stephen':

1. SELECT INITCAP ('hello stephen') AS Case_Reault FROM dual;

53) Explain character-manipulation functions? Explains its different types in SQL.

Character-manipulation functions are used to change, extract, and alter the
character string. When one or more characters and words are passed into
the function, the function will perform its operation on those input strings
and return the result.

The following are the character manipulation functions in SQL:

A) CONCAT: This function is used to join two or more values together. It

always appends the second string into the end of the first string. For
example:

Input: SELECT CONCAT ('Information-', 'technology') FROM DUAL;

Output: Information-technology

B) SUBSTR: It is used to return the portion of the string from a specified

start point to an endpoint. For example:

Input: SELECT SUBSTR ('Database Management System', 9, 11) FROM

DUAL;

Output: Management

C) LENGTH: This function returns the string's length in numerical value,

including the blank spaces. For example:

Input: SELECT LENGTH ('Hello Javatpoint') FROM DUAL;

Output: 16

D) INSTR: This function finds the exact numeric position of a specified

character or word in a given string. For example:

Input: SELECT INSTR ('Hello Javatpoint', 'Javatpoint');

Output: 7

E) LPAD: It returns the padding of the left-side character value for right-
justified value. For example:

Input: SELECT LPAD ('200', 6,'*');

Output: ***200

F) RPAD: It returns the padding of the right-side character value for left-
justified value. For example:

Input: SELECT RPAD ('200', 6,'*');

Output: 200***

G) TRIM: This function is used to remove all the defined characters from
the beginning, end, or both. It also trimmed extra spaces. For example:

Input: SELECT TRIM ('A' FROM 'ABCDCBA');

Output: BCDCB

H) REPLACE: This function is used to replace all occurrences of a word or

portion of the string (substring) with the other specified string value. For
example:

Input: SELECT REPLACE ( 'It is the best coffee at the famous coffee shop.',
'coffee', 'tea');

Output: It is the best tea at the famous tea shop.

54) What is the usage of the NVL() function?

The NVL() function is used to convert the NULL value to the other value.
The function returns the value of the second parameter if the first
parameter is NULL. If the first parameter is anything other than NULL, it is
left unchanged. This function is used in Oracle, not in SQL and MySQL.
Instead of NVL() function, MySQL have IFNULL() and SQL Server have
ISNULL() function.

55) Which function is used to return remainder in a division operator in SQL?

The MOD function returns the remainder in a division operation.

56) What are the syntax and use of the COALESCE function?
The COALESCE() function evaluates the arguments in sequence and returns
the first NON-NULL value in a specified number of expressions. If it
evaluates arguments as NULL or not found any NON-NULL value, it returns
the NULL result.

The syntax of COALESCE function is given below:

1. COALESCE (exp1, exp2, .... expn)

Example:

1. SELECT COALESCE(NULL, 'Hello', 'Javatpoint', NULL) AS Result;

This statement will return the following output:

57) How do we use the DISTINCT statement? What is its use?

The DISTINCT keyword is used to ensure that the fetched value always has
unique values. It does not allow to have duplicate values. The DISTINCT
keyword is used with the SELECT statement and retrieves different values
from the table's column. We can use it with the help of the following syntax:

1. SELECT DISTINCT column_lists FROM table_name WHERE [condition];

Suppose we have a table 'customer' containing eight records in which the
name column has some duplicate values.

If we want to get the name column without any duplicate values, the
DISTINCT keyword is required. Executing the below command will return a
name column with unique values.

58) What is the default ordering of data using the ORDER BY clause? How could it be changed?

The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the table data either in ascending or
descending order. By default, it will sort the table in ascending order. If we
want to change its default behavior, we need to use the DESC keyword after
the column name in the ORDER BY clause.

The syntax to do this is given below:

1. SELECT expressions FROM tables

2. WHERE conditions
3. ORDER BY expression [ASC | DESC];

We have taken a customer table in the previous example. Now, we will

demonstrate the ORDER BY clause on them as well.

