Chapter 3

Illumination
 provision of sufficient lighting
either by natural means or
artificial light
 Lightning

• Light is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which

produces the visual sensation upon the human eye

• The sensation of color is due to the difference in

wavelength of the light radiations. White light, such as given
by the sun, is composed of different colors each having
different wavelengths.

• In general, light is an electromagnetic radiation such as radio

waves, x-rays etc. We can classify electromagnetic waves as
visible and invisible waves.

• Visible waves: daylight, radiations from candles and lamps.

• Invisible waves: x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves.
 cntd
• We know that, v = fλ (v is speed of light, f is
frequency and, λ is wave length )
• Angstrom unit (Ǻ): 1Ǻ = 10-8cm = 10-10m

– λ of violet light = 4000 Ǻ

– λ of blue light =5000 Ǻ
– λ of red light = 7500 Ǻ
– λ of Yellow light = 6500 Ǻ

• Human eye is most sensitive to light having wavelengths of

about 0.555 micrometer in the green portion of the
spectrum.

• Maximum power of light is radiated when the wavelength is

about 0.5 micrometer which is approximately the
wavelength at which the human eye is most sensitive.
 Terms used in Illumination
• Luminous Flux: It is the total quantity of light energy radiated/
produced from a luminous body in the form of light waves. It is
measured in lumens. It is represented by symbol φ.

• Luminous Intensity (I): It is the amount of luminous flux emitted by

a source per unit solid angle. It is measured in candela or lumens
per Steradians. i.e. I = φ / ω, . Solid angle was given by the
ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the
distance between the area and the point. I.e. A / r2

• Illuminance (intensity of illumination) (E) - it is the luminous flux

received by a surface per unit area of the surface. Its unit depends
upon the units in which area is measured. It is measured in lumens
per square meter or lux or meter candle. Mathematically, E = φ/A
Solid Angle
 ctd
• Luminous efficiency (k): a measure of unit lumens per watt (lm/W).
It can be thought of as the ‘efficiency’ of the light source.

• Luminance, L: The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the

apparent area of the source of light (or illuminated areas). The
measured brightness of a surface.
L = I/A [cd/m2]

• Coefficient of utilization: This is a factor showing the ratio of the

lumens reaching on the working plane to the total lumens generated
by the source. It depends on the dimension of the room to be
illuminated, the reflectance of the walls, ceilings, and floors, the
lamp output of reflectors and diffusers used and the position of the
lamp.
• Maintenance Factor: The light obtained from a light source
may be affected by variables due to dire (obstacles, terrible),
ageing of the lamp, e.t.c. The maintenance factor (MF) takes in to
account such effects.
 CNTD

╬ Maintenance Factor :- In order to allow for the

collection of dirt on a lamp and also ageing, both of
which cause loss of light, a maintenance factor is used.

╬ As an example, consider a new 80 W fluorescent lamp

with a lumen output of 5700 lm. After about 3 or 4
months this output would have fallen and settled at
around 5200 lm.

╬ Hence the light output has decreased by

╬ 5200/5700 = 0.91
 Illumination Laws
• Inverse square law
• Cosine law
Inverse square law:
• The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional
to the distance between source & surface.
 ctd

• E ~ 1/d2, where d is the perpendicular distance from the light

source.

• Thus, the illumination of a surface varies inversely as the square

of the distance from the light source.
 Cosine Law
Cosine law states that, reflected energy from a small
surface area in a particular direction is proportional to
the cosine of the angle between that direction and the
surface normal.
– Ey = IcosӨ/h2 =I/ h2
– cosӨ = h/d, d = h/cosӨ
I
Ex  2 cos 
d
I
Ex  2
cos 
 h 
 
 cos  
I
Ex  2 cos3 
h
cont
 Example 1

A standard incandescent lamp having a

luminous intensity of 100 cd in all directions
gives an illuminance of 40 lux at the surface of
a bench vertically below the lamp. What
distance is the lamp above the bench?

Answer = 1.58m
 Example 2

A 250W sodium-vapor street lamp emits a light

of 22,500 cd and is situated 8m above the road.
Calculate the luminance.
a) Directly below the lamp
b) At a horizontal distance along the road of 6m.

Answer
A. 351.56 lux
B. 180 lux
 Example 3
A Lamp emits a light of 22 500 cd and is situated 5m above the road .calculate
Illuminance
a. Directly below the lamp
b. At horizontal Distance along the road of 6m.

Answer
A. 900 lux
B. 236.1 lux
 Example 4
 A corridor is lighted by 4 lamps spaced 10m apart and
suspended at a height 5m above the floor .If Each lamp Gives
200 cd in all directions find the illumination:-
At the point on the floor mid way b/n second and third Lamps.

