Module – 5: Special Machines, Electrical wiring and safety

Module-5
1. Brushless DC motor
 The type of direct current motor which does not have carbon brushes for commutation
is referred to as a brushless DC motor. Brushless DC motor is also known as BLDC
motor or BL Motor.
 A brushless DC motor is a type of electronically commuted DC motor. Hence,
sometimes, the brushless DC motors are also referred to as EC motors.
 The important characteristics of a BLDC motor is its high efficiency. This is because,
the rotor of the brushless DC motor forms the magnetic field system by permanent
magnets and hence, it does not require any electric power. Therefore, there is no need
of commutator and brushes to make connections with rotating parts.
 In place of commutator and brushes, the brushless DC motors consist of an electronic
control circuit to determine the rotor position
1 1. Construction of BLDC motor
 Similar to any other electric motor, the brushless DC motor also consists of two major
parts,i.e. stator and rotor.
 In the case of brushless DC motors, the stator consists of the armature winding, while
the rotor consists of the permanent magnets.
 These motors use electronic commutation system to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
 Therefore, in brushless DC motors, the mechanical commutator in brushed DC motor
is replaced with an electronic switching circuit.
 the brushless DC motor consists of a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with
armature windings. The stator armature windings are energized from a DC supply in a
sequence to produce a rotating magnetic field which interacts with the rotor magnets
and causes it to rotate.
 In a BLDC motor, the electronic controller uses a Hall Effect sensor to detect the
position of the rotor and regulates the current through the armature winding
accordingly. This allows the brushless DC motor to operate smoothly and efficiently.
 The other major components of the brushless DC motor include rotor shaft, bearings,
cooling system, etc. Hence, the overall construction of a brushless DC motor is more
complex as compared to an ordinary brushed DC motor.

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Fig1.1: BLDC Motor

1.2 Working of Brushless DC Motor:

 BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e.,
the Lorentz force law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field it experiences a force.
 As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and opposite
force. In case BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the
permanent magnet moves.
 When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes
electromagnet and starts producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source
of supply is DC, switching makes to generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal
shape. Due to the force of interaction between electromagnet stator and permanent
magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate.
 Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with
rotor position. Since the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the
stator windings should be energized in sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before
energizing a particular stator winding, acknowledgment of rotor position is necessary.
So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor position.
1.3 Applications of BLDC Motor

 Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players

 Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles
 Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems
 Washing machines, compressors and dryers
 Fans, pumps and blowers

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2. Stepper Motor
 A stepper motor is a brushless electromechanical device that converts a series of
electric pulses applied to its excitation windings into precisely defined, step-by-step
mechanical shaft rotations.
 The motor’s shaft rotates through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse, with this
rotation being either linear or angular. A single pulse input results in a one-step
movement.
 The angle through which the stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is known as
the step angle, typically expressed in degrees
 The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the step angle and hence the
position of motor shaft is controlled by controlling the number of pulses. This
unique feature makes the stepper motor to be well suitable for open-loop control
system wherein the precise position of the shaft is maintained with exact number of
pulses without using a feedback sensor.
 If the step angle is smaller, the greater will be the number of steps per revolutions
and higher will be the accuracy of the position obtained.
 The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of pulses applied to the
stator. The speed of the shaft or the average motor speed is directly proportional to
the frequency (the rate of input pulses) of input pulses being applied at excitation
windings.
2.1 Construction and Working of Stepper Motor
 Like all electric motors, it has stator and rotor. The rotor is the movable part which has
no windings, brushes and a commutator. Usually the rotors are either variable
reluctance or permanent magnet kind. The stator is often constructed with multipole
and multiphase windings, usually of three or four phase windings wound for a required
number of poles decided by desired angular displacement per input pulse.
 Unlike other motors it operates on a programmed discrete control pulses that are applied
to the stator windings via an electronic drive. The rotation occurs due to the magnetic
interaction between poles of sequentially energized stator winding and poles of the
rotor.

