Ch15 PPT

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 4th Edition
Martini / Bartholomew
The Respiratory
System
PowerPoint® Lecture Outlines

prepared by Alan Magid, Duke University
Slides 1 to 85
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Respiratory System Functions
Functions of Respiratory System
• Gas exchange between blood and air
• Move air to and from exchange
surfaces
• Protect exchange surfaces from
environmental variations and
pathogens
• Produce sound
• Detect olfactory stimuli

Respiratory System Organization
Components of the Respiratory System
• Nose, nasal cavity, and paranasal
sinuses
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea, bronchi
• Lungs
• Bronchioles
• Alveoli (gas exchange)

The Components
of the Respiratory
System
Figure 15-1
The Respiratory Tract

• Conducting portion
• Conduct the air movement
• From nares to small bronchioles
• Respiratory portion
• Gas exchange region
• Respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
PLAY The Respiratory Tract

The Nose
• External nares (nostrils) admit air
• Nasal vestibule lined with hairs to filter air
• Vestibule opens into nasal cavity
• Hard palate separates nasal and oral cavities
• Cavity continues through internal nares to
nasopharynx
• Soft palate underlies nasopharynx
• Respiratory epithelium lines the airways

The Nose, Nasal Cavity, and Pharynx
Figure 15-2
Respiratory Mucosa
• Respiratory epithelium plus supporting
connective tissue with mucous glands
• Lines nasal cavity and most of airways
• Goblet and gland cells secrete mucus
• Mucus traps inhaled dirt, pathogens, etc.
• Ciliated cells sweep the mucus out of
the airways into pharynx
• Irritants stimulate secretion
• Causes “runny nose”
The
Respiratory
Epithelium
Figure 15-3(a)
The
Respiratory
Epithelium
Figure 15-3(b)
Three Regions of the Pharynx
(Throat)
• Respiratory system only
• Nasopharynx
• Shared with digestive system
• Oropharynx
• Opens into both esophagus
and larynx
• Laryngopharynx

The Larynx
• Also called, “voice box”
• Made of nine cartilages
• Air passes through glottis
• Covered by epiglottis during swallowing
• Keeps solids, liquids out of airways
• Made of elastic cartilage
• Supports true vocal cords
• Exhaled air vibrates them to make sound

The
Anatomy
of the
Larynx
and Vocal
Cords
Figure 15-4(a)
The
Anatomy
of the
Larynx
and Vocal
Cords
Figure 15-4(b)
The Anatomy of the Larynx and Vocal Cords
Figure 15-4(c)
The
Anatomy
of the
Larynx
and Vocal
Cords
Figure 15-4(d)
The
Anatomy
of the
Larynx
and Vocal
Cords
Figure 15-4(e)
The Trachea
• Also called “windpipe”
• Stiffened by C-shaped cartilage rings
• Esophagus stuck to posterior surface
• Cartilage missing there
• Trachea distorted by balls of food as
they pass down esophagus to
stomach

The Anatomy of the Trachea
Figure 15-5
The Bronchi
• Trachea forms two branches
• Right and left primary bronchi
• Primary bronchi branch
• Form secondary bronchi
• Each ventilates a lobe
• Secondary bronchi branch
• Form tertiary bronchi
• Tertiary bronchi branch repeatedly
• Cartilage decreases, smooth
muscle increases
The Bronchioles
• Cartilage absent
• Diameter < 1.0 mm
• Terminal bronchioles deliver air to a
single lobule
• Smooth muscle in wall controlled by ANS
• Sympathetic causes bronchodilation
• Parasympathetic causes
bronchoconstriction
• Excess bronchoconstriction is asthma
The Bronchial
Tree
Figure 15-6(a)
The Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli

• Gas exchange regions of lung
• Respiratory bronchioles lead into
alveolar ducts
• Ducts lead into alveolar sacs
• Sacs are clusters of
interconnected alveoli
• Gives lung an open, spongy look
• About 150 million/lung

The Lobules of the Lung
Figure 15-6(b)
Alveolar Organization
Figure 15-7(a)
Alveolar
Organization
Figure 15-7(b)
Anatomy of the Alveolus
Respiratory membrane
• Simple squamous epithelium
• Capillary endothelium
• Shared basement membrane
• Septal cells
• Produce surfactant to reduce collapse
• Alveolar macrophages
• Engulf foreign particles

