LET'S LEARN

COMPLETE SQL IN ONE VIDEO

-By Riti Kumari
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Database : Collection of data is called as database.

DBMS: A software application to manage our data.

User Software Application

Database
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Database

Relational(Use tables to store data) Non-relational(Data is not stored in tables)

MySQL MongoDb
Oracle
MariaDB,
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Why SQL?

We need a language to interact with databases.

So we use SQL to interact with DB, do some CRUD operations on the data.

Then what is MySQL?

MySQL is a specific Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that uses

SQL as its querying language.
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History of SQL ( Structured Query Language)

SQL originated in the 1970s from IBM's research on relational

databases. It started as SEQUEL, later renamed SQL due to
trademark issues.

I
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SQL ( Structured Query Language)

SQL is a programming language that is used to communicate and

manipulate data in databases.

It helps user in performing CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete)

operations in DB.

I
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How SQL helps us ?

SQL allows users to perform a variety of tasks related to databases

Retrieving Data: Extracting precise information from a database through

queries.
Manipulating Data: Adding, modifying, or removing records within a
database.
Defining Data: Creating and adjusting the structure of a database,
including tables, views, and indexes.
Controlling Data: Managing database access by granting or revoking
permissions.
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Installation of MySQL

MySQL Server : Database server where data is stored, managed, and

accessed.

MySQL WorkBench : It is a visual tool which is used for database design,

development, administration, and management.
It provides a user interface (UI) to interact with MySQL Server.
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Lets install the Server first :

Go to the MySQL Official website: https://www.mysql.com/

Go to Downloads
Select MySQL Community (GPL) Downloads at the bottom of the page.
Choose MySQL Community Server, select the version and click on
download
Follow the instructions and set the root password. This password
would be asked while creating a new connection.
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Lets install the WorkBench :

Go to the MySQL Official website: https://www.mysql.com/

Go to Downloads
Select MySQL Community (GPL) Downloads at the bottom of the page.
Choose MySQL Workbench, select the version and click on download
Follow the instructions .
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Types of SQL Commands

SQL commands are divided into different categories based on their functionalities.

1.Data Query Language (DQL) Commands

2.Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands
3.Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands
4.Data Control Language (DCL) Commands
5.Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands
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Types of SQL Commands

1.Data Query Language (DQL) Commands

DQL is used to retrieve data from the database
Commands: SELECT

2.Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands

DML is used to manipulate data stored in the database.
Commands: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
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Types of SQL Commands

3.Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands

DDL is used to define the structure and schema of the database.
Commands: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME

4.Data Control Language (DCL) Commands

DCL deals with the control and security of data within the database.
Commands: GRANT, REVOKE
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Types of SQL Commands

5.Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands

TCL is used to manage transactions within a database.
Commands: COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT
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Creation of Database

Lets understand database design from an example, Consider a college

database.

Databse- School
table1- Student (Sname, Rollno)
table2-Teacher(Tname,Tid)

Sname, Rollno, Tname, Tid->attributes(characteristics)

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Creation of Database

School Hospital

Patient
Course Fees
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Creation of Database

Steps to create a Database :

1. Choose a DBMS(Database Management System )
2. Connect to the server using a command-line tool or a graphical user interface.
3. Create a new Database
4. Once the database is created, you can use the USE statement to create
tables in the database.
5. Create Tables and Insert Data
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Creation of Database
Creating a new Database
We use the CREATE DATABASE statement to create a new database
These commands are not case-sensitive.

Command: CREATE DATABASE databaseName;

Also to avoid errors we can use:

Command: CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS databaseName;

IF NOT EXISTS and IF EXISTS clauses are commonly used in conjunction with the
CREATE TABLE and DROP TABLE statements to avoid errors
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Deletion of Database

Deleting a Database
We use the DROP DATABASE statement to delete a database.
Dropping a database means deleting the entire database, including all tables,
data, and other objects within it. DROP Is a DDL Command.
These commands are not case-sensitive.

Command: DROP DATABASE databaseName;

Also to avoid errors we can use:

Command : DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS databaseName;
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Using a Database

Using a Database
We use the USE DATABASE statement to use a database
These commands are not case-sensitive.

Command: USE databaseName;

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Showing all the Database

Showing a Database
We use the SHOW DATABASES statement to see all the databses present in a
server.

Command: SHOW DATABASES;

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Table
Creating a table
We use the CREATE TABLE statement to craete a table in DB.