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2.3 Applications:
1. Automation: Stepper motors are used in automated production equipment, automotive
gauges, and industrial machines like packaging, labeling, filling, and cutting, etc.
2. 3D Printing: Stepper motors are commonly used in 3D printers to control the movement of
the print head and build platform, allowing for precise control over the printing process.
3. CNC Machines: Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines use stepper motors to
control the movement of cutting tools and other components, allowing for precise and
repeatable machining operations.
4. Robotics: Stepper motors are widely used in robotics for controlling the movement of robot
arms, legs, and other components, providing precise control over the robot’s motion.
5. Automotive: Stepper motors are used in automotive applications for controlling various
systems, such as fuel injection, idle speed control, and headlight positioning.
6. Medical Devices: Stepper motors are used in various medical devices, such as samples,
respirators, fluid pumps, blood analysis machinery, medical scanners, fluid and infusion
pumps, and medical imaging equipment, for precise control over movement and
positioning.
7. Textile Machinery: Stepper motors are used in textile machinery for controlling the
movement of the fabric, yarn, and other components, allowing for precise control over the
manufacturing process.
8. Security and Camera Systems: Stepper motors are used in security devices such as
security and surveillance cameras systems for controlling the movement of lenses and other
components, allowing for automatic zoom, precise focusing and positioning.
9. Consumer Electronics: Stepper motors are used in consumer electronics, such as printers,
image scanners, photocopiers, digital cameras and disk drives, for controlling the movement
of components and devices.
10. Heavy Load Applications: Stepper motors are also used in elevators, conveyor belts, and
lane diverters.

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3. Domestic wiring
Definition: Domestic wiring may be defined as Wiring done in domestic premises (houses),
for providing electrical power for lighting, fans and domestic appliances with all the safety
precautions followed is called domestic wiring.

Types of Wiring Systems

1. Cleat Wiring
2. Casing and Capping
3. Conduit Wiring

1. Cleat Wiring
 Insulated conductors are supported on or wooden cleats.
 The cleats have two halves one base and the other cap.
 The cables are placed in the grooves provided in the base and then the cap is placed.
 Both are fixed securely on the walls by long screws.
 This wiring is suitable for temporary installations where cost is the main criteria.

Fig 3.1: Layout of Cleat wiring system

Advantages:
 Easy installation.
 Materials can be retrieved for reuse.
 Flexibility provided for inspection, modifications and expansion.
 Relatively economical.
 Skilled manpower not required.
Disadvantages:
 Appearance is not good

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 Open system of wiring requiring regular cleaning

 Higher risk of mechanical injury.

2. Casing and Capping

 Insulated conductors laid inside PVC boxes having grooves inside.
 A rectangular strip of wood called capping having same width as that of casing is fixed
over it.
 Both the casing and the capping are screwed together at every 15 cms. Casing is attached
to the wall.
 Two or more wires of same polarity are drawn through different grooves. The system is
suitable for indoor and domestic installations.

Fig 3.1: Layout of Casing & capping wiring system

Advantages:
 Cheaper than lead sheathed and conduit wiring.
 Provides good isolation as the conductors are placed apart reducing the risk of short
circuit.
 Easily accessible for inspection and repairs.
 Since the wires are not exposed to atmosphere, insulation is less affected by dust, dirt
and climatic variations.

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Disadvantages:
 Highly inflammable.
 Usage of unseasoned wood gets damaged by termites.
 Skilled workmanship required.

3. Conduit Wiring

 Surface conduit wiring: Cables run through PVC pipes providing good protection
against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit.
 Concealed conduit wiring: Concealed wiring refers to the installation of electrical
conduit inside walls, ceilings, or floors, in a way that the wiring is hidden from view. This
type of electrical wiring is covered with plaster or similar material so that it is not visible
once the surface is finished.
 The system is best suited for public buildings, industries and workshops.