Alveolar
Organization
Figure 15-7(c)
Alveolar
Organization
Figure 15-7(d)
Lung Gross Anatomy

• Lungs comprise five lobes
• Separated by deep fissures
• three lobes on right, two on left
• Apex extends above first rib
• Base rests on diaphragm
• Covered by a serous visceral pleura
• Lie with pleural cavities
• Lined by a serous parietal pleura

The Gross Anatomy
of the Lungs
Figure 15-8
Anatomical Relationships
in the Thoracic Cavity
PLAY Respiratory Movie Figure 15-9

Respiratory Physiology
Three Integrated Processes
• Pulmonary ventilation—Moving air into and
out of the respiratory tract; breathing
• Gas exchange —Diffusion between alveoli
and circulating blood, and between blood
and interstitial fluids
• Gas transport—Movement of oxygen from
alveoli to cells, and carbon dioxide from
cells to alveoli

Pulmonary Ventilation
• Respiratory cycle—A single breath
consisting of inspiration (inhalation) and
expiration (exhalation)
• Respiratory rate—Number of cycles per
minute
• Adult normal rate 12 to 18 breaths/minute
• Child normal rate 18 to 20 breaths/minute
• Alveolar ventilation—Movement of air into
and out of the alveoli
Key Note
The direction of air flow is determined
by the relationship of atmospheric
pressure and pressure inside the
respiratory tract. Flow is always from
higher to lower pressure.

Quiet versus Forced Breathing
• Quiet breathing—Diaphragm and external
intercostals are involved. Expiration is
passive.
• Forced breathing—Accessory muscles
become active during the entire breathing
cycle. Expiration is active.

Pressure and
Volume
Relationships in
the Lungs
Figure 15-10(a)
AT REST INHALATION EXHALATION
Sternocleido-
mastoid
Scalene muscles
Pectoralis minor Transversus

thoracis
Serratus anterior Internal
External intercostals
intercostal Rectal
Diaphragm abdominis
(other
abdominal
muscles
Pleural not shown)
Mediastinum
space
Diaphragm
Pressure outside and Volume increases Volume decreases

inside are equal, so no Pressure inside falls, Pressure inside rises,
movement occurs and air flows in so air flows out
Po = Pi Po > Pi Po < Pi
Figure 15-10(b)
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 1 of 4
AT REST
Pleural Mediastinum
space
Diaphragm
Pressure outside and

inside are equal, so no
movement occurs
Po = Pi
Figure 15-10(b)
AT REST INHALATION
Sternocleido-
mastoid
Scalene muscles
Pectoralis minor
Serratus anterior
External
intercostal
Diaphragm
Pleural Mediastinum
space
Diaphragm
Pressure outside and Volume increases

inside are equal, so no Pressure inside falls,
movement occurs and air flows in
Po = Pi Po > Pi
Figure 15-10(b)
AT REST INHALATION EXHALATION
Sternocleido-
mastoid
Scalene muscles
Pectoralis minor Transversus

thoracis
Serratus anterior Internal
External intercostals
intercostal Rectal
Diaphragm abdominis
(other
abdominal
muscles
Pleural not shown)
Mediastinum
space
Diaphragm
Pressure outside and Volume increases Volume decreases

inside are equal, so no Pressure inside falls, Pressure inside rises,
movement occurs and air flows in so air flows out
Po = Pi Po > Pi Po < Pi
Figure 15-10(b)
Capacities and Volumes

• Vital capacity—Tidal volume + expiratory
reserve volume + inspiratory volume
VC = TV + ERV + IRV
• Residual volume—Volume of air
remaining in the lung after a forced
expiration

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Figure 15-11
Gas Exchange
• External respiration—Diffusion of gases
between alveolar air and pulmonary
capillary blood across the respiratory
membrane
• Internal respiration—Diffusion of gases
between blood and interstitial fluids
across the capillary endothelium

An Overview of
Respiration and
Respiratory
Processes
PLAY Respiration: Gas Exchange Figure 15-12

Gas Transport
• Arterial blood entering peripheral
capillaries delivers oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide
• Gas reactions with blood are
completely reversible
• In general, a small change in plasma
PO2 causes a large change in how
much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin

Key Note
Hemoglobin binds most of the oxygen
in the bloodstream. If the PO2 in plasma
increases, hemoglobin binds more
oxygen; if PO2 decreases, hemoglobin
releases oxygen. At a given PO2
hemoglobin will release additional
oxygen if the pH falls or the
temperature rises.
PLAY Respiration: Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Exchange
Carbon Dioxide Transport

• Aerobic metabolism produces CO2
• 7% travels dissolved in plasma
• 23% travels bound to hemoglobin
• Called carbaminohemoglobin
• 70% is converted to H2CO3 in RBCs
• Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase
• Dissociates to H+ and HCO3-
• HCO3- enters plasma from RBC

Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood
Figure 15-13
Key Note
Carbon dioxide (CO2) primarily travels in
the bloodstream as bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-), which form through dissociation
of the carbonic acid (H2CO3) produced by
carbonic anhydrase inside RBCs. Lesser
amounts of CO2 are bound to hemoglobin
or dissolved in plasma.
PLAY Respiration: Pressure Gradients

Plasma Red blood cells Cells in
Pulmonary peripheral
capillary tissues
Hb
Hb O2 Hb O2 O2 O2
O2 Hb O2
O2
Alveolar
air O2
Systemic
space capillary
O2 pickup O2 delivery
Figure 15-14(a)
Plasma Red blood cell
Pulmonary
capillary
O2 O2
Alveolar
air O2
space
Figure 15-14(a)
Plasma Red blood cell
Pulmonary
capillary
Hb
Hb O2
O2 O2
Alveolar
air O2
space
O2 pickup
Figure 15-14(a)
Plasma Red blood cells
Pulmonary
capillary
Hb
Hb O2 Hb O2
O2 O2
Alveolar
air O2
Systemic
space capillary
Figure 15-14(a)
Plasma Red blood cells Cells in
Pulmonary peripheral
capillary tissues
Hb
Hb O2 Hb O2 O2 O2
O2 Hb O2
O2
Alveolar
air O2
Systemic
space capillary
Figure 15-14(a)
Cl– Pulmonary HCO3– Chloride
capillary
HCO3–
shift
Hb H+ + HCO3– Cl–
H+ + HCO3– Hb
Hb H+ H2CO3
H2CO3
Hb H+
CO2 CO2 CO2
H2O H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 delivery CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
CO2
CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
H2CO3
CO2
H2O
Hb CO2
Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
HCO3– Chloride
shift
H+ + HCO3– Cl–
Hb
H2CO3
Hb H+
CO2
H2O
Hb CO2
Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
CO2 pickup
Figure 15-14(b)
capillary
HCO3–
shift
H+ + HCO3– Cl–
Hb
H2CO3
Hb H+
CO2
H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
capillary
HCO3–
shift
H+ + HCO3– Hb
Hb H+ H2CO3
H2CO3
Hb H+
CO2 CO2 CO2
H2O H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
capillary
HCO3–
shift
H+ + HCO3– Hb
Hb H+ H2CO3
H2CO3
Hb H+
CO2 CO2 CO2
H2O H2O
CO2
Hb CO2
Hb
Hb CO2 Hb CO2
Systemic
capillary
Figure 15-14(b)
The Control of Respiration
Meeting the Changing Demand for Oxygen

• Requires integration cardiovascular and
respiratory responses
• Depends on both:
• Local control of respiration
• Control by brain respiratory centers

Local Control of Respiration

• Arterioles supplying pulmonary
capillaries constrict when oxygen is low
• Bronchioles dilate when carbon dioxide
is high

Control by Brain Respiratory Centers
• Respiratory centers in brainstem
• Three pairs of nuclei
• Two pairs in pons
• One pair in medulla oblongata
• Control respiratory muscles
• Set rate and depth of ventilation
• Respiratory rhythmicity center in medulla
• Sets basic rhythm of breathing

Basic
Regulatory
Patterns of
Respiration
Figure 15-15(a)
Basic
Regulatory
Patterns of
Respiration
Figure 15-15(b)
Reflex Control of Respiration
• Inflation reflex
• Protects lungs from overexpansion
• Deflation reflex
• Stimulates inspiration when lungs collapse
• Chemoreceptor reflexes
• Respond to changes in pH, PO2, and PCO2
in blood and CSF

Control by Higher Centers

• Exert effects on pons or on
respiratory motorneurons
• Voluntary actions
• Speech, singing
• Involuntary actions through the limbic
system
• Rage, eating, sexual arousal

Key Note
Interplay between respiratory centers
in the pons and medulla oblongata
sets the basic pace of breathing, as
modified by input from chemo-
receptors, baroreceptors, and stretch
receptors. CO2 level, rather than O2
level, is the main driver for breathing.
Protective reflexes can interrupt
breathing and conscious control of
respiratory muscles can act as well.