Command:

CREATE TABLE TableName (

Column1 DataType1 Constraint1,
Column2 DataType2 Constraint2,
Column3 DataType3 Constraint3,
-- additional columns if needed
);
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Creating a table
employee
CREATE- DDL Command
empId name salary
Example:

CREATE TABLE employee (

empId INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
salary INT
);
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Inserting values into table

INSERT- DML Command

INSERT INTO tableName (Column1, Column2... ColumnN)

VALUES (value1,value2.......valuen)
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Inserting values into table

employee
INSERT- DML Command
empId name salary
Example:
1 Raj 1200
INSERT INTO employee
(empId,name,salary) 2 Rahul 1100
VALUES
3 Ram 1100
(1,”Raj”,1200),
(2,”Rahul”,1100),
(3,”Riti”,1100);
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Inserting values into table

employee
INSERT- DML Command
empId name salary
Example:
1 Raj 1200
INSERT INTO employee VALUES
(1,”Raj”,1200), 2 Rahul 1100
(2,”Rahul”,1100),
3 Ram 1100
(3,”Riti”,1100);
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Seeing tables in a given Database

employee
SHOW
empId name salary
Example:
1 Raj 1200
SHOW TABLES;
2 Rahul 1100

It helps us to see all the tables in a

3 Ram 1100
given databse.
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To see all the values in table

employee

SELECT empId name salary

Example: 1 Raj 1200

To see specific values of a column:
SELECT empId FROM employee; 2 Rahul 1100

To see all the values or the entire table 3 Ram 1100

SELECT * FROM employee;

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Let’s Create a Database for Instagram

Step 1: Create a database

CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS instagramDb;

Step 2: Use the database to create tables

USE instagramDb;
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Step 3 : Create tables into the db

CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (

userId INT PRIMARY KEY,
userName VARCHAR(50)
email VARCHAR(100)
);

CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS posts (

postId INT PRIMARY KEY,
userId INT,
caption VARCHAR(100) ,
);
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Step 3 : Insert Values in the tables

INSERT INTO users (userId, userName, email)

VALUES
(1, “riti“, “abc@gmail.com),
(1, “raj“, “xyz@gmail.com),
(1, “rahul“, “abc2@gmail.com);

INSERT INTO posts (postId, userId, caption)

VALUES
(101, 561, ”light”),
(102, 562, ”air”),
(103, 563, ”water”);
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Step 4 : You can see all the tables in the db

USE DATABASE instagramDb;

SHOW TABLES;

Step 5: All the values in a specific table

SELECT * FROM users;

SELECT * FROM posts;
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Datatypes in SQL
Data types are used to specify the type of data that a column can store.

Numeric Character/ String Date & Time Boolean Binary

INTEGER/ INT CHAR(n) DATE BOOLEAN BINARY(n)

SMALLINT VARCHAR(n) TIME VARBINARY(n)
BIGINT TEXT DATETIME BLOB
DECIMAL TIMESTAMP
FLOAT
DOUBLE
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Datatypes
Numeric Datatypes
1. INT - Used for storing whole numbers without decimal points.
(-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 (signed integer)

2. BIGINT - Used for storing large whole numbers. (-9,223,372,036,854,775,808

to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807)

3. FLOAT- Used for storing decimal numbers. (4-byte)

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Datatypes
Numeric Datatypes
3. FLOAT- Used for storing decimal numbers. (4-byte)

4. DOUBLE- Used for storing decimal numbers. (8-byte)

5. DECIMAL(p, s) - Used for exact numeric representation. p is the precision and s is the
scale.

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

id INT
);
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Datatypes
Numeric Datatypes
By default all the numeric datatypes can have negative as well as positive values. This
restrict the range so if we know there is only +ve values which is stored we use UNSIGNED
attribute (0-255).
for eg- salary can never be in negative or age

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

id INT UNSIGNED
);
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Datatypes
Character Datatypes
1. CHAR(n)- Fixed-length character strings can be stored. (0-255)

2.VARCHAR(n) - Variable-length character strings can be stored.(0-255)

3.TEXT- Variable-length character string with no specified limit.

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

name VARCHAR(50)
);
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Datatypes
Date & Time Datatypes
1. DATE- Used for storing date values. (YYYY-MM-DD)

2.TIME - Used for storing time values. (hh:mm:ss)

3.DATETIME/TIMESTAMP- Used for storing date and time values. (yyyy-mm-dd

hh:mm:ss)

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

createdTs TIMESTAMP
);
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Datatypes
Boolean Datatypes
1. BOOLEAN- Used to store a true or false value.

Command :

CREATE TABLE example1 (

isActive BOOLEAN
);
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Datatypes
Binary Datatypes
1. BINARY(n)- Used for fixed-length binary data.