Surface conduit wiring

Concealed conduit wiring

Advantages:
 No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.
 The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
 Earthing and continuity is assured.
 Waterproof and troubleshooting is easy.
 Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
 Durable and maintenance free
 Aesthetic in appearance

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Disadvantages:
 Very expensive system of wiring.
 Requires good skilled workmanship.
 Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
 Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of water in tubes).

Fuse:
A fuse is a small electrical safety device that plays a crucial role and operates to provide
overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit, thus ensuring safety and preventing
appliances from damage. An important component of an electrical fuse is a metal wire
or strip that melts when excess current flows through it, therefore a fuse wire is chosen
such that it has a low melting point.

The construction of a fuse is simple and typically consists of:

 Fuse Element: It’s a metallic wire that melts when subjected to excessive amount of
current.
 Fuse Body: The fuse element is enclosed by the fuse body.
 Fuse Caps or Terminals: These are end metallic terminals of a fuse that connects
the wire.
 Fusible Link (in some cases): A wire designed to melt quickly for circuit
interruption.
 Blowout Vent (in some cases): A vent to release pressure in high-current or high-
voltage fuses.
Fuse Working Principle:
An electric fuse operates on the heating effect of current theory and follows that current flows
in a loop and if there is a break in a loop ,electric charges cannot flow through it . Electric
Fuse is made up of thin metallic wire which is non-flammable and has low melting point.
When excessive amount of heat is passed through the fuse, it melts down which leads to
opening of circuits and the blockage of current. The melted fuse then can be replaced with
new one. Basically, if large amount of electricity flows through a fuse (larger amount of
electricity than the capacity of the fuse to bear), it heats up so much that it starts to melt.

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Fuse is normally made up of zinc, Aluminium, copper and silver. A fuse is a circuit
breaker that cut the power supply when fault occurs. It acts as a shield for Electric appliances
and also a safety measure for humans.

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker):

All fuses should be replaced with MCBs (Miniature Circuit Breakers) for enhanced safety and
control once they have fulfilled their purpose. Unlike a fuse, an MCB operates as an automatic
switch that opens in the event of excessive current flowing through the circuit. Once the circuit
returns to normal, it can be reclosed without the need for manual replacement.
An MCB, or Miniature Circuit Breaker, is an electromechanical device designed to
automatically protect electrical circuits from short circuit, overloads, and overcurrent’s.

Working and Operation of MCBs:

Under normal working conditions, an MCB operates as a manual switch to turn the circuit ON
or OFF. In the event of an overload or short circuit, it automatically trips to interrupt the current
flow in the load circuit.
Under overload conditions, the current passing through the bimetal causes its temperature to
rise. The heat generated within the bimetal itself is sufficient to cause deflection due to the
thermal expansion of metals. This deflection further releases the trip latch, leading to the
separation of contacts.

Fig: Tripping Mechanism thermal tripping arrangement

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Fig: Tripping Mechanism magnetic tripping arrangement

Under short circuit or heavy overload conditions, the magnetic tripping arrangement comes
into play. During normal working conditions, the slug is held in position by a light spring
because the magnetic field generated by the coil is not sufficient to attract the latch.
When a fault current flows, the magnetic field generated by the coil becomes strong enough to
overcome the spring force holding the slug in position. Consequently, the slug moves and
actuates the tripping mechanism.
Most miniature circuit breakers implement a combination of both magnetic and thermal
tripping mechanisms. In both magnetic and thermal tripping operations, an arc is formed when
the contacts start separating. This arc is then directed into arc splitter plates via an arc runner.

MCB

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Relay: A simple electromagnetic switch is a relay that can be used to make or break an
electrical connection. Basically, the relay is just like a mechanical switch, but we can control
it with an electromagnetic signal instead of manually turning it on or off.