In the below output, we can see that the first query will sort the table data
in ascending order based on the name column. However, if we run the
second query by specifying the DESC keyword, the table's order is changed
in descending order.

59) Is the following query returns the output?

1. SELECT subject_code, AVG (marks)

2. FROM Students
3. WHERE AVG(marks) > 70
4. GROUP BY subject_code;

Answer: No. The above query does not return the output because we
cannot use the WHERE clause to restrict the groups. We need to use the
HAVING clause instead of the WHERE clause to get the correct output.

60) What is the difference between the WHERE and HAVING clauses?

The main difference is that the WHERE clause is used to filter records before
any groupings are established, whereas the HAVING clause is used to filter
values from a group. The below comparison chart explains the most
common differences:

WHERE HAVING
 This clause is implemented in row This clause is implemented in
operations. column operations.

It does not allow to work with It can work with aggregate

aggregate functions. functions.

This clause can be used with the This clause can only be used
SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE with the SELECT statement.
statements.

To know more differences, click here

61) How many Aggregate functions are available in SQL?

The aggregate function is used to determine and calculate several values

in a table and return the result as a single number. For example, the average
of all values, the sum of all values, and the maximum and minimum value
among particular groupings of values.

The following syntax illustrates how to use aggregate functions:

1. function_name (DISTINCT | ALL expression)

SQL provides seven (7) aggregate functions, which are given below:

o AVG(): This function is used to returns the average value from

specified columns.
o COUNT(): This function is used to returns the number of table rows,
including rows with null values.
o MAX(): This function is used to returns the largest value among the
group.
o MIN(): This function is used to returns the smallest value among the
group.
 o SUM(): This function is used to returns the total summed values(non-
null) of the specified column.
o FIRST(): This function is used to returns the first value of an
expression.
o LAST(): This function is used to returns the last value of an expression.

62) What is SQL Injection?

SQL injection is a type of vulnerability in website and web app code that
allows attackers to control back-end operations and access, retrieve, and
destroy sensitive data from databases. In this technique, malicious SQL
statements are inserted into a database entry field, and once they are
performed, the database becomes vulnerable to an attacker. This technique
is commonly used to access sensitive data and perform administrative
activities on databases by exploiting data-driven applications. It is also
known as SQLi attack.

Some common examples of SQL injection are:

o Accessing confidential data to modify an SQL query to get desired

results.
o UNION attacks to steal data from different database tables.
o Examine the database to extract information regarding the version
and structure of the database.

63) What is the difference between the RANK() and DENSE_RANK() functions?

The RANK function determines the rank for each row within your ordered
partition in the result set. If the two rows are assigned the same rank, then
the next number in the ranking will be its previous rank plus a number of
duplicate numbers. For example, if we have three records at rank 4, the next
rank listed would be ranked 7.

The DENSE_RANK function assigns a unique rank for each row within a
partition as per the specified column value without any gaps. It always
specifies ranking in consecutive order. If the two rows are assigned the
same rank, this function will assign it with the same rank, and the next rank
being the next sequential number. For example, if we have 3 records at rank
4, the next rank listed would be ranked 5.

64) Is it possible to implicitly insert a row for the identity column?

Yes. We can implicitly insert a row for the identity column. Here is an
example of doing this:

1. SET IDENTITY_INSERT TABLE1 ON

2. INSERT INTO demo_table1 (id, name, branch)
3. SELECT id, name, branch FROM demo_table2
4. SET IDENTITY_INSERT OFF

65) What are SQL comments?

Comments are explanations or annotations in SQL queries that are readable

by programmers. It's used to make SQL statements easier to understand
for humans. During the parsing of SQL code, it will be ignored. Comments
can be written on a single line or across several lines.

o Single Line Comments: It starts with two consecutive hyphens (--).

o Multi-line Comments: It starts with /* and ends with */.