2.VARBINARY(n)- Used for storing variable-length binary data.

3.BLOB (Binary Large Object)- Used for storing large amounts of binary data.(var len)

Command :

CREATE TABLE document (

data BLOB
);
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Constraints in SQL
Constraints - Constraints define rules or conditions that must be satisfied by the
data in the table.
Common constraints include uniqueness, nullability, default values, etc.

Unique constraint: Ensures values in a column are unique across the table.
Not null constraint: Ensures a column cannot have a null value.
Check constraint: Enforces a condition to be true for each row.
Default constraint: Provides a default value for a column if no value is specified.
Primary key : Enforces the uniqueness of values in one or more columns
Foreign key: Enforces a link between two tables by referencing a column in one
table that is a primary key in another table.
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Constraints in SQL
Unique constraint:
CREATE TABLE example1 (
phoneNbr INT UNIQUE);

Not null constraint:

CREATE TABLE example1 (
address VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL );

Check constraint:
CREATE TABLE example1 (
age INT CHECK (age >= 18));

Default constraint:
CREATE TABLE example1 (
enrolled VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT 'no' );
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Constraints in SQL

Primary key constraint:

CREATE TABLE employee ( id INT PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(255) );
or
CREATE TABLE employee (
id INT ,
name VARCHAR(255)
PRIMARY KEY (id)
);

Foreign key constraint:

CREATE TABLE orders (
orderItemNo INT PRIMARY KEY,
custId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (custId) REFERENCES customer(custId) );
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Keys in SQL

Primary key- A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in the table.
It ensures that each row can be uniquely identified and accessed within the
table.

Foreign key-A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key of
another table. It establishes relationships between tables.
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Primary Key : A primary key is a key which uniquely identifies each record in a table.
It ensures that each tuple or record can be uniquely identified within the table.
It is always Unique+ Not null

ID Name Hometown

123 Rahul KOLKATA

245 Raj KOLKATA

434 Riti DELHI

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Foreign Key : A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key in
another table. It establishes a relationship between two tables.

Student Subject
(Base/referenced table) (referencing table)
Roll Roll
Name Hometown Name subject
no no

1 Rahul KOLKATA 1 Rahul Maths

2 Raj KOLKATA 2 Raj SST

3 Riti DELHI 3 Riti Science

Primary key Foreign key

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Referenced table - Table having primary key (pk)
Referencing table- Table having foreign key(fk)

Student Subject
(Base/referenced table) (referencing table)

Roll Roll subject

Name Hometown subject
no no id

1 Rahul KOLKATA 1 s1 Maths

2 Raj KOLKATA 2 s2 SST

3 Riti DELHI 3 s3 Science

Primary key Foreign key

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Foreign Key

id Name course_id course_id name teacher id

100 Hindi Ram 1

1 Rahul 100

101 Maths Mohan 2

2 Raj 101

102 English Priya 3

3 Riti 102

Student Course
Base/referenced/parent table Refrencing/child table
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Foreign Key

Foreign key helps to perform operations related to the parent table, such as joining
tables or ensuring referential integrity.

Query :

CREATE TABLE childtableName (

childId INT PRIMARY KEY,
baseId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (baseId) REFERENCES baseTableName(baseId)
);
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Cascading in Foreign Key
Cascading are a set of rules which dictate what actions should be taken
automatically when a referenced row in the parent table is modified or deleted.

1.CASCADE: If a row in the parent table is updated or deleted, all related

rows in the child table will be automatically updated or deleted.

2.SET NULL: If a row in the parent table is updated or deleted, all

corresponding foreign key values in the child table will be set to NULL.

3.RESTRICT or NO ACTION: Blocks the modification or deletion of a

referenced row in the parent table if related rows exist in the child table,
thus maintaining referential integrity.
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Cascading in Foreign Key

These cascading actions help maintain the integrity of the data across related
tables in the database.

1.ON DELETE CASCADE

2.ON UPDATE CASCADE
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Cascading in Foreign Key

1.ON DELETE CASCADE : The ON DELETE CASCADE clause indicates that if a

row in the parent table (parent_table) is deleted, all corresponding rows in the
child table (child_table) will be automatically deleted as well.

QUERY:
CREATE TABLE childtableName (
childId INT PRIMARY KEY,
baseId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (baseId) REFERENCES baseTableName(baseId)
ON DELETE CASCADE
);
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Cascading in Foreign Key

2.ON UPDATE CASCADE : The ON UPDATE CASCADE clause indicates that if a

row in the parent table (parent_table) is updated, all corresponding rows in the
child table (child_table) will be automatically updated as well.