Fig: Relay circuit diagram

Construction:
 In controlling circuits, relays involve several parts working in together. The
electromagnet is an iron piece that is movable and only attracted when the coil
becomes magnetized because of the current flow through it is connected to an armature
that is a coil of wire and a spring which returns it to its original position.
 Relay is a metal part which depends on the position of the armature to open or close the
circuit. There are two types of relay Normally open (NO) and Normally Closed (NC).
The Yoke is used to give the magnetic flux produced by the electromagnet a low
resistance path.

Working:

A control coil surrounds the iron core. The electromagnet starts energizing when the current
flows through the control coil then intensifies the magnetic field. The electromagnet becomes
connected to the power source through the contacts to the load and a control switch. The upper
contact arm becomes attracted to the lower fixed arm and then closes the contacts that result in
a short circuit. The contact then moves in the opposite direction and creates an open circuit
once the relay has been de-energized.
The movable armature will return to its initial position when the coil current is off. The force
that causes its movement will be almost the same as the half strength of the magnetic force.
Spring and gravity provide this force.

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Earthing:

 It is a safety measure against the unwarranted fluctuations of electricity that can lead to
damage to life and property. In this method, the electric circuit is physically conceded
to the ground. The wires these days have three components mostly. Live wire, Neutral
wire, and the Earth wire. In earthing the Earth wire is connected to the ground.
 If somebody touches the wire or any device which has current by mistake, then he may
get shocked. But this earthing wire discharge the current towards the earth. Earthing
also safe our appliances from the lighting, any extra charge will be passed to the earth.
 Usually, the earthing system is placed below the ground in soil.

Necessity of Earthing:

Secures the safety of human beings from the excessive amount of electric shock.
It guarantees the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive
amount of electric current.
Assures safety from the fire that may be occurred from the current leakage.
It provides the way to default current even after the failure of the insulation.
It protects the appliances from high voltage surges and lightning discharge.
It provides an alternative path for leakage of current.
Earthing keeps the voltage constant in the healthy phase.
It protects the Electric system and buildings from lightning.
Earthing avoids the risk of fire in the electrical installation system.

Symbol of Earthing:
Earthing in a circuit is depicted by the following symbol:

Fig:1 symbol of earthing

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Types of Earthing: Mainly there can be Five types of earth

1. Pipe Earthing - In this type, a pipe is grounded in the earth.
2. Plate Earthing - In this type, a copper plate is placed inside the earth, it is considered
one of the best kinds of earth.
3. Strip Earthing - It is done for transmission lines. The rocky ground is necessary for
this kind of the earth.
4. Coil Earthing - It is used in very small quantities. Galvanized Iron wire is used in this.
5. Rod Earthing - It is used in areas where moisture is very high. In sandy areas, the earth
is dug deep and used as a pipe in this kind of the earth.

Grounding:
It is similar to the earthing process, however, there are certain differences. In this process, the
current-carrying part of the circuit is connected to the ground. The live wire of the circuit is
connected to the supply and the neutral wire is connected to the earth. Electric equipment is
grounded in a manner that the voltage difference between the ground and device will be zero.
It saves the devices such as transformers, and generators from faults. Since during the fault, the
phases become unbalanced and the grounding provides a passage to extra current.
Symbol of Grounding

Similar to the earthing the grounding also has a symbol in a circuit. It is denoted by the
following

Fig:2 Symbol of grounding

Types of Grounding

The main types of grounding are the following -

 Solid grounding system - It is very useful in industrial power systems. In sold

grounding system the neutral wire is connected to the ground. This system easily locates
the faults.

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 Resistance grounding - It has two types - High resistance grounding and low resistance
grounding. In high resistance grounding a high resistance is placed between the ground
and the neutral point of the low voltage transformer.
In Low resistance grounding, the small resistor is connected between conductor and
ground. It is used as a Load.
 Reactance grounding - In this type of grounding, a reactor is used between the ground
and the neutral point. These days it is not used very much since it is not useful during
ground faults.
 Resonant grounding - A coil is used in this kind of grounding. The coil is connected
to an underground three-phase system. The coil is connected with each phase ground
in a series connection. It is based on the LC circuit and is also known as Peterson
grounding.