E = 6.16 lm/m2
 Home Work

Exercise: Two light sources each having a uniform

intensity of 64,000 cd is mounted 8m high. If the
illumination midway between the lamps on
ground level is same as the illumination level
produced by one of the lamp vertically below it,
calculate the distance between the poles.
 Light source and application
• When an electric current passes through a fine
metallic wire, heat is produced and the
temperature of the wire increases.

• At low temperature the wire radiates heat energy.

• As the temperature of the wire increases due to
heating, it radiates heat as well as light energy.

• Generally, electric lamps can be classified in to:

• Incandescent lamps
• Discharge lamps.
 Incandescent lamps

The incandescent lamp consists :-

 Glass globe completely evacuated or gas filled:-

allows the electrical contacts to run through the
envelope without gas/air leaks
Filament, which is heated to white heat by the
passage of electric current. The filament of modern
lamps is normally made of tungsten since this
material has a very high melting point (3400C) and
can be manufactured in the form of a suitably thin
wire.
The bulbs of smaller lamps are evacuated to prevent
oxidization of the filament. But, in many lamps, an
inert gas such as argon is introduced. This
enables the filament to operate at a higher
temperature without undue deterioration due to the
evaporation, which tends to take place in a vacuum.
 Incandescent lamps
• The main advantages
• The filament has a more compact formation.
• Heat losses due to conviction currents in the gas are
reduced.
 CNTD

There are two types of incandescent lamps:

1. Vacuum lamps
Air is evacuated from the glass bulb.
Operates only up to around 20000 c.
2. Gas-filled
– the glass bulb is filled with inert gases(Ne or Ar)
– operates up to around 2500 c
– In gas-filled lamps, the bulb is so bright
that it is given an opaque coating
internally.
CNTD
 CNTD

• The light output of incandescent lamps is about 10 to 15

lm/W. Thus,
– a 25W incandescent lamp produces about 250 to 375 lm
– a 40W incandescent lamp produces about 400 to 600 lm
– a 60W IL produces about 600 to 900 lm
• The average lifetime of incandescent lamps is about
2000 hours when operating at rated voltage.
• Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages;
- Low efficiency and
- Colored light.
Thanks!!!!!
 Discharge Lamps.
֍This type of lighting relies on the ionization of a gas to
produce light.

֍As high voltages are present in such lighting circuits,

Ionization is takes place using different starting
techniques

֍Typical discharge lamps include:-

֍ decorative neon signs,
֍ fluorescent lighting (Low-pressure mercury-
vapour lamp)
֍High pressure mercury-vapour lamp
֍sodium-vapour lamps used for street lighting..
 Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):-

⸙ Certain materials, such as calcium phosphate,

emit visible light whenever they absorb ultra-
violet light. This phenomenon is known as
fluorescence

⸙ Low- pressure mercury vapour lamp consists of:-

⸙ a glass tube, the interior of which is coated in
fluorescent phosphor.
⸙ The tube is filled with mercury vapour at low
pressure and a little argon to assist starting.
⸙ At each end of the tube is situated an oxide-coated
filament.
⸙ Discharge takes place when a high voltage is
applied across the ends of the tube.
Fluorescent lamp
 How Fluorescent lamp works?
֍When the supply is switched on, the circuit is completed
the choke, first lamp element, starter switch, second lamp
element and the neutral.

֍The elements, which are coated in oxide, become warm

and the oxide coating emits some electrons and the gas
ionizes at the ends of the tube (this helps the main
ionization process).

֍The starter contacts (usually of the bimetallic type)

separate, owing to the current passing through them, and
the choke is open circuited.

֍Breaking an inductive circuit causes high voltages to

appear across the breaking contacts, and energy is
released in the form of an arc.
 How Fluorescent lamp works?

֍In this case, however, there is an easier way for the energy
to dissipate –via the gas, and the high voltage appears
across the ends of the tube

֍When the gas if fully ionized, the choke limits the

current to a predetermined value
֍The light emitted, which is mostly ultraviolet, is
made visible by the fluorescent powder coating.

֍The PF correction capacitor is part of the control

circuitry common to all fluorescent lighting
installations.
 CNTD

⸙ The light output of a fluorescent lamp is 70 lm/w and

has an average life of about 7500 hrs.

⸙ The application includes :-

⸙ lighting of shops,
⸙ Homes, factories, streets,
⸙ ships, transport (buses and trains), e.t.c.

⸙ Using these tubes is quite possible to achieve

high lighting intensity without excessive
temperature rise and, the danger of glare is minimized.

⸙ The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumens

per watt, which is about three times the efficiency of an
equivalent tungsten filament lamp.
 Assignment 3 submit to next week

1. State the working Principle of

A. Neon Tube Lamps
B. Sodium vapour Lamps
C. High Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamps
D. Low Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamps
 Starters
⸙ Three methods are commonly available for starting the
discharge in a fluorescent tube: the thermal start, the glow
start and the quick start.