QUERY :
CREATE TABLE childtableName (
childId INT PRIMARY KEY,
baseId INT,
FOREIGN KEY (baseId) REFERENCES parenttableName(childId)
ON UPDATE CASCADE
);
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Lets make a database for all SQL commands
Let‘s make a Database for a Company
Requirements :

1. Make a database for a company xyz

CREATE DATABASE xyz;

2.Make an employee table in the xyz database.

CREATE TABLE employee(

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
age INT,
department VARCHAR(50)
city VARCHAR(50),
salary INT);
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Retrieving data from table

3. Fill details in the table

INSERT INTO employee(id,name,age,department,city,salary)

VALUES
(1, ”rahul” , 25 , “IT” , ”Mumbai”, 1500),
(2, ”afsara” , 26 , “HR” , “Pune, 2000),
(3, “abhimanyu” , 27 , “IT” , “Mumbai” , 2500),
(4, “aditya” , 25 , “Marketing” , “Surat” , 2400),
(5, “raj” , 24, “Finance” , “Indore”, 1500);

4. See all the data in the table

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UPDATE Command

The UPDATE command in SQL is used to modify existing records in a table.

If you get a safe mode error while executing queries run this query

QUERY: SET SQL_SAFE_UPDATES=0;

QUERY :
UPDATE table_name
SET columnName1= value1(to be set) , columnName2 =value2(to be set)
WHERE condition;
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UPDATE Command (Practice Question)

1.Write a query to update the salary for all employees in the 'HR’ department to 50000.

QUERY :
UPDATE employee
SET salary = 50000
WHERE department = “HR”;
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UPDATE Command (Practice Question)

2. Write a query to update the name of an employee from raaj to raj .

QUERY :
UPDATE employee
SET name = “raj”
WHERE name = “raaj”;
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DELETE Command

The DELETE command in SQL is used to remove records from a table.

QUERY:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
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DELETE Command (Practice Question)

1. Write a query to DELETE all records from the employee table where the department is
'HR'

QUERY :
DELETE FROM employee
WHERE department = “HR”;
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DELETE Command (Practice Question)

2. Write a query to DELETE the record of an employee having name as raj

QUERY :
DELETE FROM employee
WHERE name = “raj”;
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Retrieving data from table

SELECT command - Select is a DQL(Data Query Language) Command. It is

used to retrieve data from a database.

We can provide specific columns from which we can retrive data.

SELECT colmn1 , colmn2 FROM tableName; -> to retrieve data present in

specific column in a table

SELECT * FROM tableName; -> to retrieve all the data present in table
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Filtering data using the WHERE clause

WHERE clause - It filters the rows based on specified conditions.

QUERY : SELECT col1 col2 FROM tableName WHERE condition;

ex : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

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SQL Commands

DQL DML DDL

INSERT CREATE
SELECT
UPDATE ALTER
DELETE DROP
TRUNCATE
RENAME
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ALTER Command

ALTER command - ALTER is a DDL command used to modify(change)

existing database objects, such as tables, indexes, or constraints(schema)

Let’s see all the things ALTER can help us to do. So mostly it is used to modify
the schema, so we will mostly see how it can help in modification of columns
like - addition of new column, deletion of column, modification of column and
much more
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ALTER Command
1. ADD a column

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
ADD columnName datatype constraint ;

2. Drop a column

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
DROP COLUMN columnName ;
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ALTER Command
3. Modify the data type of an existing column
MODIFY clause : The MODIFY clause is oftenly used within an ALTER TABLE
statement in SQL. It allows us to change the definition or properties of an
existing column in a table.

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
MODIFY columnName newdatatype ;

The above command modifies columnName to a new dataType.

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ALTER Command
4. Change the name of an existing columng
CHANGE : The CHANGE command is oftenly used within an ALTER TABLE
statement in SQL. It helps to change the name or data type of a column
within a table.

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
CHANGE oldcolumnName newcolumnName newdatatype;

The above command changes the oldcolumnName to newcolumnName and

also its datatype
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ALTER Command
4. Rename the name of an existing columng
RENAME COMMAND : RENAME command is used to change the name of an
existing database object, such as a table, column, index, or constraint.

Query :
ALTER TABLE tableName
RENAME COLUMN oldcolumnName TO newcolumnName ;

The above command renames the oldcolumnN th to newcolumnName

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RENAME Command
RENAME : RENAME command is used to change the name of an existing
database object, such as a table, column, index, or constraint.