The Control of
Respiration
Figure 15-16
Respiratory Changes at Birth
Conditions Before Birth
• Pulmonary arterial resistance is high
• Rib cage is compressed
• Lungs are collapsed
• Airways, alveoli are filled with fluid
Conditions After Birth
• An heroic breath fills lungs with air,
displaces fluid, and opens alveoli
• Surfactant stabilizes open alveoli

Respiratory System and Aging
Respiratory System Loses Efficiency

• Elastic tissue deteriorates
• Lowers vital capacity
• Rib cage movement restricted
• Arthritic changes
• Costal cartilages loses flexibility
• Some emphysema usually appears

The Respiratory System
in Perspective
FIGURE 15-17
Functional Relationships Between
the Respiratory System and Other Systems
Figure 15-17
The Integumentary System
• Protects portions of upper

respiratory tract; hairs guard
entry to external nares
Figure 15-17
The Skeletal System
• Movements of ribs important

in breathing; axial skeleton
surrounds and protects lungs
Figure 15-17
The Muscular System
• Muscular activity generates

carbon dioxide; respiratory
muscles fill and empty lungs;
other muscles control
entrances to respiratory tract;
intrinsic laryngeal muscles
control airflow through larynx
and produce sounds
Figure 15-17
The Nervous System
• Monitors respiratory volume

and blood gas levels; controls
pace and depth of respiration
Figure 15-17
The Endocrine System
• Epinephrine and
norepinephrine stimulate
respiratory activity and dilate
respiratory passageways
Figure 15-17
The Cardiovascular System
• Red blood cells transport

oxygen and carbon dioxide
between lungs and
peripheral tissues
• Bicarbonate ions contribute
to buffering capability of
blood
Figure 15-17
The Lymphatic System
• Tonsils protect against
infection at entrance to
respiratory tract; lymphatic
vessels monitor lymph
drainage from lungs and
mobilize specific defenses
when infection occurs
• Alveolar phagocytes present
antigens to trigger specific
defenses; mucous membrane
lining the nasal cavity and
upper pharynx traps
pathogens, protects deeper
tissues
Figure 15-17
The Digestive System
• Provides substrates,
vitamins, water, and ions that
are necessary to all cells of
the respiratory system
• Increased thoracic and
abdominal pressure through
contraction of respiratory
muscles can assist in
defecation
Figure 15-17
The Urinary System
• Eliminates organic wastes

generated by cells of the
respiratory system;
maintains normal fluid and
ion balance in the blood
• Assists in the regulation of
pH by eliminating carbon
dioxide
Figure 15-17
The Reproductive System
• Changes in respiratory rate

and depth occur during
sexual arousal
Figure 15-17

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Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 4th Edition

PowerPoint® Lecture Outlines

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Respiratory Tract

PLAY The Respiratory Tract

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Lung Gross Anatomy

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PLAY Respiratory Movie Figure 15-9

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Pectoralis minor Transversus

Pressure outside and Volume increases Volume decreases

Pressure outside and

Pressure outside and Volume increases

Pectoralis minor Transversus

Pressure outside and Volume increases Volume decreases

Capacities and Volumes

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PLAY Respiration: Gas Exchange Figure 15-12

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PLAY Respiration: Pressure Gradients

CO2 delivery CO2 pickup

CO2 delivery CO2 pickup

CO2 delivery CO2 pickup

CO2 delivery CO2 pickup

Meeting the Changing Demand for Oxygen

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Local Control of Respiration

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Control by Higher Centers

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Respiratory System Loses Efficiency

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Protects portions of upper

• Movements of ribs important

• Muscular activity generates

• Monitors respiratory volume

• Red blood cells transport

• Eliminates organic wastes

• Changes in respiratory rate

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