Basic Subsurface Flow

Prepared By:

Engr. Dianne Pearl D. Opeña

 INTRODUCTION
➢ Subsurface flow is the flow of water beneath earth's surface as part
of the water cycle.
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➢ In the water cycle, when precipitation falls on the earth's land, some
of the water flows on the surface forming streams and rivers.

➢ The remaining water, through infiltration, penetrates the soil traveling

underground, hydrating the vadose zone soil, recharging aquifers,
with the excess flowing in subsurface runoff.
 INTRODUCTION

Aquifer
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a geologic formation or stratum

containing water in its voids or
pores that may be extracted
economically and used as a
source of water supply.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INTRODUCTION
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INTRODUCTION
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

Confined aquifer
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➢ groundwater is confined under pressure greater than

atmospheric by overlying impermeable strata.
➢ It is also known as artesian or pressure aquifer.

Unconfined aquifer
➢ A water table serves as the upper surface of the zone of
saturation.
➢ It is also known as a free, phreatic or non-artesian aquifer.
 INTRODUCTION
Flowing artesian well - exists when the
piezometric surface lies above the ground
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surface.

Aquiclude - a geologic formation so

impervious that for all practical purposes it
completely obstructs the flow of groundwater
(although it may itself be saturated with
water).

Aquitard - a geologic formation of rather

impervious and semi-confined nature which
transmits water at a very slow rate compared
to an aquifer.
 GROUNDWATER

Groundwater flow
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◼ Movement of water through the

phreatic zone

phreatic zone - zone of saturation

- the part of an aquifer,
below the water table, in which relatively
all pores and fractures are saturated
with water.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT GROUNDWATER
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT LAW OF DARCY

➢ In 1855, Henri Darcy, a French

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hydraulic engineer oversaw a series

of experiments aimed to understand
the rates of water flow through sand
layers, and their relationship to
pressure loss along the flow paths.

➢ Darcy’s experiments consisted of a vertical steel column,

with a water inlet at one end and an outlet at the other.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT LAW OF DARCY

➢ The water pressure was controlled at

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the inlet and outlet ends of the column

using reservoirs with constant water
levels (denoted h1 and h2).

➢ The experiments included a series of

tests with different packings of river
sand, and a suite of tests using the
same sand pack and column, but for
which the inlet and outlet pressures
were varied.
 LAW OF DARCY
Darcy observed that:
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1. Q is proportional to the head loss

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2. Q is proportional to the cross-sectional area of flow

3. Q is inversely proportional to the length of flow path
4. Q is influenced by the nature of the medium

Law of Darcy provides an accurate description of the flow of

groundwater in almost all hydrogeologic environments.
 LAW OF DARCY
In equation form, these observations can be expressed as:
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∆𝒉
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𝑸 ∝ 𝒄𝑨
𝑳
𝒌𝑨∆𝒉 𝒌𝑨(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐 )
𝑸= =
𝑳 𝑳
where:
3
𝑸 = discharge per unit time (rate of flow) ( Τ𝑠)
𝑚

𝒌 = hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability (cm/s, m/s)

𝑨 = cross-sectional area of the soil mass (𝑚2 )
∆𝒉 = piezometric head or head difference (m)
𝑳 = length of soil mass (m)
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT LAW OF DARCY

𝒌𝑨∆𝒉 𝒌𝑨(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐 )
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝑸= =
𝑳 𝑳

𝑸 = 𝒌𝑨𝒊

𝒌∆𝒉
𝒗𝑫 =
𝑳

Hydraulic gradient
𝒉
𝒊=
𝑳
 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
Hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability, k
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➢ the ability of the aquifer soil to transmit water

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Factors that affect hydraulic conductivity:

1. Particle size
2. Void ratio Typical values of k:
3. Composition 10−2 to 10−3 cm/s for sands
4. Fabric 10−4 to 10−5 cm/s for silts
5. Degree of saturation 10−7 to 10−9 cm/s for clays
 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
Darcy and seepage velocity
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➢ Assumes that flow occurs across the entire cross-section of

the soil sample (fictitious velocity)
➢ Flow actually takes place only through the interconnected pore
channels
 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
Darcy and seepage velocity
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From the Continuity Eqn:

𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗𝑫 = 𝑨𝒗 𝒗𝒔
where:
Q = flow rate
A = total cross-sectional area of material
AV = area of voids
Vs = seepage velocity
VD = Darcy velocity
 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
Darcy and seepage velocity
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𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗𝑫 = 𝑨𝒗 𝒗𝒔
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𝑨
𝒗𝒔 = 𝒗𝑫 ( )
𝑨𝑽
Multiplying both sides by the length of the medium L,
𝑨𝑳 𝑽𝑻
𝒗𝒔 = 𝒗𝑫 = 𝒗𝑫 ( )
𝑨𝑽 𝑳 𝑽𝑽
𝑽𝑽
By definition, = 𝒏, the soil porocity
𝑽𝑻
𝒗𝑫
𝒗𝒔 =
𝒏
 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
Seepage velocity
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➢ velocity through the void spaces obtained by dividing

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the average velocity by the porosity

𝒗𝑫 𝒌𝒊
𝒗𝒔 = =
𝒏 𝒏
 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
Transmissivity
➢ a measure of the ease of water movement in the soil
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➢ rate at which water passes through a unit width of the

aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient

𝑻 = 𝒌𝒃
where:
T = transmissivity
k = hydraulic conductivity
b = aquifer thickness
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
◼ A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.
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◼ k for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and n is 0.2.

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◼ The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and

50 m respectively, from a common datum.
◼ The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m,
◼ The average width of flow is 5 km.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the following:
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◼ The flow rate, Darcy velocity and seepage velocity in the aquifer
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◼ the average time of travel from the head of the aquifer to a

point 4 km downstream
◼ assume no dispersion or diffusion
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Cross sectional area, A 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝟐
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∆𝒉 𝟓𝟓 − 𝟓𝟎 𝒎
Hydraulic gradient, i 𝒊= = = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟑
𝑳 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝒎
Flow rate, Q 𝑸 = 𝒌𝑨𝒊 = 𝟓𝟎 (𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝟐 )(𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )
𝒅𝒂𝒚

𝒎𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟑𝟕, 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒂𝒚
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Darcy velocity, 𝑣𝐷 𝒎𝟑
𝑸 𝟑𝟕, 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒂𝒚
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𝒗𝑫 = = 𝟓 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑨 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝒎
𝒗𝑫 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
Seepage velocity, 𝑣𝑠 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒗𝒔 = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟐

Time of travel from

the head of the 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟒(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝒕= = = 𝟑, 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
aquifer to a point 4 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝟖. 𝟕𝟕 𝒚𝒓𝒔
km downstream
 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

1. Laboratory test
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a. Constant head permeability test

b. Variable head permeability test

2. Field test
a. Confined flow pumping test
b. Unconfined flow pumping test
 LABORATORY TEST: CONSTANT HEAD TEST

1. Laboratory test
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Constant head test

• used to determine k for coarse-
grained soils
• water is allowed to flow through a
cylindrical sample of soil
under a constant head, h
• the outflow, Q is collected in a graduated cylinder at a
convenient time duration, t
 LABORATORY TEST: CONSTANT HEAD TEST
Constant head test
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𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝑳
𝒌=
𝑨𝒕(𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )

where:
𝑽𝒐𝒍 = total volume of water
𝑳 = length of specimen
𝑨 = cross-sectional area of specimen
𝒕 = time duration
h = head causing flow
 LABORATORY TEST: FALLING HEAD TEST

Falling head test

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• used for fine-grained soils because the flow of

water through these soils is too slow to get
reasonable measurements from the constant head
test
• the head of water, h, which changes with time as
flow occurs through the soil, is recorded at
different times
 LABORATORY TEST: FALLING HEAD TEST
Falling head test
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• The inflow of water to the soil is

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𝒅𝒉
𝒒𝒊𝒏 = 𝒂𝒗 = −𝒂
𝒅𝒕

• dh is the drop in head over time dt and a is

the cross-sectional area of the standpipe.
From Darcy, the outflow is:
𝒉
𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑨𝒌𝒊 = 𝑨𝒌
𝒍
 LABORATORY TEST: FALLING HEAD TEST
Falling head test
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