Query (Table Renaming) :

RENAME TABLE oldTableName TO newTableName ;

The above command renames the oldTableName to newTableName

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RENAME Command
Query (Column Renaming ) :
ALTER TABLE tablename
RENAME COLUMN oldcolumnname TO newcolumnname;

The above command renames the oldcolumnName to newcolumnName

Query (Database Renaming) :

RENAME DATABASE olddatabasename TO newdatabasename;
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TRUNCATE Command

TRUNCATE command - This command removes all rows from the given
table, leaving the table empty but preserving its structure,

QUERY :
TRUNCATE TABLE tableName;
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Difference Between TRUNCATE, DELETE and DROP

TRUNCATE DELETE DROP

Used to remove specific rows from

remove all rows from a table Used to completely remove table
a table based on a condition

TRUNCATE TABLE tablename; DELETE FROM tablename

DROP TABLE tablename;
WHERE condition;
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Using DISTINCT to retrieve unique values

DISTINCT - DISTINCT keyword is used within the SELECT statement to retrieve unique
values from a column or combination of columns.

Query :
SELECT DISTINCT col1
-> retrieve a list of unique values for col1
FROM tableName;

SELECT DISTINCT col1, col2 ->return unique combinations of col1 & col2
FROM tableName;
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Operators in SQL

To perform operations on data in SQL we use operators.

QUERY : SELECT col1 col2 FROM tableName WHERE condition(use operator);

Types of operators in SQL:

Arithmetic Operators : addition (+) ,subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division

(/) , modulus (%)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age+1 =60;

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Operators in SQL

Comparison Operators : equal to (=) , not equal to (<> or !=) , greater than (>)
less than (<), greater than or equal to (>=), less than or equal to (<=)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

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Operators in SQL
Logical Operators

1. AND : It combines two conditions and returns true if both are true

QUERY: SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city= 'Pune' AND age > 18;

2. OR : It combines two conditions and returns true if either is true

QUERY: SELECT * FROM employee WHERE city= 'Pune' OR age > 18;

3. NOT: It reverses the result of a condition, returns true if the condition is false

QUERY: SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department NOT IN ('IT', 'HR');

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Operators in SQL

IN Operator : IN(Checks if a value matches in a list of values)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department IN ('IT', 'HR');

IS NULL / IS NOT NULL Operators : IS NULL (checks for null values) , IS NOT
NULL(checks for not null values)

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE department IS NOT NULL;

Bitwise Operators: AND(&), OR(|)

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Operators in SQL

LIKE & Wildcard Operators : LIKE operator is used to search for a specified
pattern in a column. It uses wildcard operators for matching patterns.

1. % (percent sign): It matches for any sequence of zero or more characters.

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE name LIKE 'A%';

2. _ (underscore): It matches for any single character.

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE name LIKE '_A%';

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Operators in SQL

BETWEEN Operator : Checks if a value is within a range of values.

QUERY : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary BETWEEN 1200 AND 1500;
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Clauses in SQL

Clauses are like tools/conditions that helps us to make queries more specific
or decide what data to fetch.

Ex- WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING , ORDER BY, LIMIT

QUERY : SELECT col1 ,col2

FROM tableName
clause condition;
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WHERE clause

WHERE clause - It filters the rows based on specified conditions.

QUERY : SELECT col1 ,col2

FROM tableName
WHERE condition;

ex : SELECT * FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

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LIMIT CLAUSE

LIMIT clause - The LIMIT clause in SQL is used to restrict the number of rows
returned by a query.

This query retrieves the first n rows from the table.

QUERY :
SELECT col1 , col2 FROM tableName
LIMIT noOfRows;

ex : SELECT * FROM employee LIMIT 2;

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Sorting data with the ORDER BY clause.

ORDER BY clause - It is used to sort the results in ascending or descending

order. By default it returns the result in ascending order

This query retrieves the first n rows from the table.

QUERY :
SELECT col1 , col2 FROM tableName
ORDER BY col1 (ASC/DESC), col2 (ASC/DESC)

ex : SELECT * FROM employee ORDER BY salary DESC;

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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having id as 1

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE id=1;
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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having id as 1 and city
as MUMBAI

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE id=1 AND city = “MUMBAI”;
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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having salary greater
than 1200 and city as MUMBA a.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE salary>1200 AND city = “MUMBAI”;
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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees who are not from
MUMBAI.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE city NOT IN ( “MUMBAI”);
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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of employees having the maximum
salary.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
ORDER BY salary DESC;
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Practice question

Write a SQL Query to fetch the details of 2 employees having the

maximum salary.