Differences between grounding and Eathing:

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Electric shocks, hazardous & safety precautions

Electrical shock occurs when a body becomes a part of an electric circuit, either when an
individual comes in contact with a live wire or in contact with an energized metallic part.
Direct Contact: where the person come directly in contact with a live wire.
Indirect Contact: where the person comes in contact with the metallic body of an appliance,
which has become conductive due to an insulation failure or fault.
Hazards of Electric shock:
 SHOCK: Electric shock occurs when the human body becomes part of the path through
which current flows.
 BURNS: Burns can result when a person touches electrical wiring or equipment that is
energized.
 ARC-BLAST: Arc-blasts occur from high- amperage currents arcing through the air.
This can be caused by accidental contact with energized components or equipment
failure.
 EXPLOSIONS: Explosions occur when electricity provides a source of ignition for an
explosive mixture in the atmosphere.
 FIRES: Electricity is one of the most common causes of fires both in the home and in
the workplace. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major cause.

Safety Precautions:
 Insulation of the conductors used must be proper and in good condition.
 Periodically Megger tests should be conducted and insulation must be checked.
 Earth connection should be always maintained in proper condition.
 Make the mains supply switch off and remove the fuses before starting work with any
electrical installations.
 Fuses and circuit breakers must have correct ratings
 Use dry rubber soled shoes while working.
 Use rubber gloves while touching any terminals or removing insulation layer from a
conductor
 Use a line tester to check whether a live terminal carries any current still better method
is to use a test lamp.
 Always use insulated screw drivers, pliers, line testers etc.
 Never touch two different terminals at the same time.
 Never remove the plug by pulling the wires connected to it
 The sockets should be fixed at a height beyond the reach of the children.
 Never touch the switch, sockets and any other electrical appliance with wet hand.
 For more sensitive equipment, use RCCB or ELCB

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5.5 Standards of wiring as per BIS

The general rules for interior wiring are:
 No lighting circuit should contain more than 20 point or 800-watt load.
 Switches must always connect to phase wire only.
 Each circuit should be provided with a separate cutout in the distribution board
for their live wires.
 When the total load exceeds 8KWfor lighting only 3 phase circuit to be
considered.
Rule 29: Construction, Installation, protection, operation and maintenance of electric
supply lines and apparatus.
 All electric supply lines and apparatus shall be of sufficient mechanical strengthened
size for work. They may be required to do and shall be constructed, installed and
protected in accordance with ISI specifications.
Rule 30: Service lines and apparatus on consumer’s premises.
 The supplier shall ensure that all electric lines, wires, fittings and apparatus
belonging to him or under his control which are on a consumer’s premises are
in safe condition and in all respect fit for supplying for energy and supplier and
supplier shall take due precautions to avoid danger arising on such premises
from such supply lines, fittings and apparatus.
Rule 31: Cut-out on consumer’s premises
 The supplier shall provide a suitable cutout in in each conductor of every service line
other than an earthed or earthed neutral conductor or the earthed external conductor of
a concentric cable within a consumer’s premises in an accessible position. Such cutout
shall be contained within an adequately enclosed fire proof receptacle.
 When more than one consumer is supplied through a consumer service line, each of
such consumer shall be provided with an independent cutout at the point of junction to
the common service.
 The owner of every electric supply line other than the earthed pr the earthed neutral
conductor of any system or the earthed external conductor of a concentric cable, shall
protect it by a suitable cutout.

Rule 50: Supply to consumers.

 The supplier shall not commence or continue to give supply of energy to any consumer
unless:
 A suitable linked switch or a circuit breaker of requisite capacity to carry and break the
current is placed as near as possible to.

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