• The continuity equation requires that

qin = qout, thus
𝒅𝒉 𝒉
−𝒂 = 𝑨𝒌
𝒅𝒕 𝒍
• Rearranging and integrating

𝑨𝒌 𝒕𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝒅𝒉
න 𝒅𝒕 = − න
𝒂𝑳 𝒕𝟏 𝒉𝟏 𝒉
 LABORATORY TEST: FALLING HEAD TEST
Falling head test
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• Solution for k in the vertical direction

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌= 𝐥𝐧( )
𝑨(𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) 𝒉𝟐
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

In a falling-head permeability test, the initial head of 1.00 m

dropped to 0.35 m in 3 hours, the diameter of the standpipe being
5 mm. The soil specimen was 200 mm long by 100 mm in diameter.
Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the soil in mm/s.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
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𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟐 ) 𝝅(𝟓𝟐 )

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝑨= = = 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝒂= = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟔𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝟐

𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
𝒉𝟏 = 𝟏 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎; 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝒕 = 𝟑 𝒉𝒓𝒔 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒔

𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏 𝟏𝟗. 𝟔𝟑(𝟐𝟎𝟎) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝒌= 𝐥𝐧( ) = 𝒍𝒏
𝑨(𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) 𝒉𝟐 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟑. 𝟗𝟖(𝟏𝟎, 𝟖𝟎𝟎) 𝟑𝟓𝟎
𝒌 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝒎/𝒔
 FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST

➢ Also called aquifer test or pumping test

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➢Consists of pumping out water from a main well and observing

the resulting drawdown surface of the original horizontal water
table from at least two observation wells.
➢An aquifer test is probably the most accurate method that can
be used to estimate aquifer parameters.
 FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
➢ When a well is pumped, water is removed from the aquifer
surrounding the well and the water table or the piezometric surface
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depending on the type of aquifer is lowered.

➢ The drawdown at a given point is the

distance the water has lowered.

➢A drawdown curve (cone) shows the

variation of drawdown with distance
from the well.

➢In 3D, the drawdown curve describes

a conic shape known as the cone of
depression.
 FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
➢ When a steady state of flow is
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

reached (the water level observed in

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

the piezometer doesn’t change with

time), the flow quantity and the
levels in the observation wells are
noted.

piezometer – well (or narrow tube)

from which the pressure head
(water level) can be measured at a
point in the aquifer
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Two types of aquifer test:

A) Unconfined flow pumping test

B) Confined flow pumping test
 FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
Steady radial flow to a well: Confined flow pumping test
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒃(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 )
𝑸= 𝒓𝟐
𝐥𝐧( ൗ𝒓𝟏 )

𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒃(𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟐 )
𝑸= 𝒓𝟐
𝐥𝐧( ൗ𝒓𝟏 )
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

A fully penetrating well of diameter 0.3 m abstracts water

from a confined aquifer. Compute the discharge when the
steady state drawdowns at distances of 10 m and 60 m are
respectively 2.4 m and 0.5 m, given the thickness of the
aquifer and k as 20 m and 10 m/day respectively.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒃(𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟐 )
𝑸= 𝒓𝟐
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𝐥𝐧( ൗ𝒓𝟏 )
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝑺𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝒎 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎
𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎

𝟏𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝝅( )(𝟐𝟎𝒎)(𝟐. 𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟓) 𝒎 𝟑
𝒅𝒂𝒚 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟏
𝑸= 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝐥𝐧(𝟏𝟎ൗ𝟔𝟎)
 FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
Steady radial flow to a well: Unconfined flow pumping test
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝝅𝒌(𝒉𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝟐 )
𝑸= 𝒓𝟐
𝐥𝐧( ൗ𝒓𝟏 )
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

A well of radius 30 cm fully penetrating a water table aquifer,

with hydraulic conductivity of 20 m/day and an initial head above
the impervious stratum of 40 m, is pumped until a steady water
level in the well is 35 m above the stratum.
Assuming that the radius of influence is 600 m and that there are
no well losses, estimate the steady state discharge.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
𝝅𝒌(𝒉𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝟐 )
𝑸=
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

𝒓𝟐
𝐥𝐧( ൗ𝒓𝟏 )
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

𝒉𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓𝒎 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝒉𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎

𝒎
𝝅(𝟐𝟎 )(𝟒𝟎𝟐 − 𝟑𝟓𝟐 ) 𝒎 𝟑
𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑸= = 𝟑𝟎𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟗
𝐥𝐧(𝟔𝟎𝟎ൗ𝟎. 𝟑) 𝒅𝒂𝒚
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

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