QUERY :
SELECT * FROM employee
ORDER BY salary DESC
LIMIT 2;
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Aggregate Functions
Aggregate functions performs some operations on a set of rows and then returns a
single value summarizing the data. These are used with SELECT statements to
perform calculations

Types of Aggregate functions :

COUNT()
SUM()
AVG()
MIN()
MAX()
GROUP_CONCAT()
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Aggregate Functions

COUNT() - It counts the number of rows in a table or the number of non-null values
in a column.
This counts how many things are in a list or a group.

Query : SELECT count(name) FROM employee ; -> this will tell the number of
employees in a company
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Aggregate Functions

SUM() - It calculates the sum of all values in a numeric column.

This adds up all the numbers in a list.

Query : SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the total amount
company is paying to its employees
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Aggregate Functions

AVG() - It computes the average of all values in a numeric column.

It finds the average, or the "middle" number, of all the numbers in a list.

Query : SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the avg amount
company is paying to its employees
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Aggregate Functions

MIN() - It helps to find the smallest number in a list.

Query : SELECT MIN(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the minimumn
salary company is paying to its employees
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Aggregate Functions

MAX() - It finds the maximum value in a column.

Query : SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employee ; -> this willl tell the max salary
company is paying to its employees
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Grouping data with the GROUP BY clause.
GROUP BY clause - This is used to group rows that have the same values into together. It
helps to organize data into groups so that you can do calculations, like finding totals or
averages, for each group

This query retrieves the first n rows from the table.

QUERY :
SELECT col1, aggregateFun(col2)
FROM tableName
GROUP BY col1 ;

ex: SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avgsal FROM employee

GROUP BY department;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
HAVING clause.
HAVING clause - The HAVING clause is just like clause but the main
difference is it works on aggregated data. It is used with the GROUP BY
clause. It helps to filter groups based on given con conditions.ditions.

QUERY :
SELECT col1, col2 aggregateFun(col3)
FROM tableName
GROUP BY col1 col2
HAVING condition;

ex : SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avgsal

FROM employe
GROUP BY department
HAVING avgsal>1500;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
GROUP BY and HAVING clause.
These queries demonstrate how to use

a. GROUP BY to categorize data and

b. HAVING to filter grouped data based on specific conditions in SQL.

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Difference Between WHERE and HAVING Clause

WHERE HAVING

used to filter rows from the result based on used to filter rows from the result based on
condition applied to a row before the aggregation condition applied to a row after the aggregation

It is used with SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE It is used with GROUP BY and aggregate
commands functions

SELECT col1, col2 aggregateFun(col3)

FROM tableName
SELECT * FROM tableName WHERE condition; GROUP BY col1 col2
HAVING condition;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

1. Write a query to find the total number of employees in each city

Query :
Select city, COUNT(name) AS no_of_emp
FROM employee
GROUP BY city;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

2. Write a query to find the maximum salary of employees in each city in descending
order

Query :
Select city, max(salary) AS max_salary
FROM employee
GROUP BY city
ORDER BY DESC;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

3. Write a query to display the department names alongside the total count
of employees in each department, sorting the results by the total number of
employees in descending order.

Query :

SELECT department, COUNT(id) AS totalemployees

FROM employee
GROUP BY department
ORDER BY totalemployees DESC;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Practice Questions

4. Write a query to list the departments where the average salary is greater
than 1200, also display the department name and the average salary.

Query :

SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avgsalary

FROM employee
GROUP BY department
HAVING AVG(salary) > 50000;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
The general order of SQL commands

Sno Command Usecase

1. SELECT Retrieve from the database

2. FROM Identify the table

3. WHERE Filter rows based on some conditions

4. GROUP BY Group rows that have the same values

5. HAVING Filter groups based on some conditions

6. ORDER BY Sort the result set either aesc/desc

7. LIMIT Limit the number of rows returned

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related or
shared or common column between them. There are commonly 4 types of joins
including INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN, SELF JOIN , CROSS
JOIN.

id Name Age id course_id course_name

1 Riya 17 1 101 Eng

2 Rahul 18 2 102 Hin

3 103 PhE
3 Ram 17

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Q. Is Foreign Key important for performing joins?