⸙ Thermal type start:- The thermal type starter switch has two
contacts mounted on bi-metal strips, a small heating coil
being fitted very close to the bi-metal strips but with no
electrical contact between them.
⸙ The contacts are normally closed so that the main supply is
first switched ON and the full heating current passes through
the lamp electrodes.

⸙ After a short period of time, the bi-metal strips warm

sufficiently to bend and open the contacts, thus striking the
lamp. As long as the lamp remains lighting, current flows
through the starter heater keeping the contacts apart
CNTD
 CNTD
⸙ Glow type start: The glow type starter switch consists of a
small bulb filled with inert gas (Argon, helium) and
containing two contacts, one of which is mounted on a bi-
metal strip.
⸙ The contacts are normally open so that when the main
supply is first switched on full main voltage is applied to the
starter contacts. This causes a glow discharge, which warms
the bi-metal strip making it to bend and close the starter
contacts.
⸙ The closing of the starter contacts allows full heating current
to pass through the lamp electrodes and also extinguish
the glow discharge. After a short time, the bi-metal strip
cools sufficiently to open the circuit thus striking the lamp.
⸙ As long as the lamp remains a light, the voltage applied to
the starter is insufficient to initiate a glow discharge and so
the starter contacts remains open until the next
starting operation.
CNTD
 CNTD

Quick start or Instant type start

 In the case of quick start or instant start, starting is
achieved by the use of autotransformer and an
earthed metal strip in close proximity to the tube.

 When the supply is switched on, mains voltage

appears across the end of the tube, and the small
part of the winding at each end of the transformer
energizes the filaments, which heat up.

 The difference in potential between the

electrodes and the earthed strip causes
ionization, which spreads along the tube
CNTD
 PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES
# A good lighting system should produce uniform illumination of
not less than the required value. It should be free from glare and
hard shadows.

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as: -

# Direct light: - the most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this
scheme more than 90% of total light flux is made to fall directly on the
working plane with the help of deep reflectors. Though it is more
efficient but causes hard shadows and glare. It is mainly used for
industrial and general out-door lighting.

# Semi-direct lighting: - in this lighting scheme 60-90% of the total light

flux is made to fall down wards directly with the help of semi-direct
reflectors. The remaining light is used to illuminate the ceiling and walls.
Such a lighting scheme is best suited to rooms with high ceiling where
there is a high level of uniformity of illumination is desired.

# Besides, this scheme avoids glare, it also improves the efficiency of

the system with reference to the working plane.
 CNTD
# Semi indirect lighting: -in this scheme 60-90% of total light
flux is thrown up wards to the ceiling for reflection and
the rest reaches the working plane directly. This
lighting scheme has soft shadows and is glare free. It is
mainly used for indoor decoration purpose.

# Indirect lighting scheme: - in this scheme more than

90% of total light flux is thrown upwards the ceiling
for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflector. In
this scheme the glare is reduced to minimum. It is used for
decoration purpose in cinemas, theatres and hotels etc.
and in areas where troublesome shadows are produced if
direct light in lighting is employed.

# General lighting: - in this scheme lamps made of

diffusing glass are used, which gives nearly equal
illumination in all directions.
 Design of lighting schemes

The lighting scheme should be such that it should

provide:-
i. Adequate illumination
ii. Light distribution all over the working plane as
uniform as possible
iii. Light of suitable color.
iv. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible
 Illumination level

# In order to see the details of the things that surround us,

the light source has to illuminate them very well in
order the objects take the necessary brightness.

# Level of illumination, which gives necessary brightness

to objects depends upon:

# The size of the object and distance of the observer.

# Contrast between the object and background. Greater
the contrast greater will be the illumination required
to distinguish the object properly.
# The speed of the object - Speedy object requires more
illumination.
# Duration of gazing - Object seen for long duration of
time require more illumination
 CNTD

• Uniformity of Illumination: - It has been found

that visual performance is best if the range of
brightness within the field of vision is not greater
than 3:1, which can be achieved by employing
general lighting in addition to localized lighting.
Otherwise due to the frequent accommodation
of pupil or iris of the eye, fatigue is
caused and it creates psychological felling of
loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.

• Color of light: - The appearance of the body color

entirely depends upon the color of the incident
light. In general the composition of the light
should be such that the color appears natural.
 CNTD
• Shadows: - In lighting installation, formation of long and
hard shadows causes fatigue. However a certain amount of
shadow is desired as it helps to give shapes to solid objects
and make them easily recognized. But there is one exception
to these i.e. in drawing offices, where we are to see flat
surfaces. Hard and long shadow can be avoided by:

– Raising a large number of luminaries mounted at a height not less

than 2.5m.
– By using wide surface of light - using globes or indirect lighting
system.