->Joins can be performed based on any columns that establish a relationship

between tables, not just FK constraints, so its not necessary.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

1. Inner Join
rollno name rollno c_name

Left Right 1 Ram

2 Hindi
table table

3 Eng
2 Rahul

A B 3 Riti 4 Maths

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

2. Left Join/Left Outer Join

rollno name rollno c_name

2 Hindi
Left Right 1 Ram
table table
3 Eng
2 Rahul

4 Maths
A B 3 Riti

Student Course
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

3. Right Join/ Right Outer Join

rollno name rollno c_name

Left Right 1 Ram

2 Hindi
table table

3 Eng
2 Rahul

A B 3 Riti 4 Maths

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

4. Full Join/Full Outer Join

rollno name rollno c_name

Left Right
2 Hindi
table table 1 Ram

3 Eng
2 Rahul

A B 3 Riti 4 Maths

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

5. Self Join
rollno name

1 Ram

2 Rahul

A 3 Riti

Student
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Types of Joins in SQL

6. Cross Join
rollno name rollno c_name

2 Hindi
1 1 1 Ram
2 2
3 3 3 Eng
2 Rahul

3 Riti 4 Maths
A B

Student Course
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

1. Inner Join : It helps us in getting the rows that have matching values in both
tables, according to the given join condition.

Query: id name id o_name

102 Fruit
SELECT columns 101 Ram

FROM table1
103 Ball
INNER JOIN table2 102 Rahul

ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
103 Riti 104 Utensils

Customer Order
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query: It only returns rows where there is a
matching id in both tables id name id o_name

102 Fruit
SELECT * 101 Ram

FROM customer
103 Ball
INNER JOIN order 102 Rahul

ON customer.id = order.id;
103 Riti 104 Utensils

id name id o_name

customer Order
102 Rahul 102 Fruit

103 Riti 103 Ball

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

2. Left Join/Left Outer Join : It is used to fetch all the records from the left
table along with matched records from the right table.
If there are no matching records in the right table, NULL values are returned for
the columns of the right table.
Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;

Left table : the table specified before the LEFT JOIN keyword
Right table : the table specified after the LEFT JOIN keyword
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query:
id name id o_name

SELECT *
FROM customer 101 Ram 102 Fruit

LEFT JOIN order

ON customer.id = order.id; 102 Rahul 103 Ball

103 Riti 104 Utensils

id name id o_name

101 Ram null null

customer Order
102 Rahul 102 Fruit

103 Riti 103 Ball

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

3. Right Join/ Right Outer Join : It is used to fetch all the records from the right
table along with matched records from the left table.
If there are no matching records in the left table, NULL values are returned for
the columns of the left table.
Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;

Left table : the table specified before the RIGHT JOIN keyword
Right table : the table specified after the RIGHT JOIN keyword
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query:

SELECT * id name id o_name

FROM customer
102 Fruit
RIGHT JOIN order 101 Ram

ON customer.id = order.id;
102 Rahul 103 Ball

id o_name id name 103 Riti 104 Utensils

102 Fruit 102 Rahul

customer
Order
103 Ball 103 Riti

104 utensils null null

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

4. Full Join/Full Outer Join: It returns the matching rows of both left and right
table and also includes all rows from both tables even if they don’t have
matching rows.

If there is no match, NULL values are returned for the columns of the missing
table.

In MySQL, the syntax for a full join is different compared to other SQL databases like
PostgreSQL or SQL Server.

MySQL does not support the FULL JOIN keyword directly. So we use a combination of
LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and UNION to achieve the result.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

4. Full Join/Full Outer Join:

Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;

UNION

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL
Query:

SELECT * id name id o_name

FROM customer 102 Fruit

101 Ram
LEFT JOIN order
ON customer.id = order.id; 102 Rahul 103 Ball

UNION
SELECT * 103 Riti 104 Utensils
FROM customer
RIGHT JOIN order
customer
ON customer.id = order.id; Order
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

id name id o_name

101 Ram null null

Result :
102 Rahul 102 Fruit

103 Riti 103 Ball

null null 104 Utensils

 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

5. CrossJoin: It combines each row of the first table with every row of the
second table.
id name o_id o_name

Query:
101 Ram 1 Fruit

SELECT *
FROM table1 102 Rahul 2 Ball

CROSS JOIN table2;

Customer Order

It results in a new table where the number of rows is equal to the product of
the number of rows in each table. (m*n)
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

id name o_id o_name

Result : 101 Ram 1 Fruit

101 Ram 2 Ball

102 Rahul 1 Fruit

102 Rahu 2 Ball

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

6. Self Join: A self join in SQL is a type of join where a table is joined with itself.
It is a type of inner join.

Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table as t1
JOIN table as t2
ON t1.colName = t2.colName

t1 and t2 are aliases for the table, used to distinguish between the order rows.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

Ram (Mentor)
s_id name mentor_id

Rahul Riti (Mentor)

(Mentor) 1 Ram null

Riya (student) 2 Rahul 1

3 Riti 1
Query :
SELECT s1.name as mentor_name, s2.name 4 Riya 3

as name
FROM student as s1
JOIN student as s2
WHERE s1.s_id=s2.mentor_id
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Joins in SQL

mentor_name name

Result : Ram Riti

Ram Rahul

Riti Riya
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Exclusive joins are used when we want to retrieve data from two tables excluding matched
rows. They are a part of outer joins or full outer join.