• Glare: - Glare is generally produced by very bright

sources of light, which emit light directly or at very
low angle towards the viewer. This causes the person
to neglect the other surrounding objects, as they appear
darker and is a major cause of road accidents.. This also
tends to damage retina of the eye.
 conditions that should be considered in illuminations

• Utilization Factor (ηβ) - the whole light

radiated by the lamps doesn’t reach the
working plane. The ratio of lumens reaching the
working plane to the total light given out by
the lamp or lamps, when the installation is
new, is known as utilization factor or
coefficient of utilization. The value of
utilization factor depends upon :-
– The mounting height of lamps
– Area to be illuminated
– Type of lighting scheme
– Color of the surrounding, etc.
 conditions that should be considered in illuminations

• Spacing Luminaries: - correct spacing is of

great importance to provide uniform
illumination over the whole area. The ratio
of the horizontal spacing between rows to the
height of the luminaries above the working plane,
called space to height ratio, depends quite on:-

• luminous output
• type of lighting scheme and on the extent of
candlepower distribution curve of the luminaries.

• Mounting height is largely governed by the type of

the building and type of lighting scheme employed
 CNTD
Color of Surrounding Walls:-
• the illumination in a room depends upon the light reflected
from walls and ceilings. White walls and ceilings reflect more
light as compared to colored ones.

Maintenance Factor
• the illumination produced considerably decreases due to
ageing of the lamps and accumulation of dusts on the lamps,
reflectors, ceiling and walls.

• Its value is more if there is much as the ageing problem

increases, etc. The value is mostly ranges between 0.8 and 1.
• The other term used is depreciation factor, which is merely
the inverse of the maintenance factor. Its value is more than
unity.
• Correction factor = (Utilization factor x Maintenance Factor)
 Methods of lightning calculation

• In order to estimate the number and the type of light fittings

required , it is necessary to know what level of luminance is
required, the area to be illuminated, the maintenance factor
and the coefficient of utilization, and the efficiency of the
lamps to be used.
• A number of methods have been employed for lighting
calculations among which may be mentioned:

– 1. Watts per square meter method

– 2. Lumen or Light flux method

• Watts per Square Meter method: - applicable for rough

calculations. It consists in making an allowance of watts per
square meter of area to be illuminated accordingly to the
illumination desired on the assumption of the average
figure of an overall efficiency of the system. According to
NEC 220- standard illumination is about 3 watt per ft2.
 Example

⸙ A house has an external dimension of 30ft by

50ft. If an 80w fluorescent lamps, and 220V
supply is used, determine the size of the
service wire and the number of lamps required.

• ⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w

• Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V
• = 20.5A
 CNTD
⸙ Lumen or Light flux method: - it is the most advisable method to be
used. Lumens' reaching the working plane is calculated

• Required Level of Illumination in the room =

(Total flux output of the lamps in the room ∗ Correction Factor)
•
Total area of the room

(No. Of Fixture ∗ Flux output per Fixture ∗ Correction Factor)

⸙ /
Total area of the room

No.of Fixture ∗ No.Lamp per Fixture ∗ Flux output per lamp ∗ Correction Factor )
⸙
Total area of the room

N  n    CF Where, E – Required Illumination level

E
A N – no of fixtures

n – no of lamp /fixture
E A
N A - Working surface area in m2
n    CF
φ - Luminous flux of one lamp in lm

CF - Correction factor; (Utilization

factor x Maintenance Factor)

 Example 2

The Illumination in a drawing office 30m *10 m

have a value of 250 lux and is to be provided by a
no of 300 w filament lamps . If the Cofficient of
Utilization is 0.4 and Maintenance Factor is 0.9
Determine The No of Lamps Required if The
Efficiency of each lamp is 14lm/w

Answer= 50 Lamps
 Example 3

 Design a suitable lightning Scheme for a factory

120m * 40m with a height 7m . Illumination
required is 60 lux .state the number, location of 40
w Fluorescent tubes giving 45lm/w .(DF = 1.2 and
UF = 0.5)

Answer= 384 tubes

 Example4

 A drawing Hall is provided with lightning

Installation The hall is 30m *20m *80 (Height ).The
Mounting Height is 5 m and the required level of
Illumination is 144 lm/m2.Using filament lamps
,Estimate size and no of single lamp luminaries and
draw their spacing Light Assume :-
Uf = 0.6
Mf = 0.75
S/h = 1
lm /w for 300 w lamp is 13
lm/w for 500 w lamp is 16
Answer= 384 tubes
Example4
Thanks!!!