Types :

1. Left Exclusive JOIN 2.Right Exclusive JOIN 3.Full Exclusive JOIN

Left Right Left Right Left Right

table table table table table table

A B A B A B
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Left Exclusive JOIN: When we retrive records from the left table excluding the ones
matching in both left and right table .
id name id o_name

Query:
101 Ram 102 Fruit

SELECT columns
102 Rahul 103 Ball
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
103 Riti 104 Utensils
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
WHERE table2.colName IS NULL;
customer
Order
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Right Exclusive JOIN: When we retrive records from the right table excluding the ones
matching in both left and right table .
id name id o_name
Query:
101 Ram 102 Fruit

SELECT columns
FROM table1 102 Rahul 103 Ball

RIGHT JOIN table2

ON table1.colName = table2.colName; 103 Riti 104 Utensils

WHERE table1.colName IS NULL;

customer
Order
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Exclusive Joins in SQL

Full Exclusive JOIN: When we retrive records from the right table and left table excluding
the ones matching in both left and right table .
Query:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
WHERE table2.colName IS NULL;
UNION
SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.colName = table2.colName;
WHERE table1.colName IS NULL;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION Operator in SQL

UNION: UNION operator in SQL is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
queries into a single result set and gives unique rows by removing duplicate rows.

Things to keep in mind:

1. Each SELECT command within the UNION must Left Right
retrieve the same number of columns. table table

2. The data types of columns in corresponding

positions across SELECT statements should
match. A B
3. Columns should be listed in the same order
across all SELECT statements.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION Operator in SQL

QUERY:
id id id
SELECT columns
FROM table1 1 2 1

UNION
SELECT columns 2 3 2

FROM table2;
3 4 3

4
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION ALL Operator in SQL

UNION ALL: UNION operator in SQL is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
queries into a single result set and gives all rows by not removing duplicate rows.

QUERY:
SELECT columns
FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT columns
FROM table2;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
UNION ALL Operator in SQL

id id id

1 2 1

2 3 2

3 4 3

4
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Subqueries/Inner Queries/Nested Queries: SQL subquery is a query nested

within another SQL statement. Whenever we want to retrieve data based on the
result of another query we use nested queries.

Outer Query

Inner Query
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

How can we use Subqueries?

Subqueries can be used in multiple ways :

Subqueries can be used with clauses such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or

DELETE to perform complex data retrieval.

QUERY:
SELECT columns, (subquery)
FROM tableName;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

How can we use Subqueries?

Subqueries can be used in multiple ways :

Subqueries can be used with WHERE clause to filter data based on

conditions.

QUERY:
SELECT *
FROM tableName
WHERE column name operator (subquery);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

How can we use Subqueries?

Subqueries can be used in multiple ways :

Subqueries can also be used in the FROM clause.

QUERY:
SELECT *
FROM subquery AS altName ;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

1. Find all the employees who have salary greater than the min salary

id name age departmen city salary

Find the min salary 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Find employee having salary greater 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

than min salary 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

To find the min salary

QUERY:
SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employee

To find all the employees having salary greater than min salary

QUERY:
SELECT name, salary
FROM employee
WHERE salary > (subquery)
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

2. Find the employees with the minimum age

id name age departmen city salary

Find the min age 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Find employee having the min age 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

To find the min age

QUERY:
SELECT MIN(age) FROM employee

To find all the employees having min age

QUERY:
SELECT name, age
FROM employee
WHERE age =(subquery);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in FROM:

1. Find the employees who is having age greater than min_age

id name age departmen city salary

Find the min age 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Find employee having age> min age 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in WHERE:

To Find the min age

QUERY:
SELECT min(age) AS min_age FROM employee;

Find employee having age> min age

QUERY:
SELECT emp.name
FROM employee emp, (subquery) AS subquery
WHERE emp.age > subquery.min_age;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in SELECT:

1. Print the employees with the average age and age of employees

id name age departmen city salary

Find the avg age 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

Print the employee age and avg_age 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
SQL Subqueries/Nested queries

Let’s understand from example of using subqueries in SELECT:

Find the avg age

QUERY:
SELECT AVG(age) FROM employee

Print the employee age and avg_age

QUERY:
SELECT (subquery)AS avg_age , age
FROM employee;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Nth Highest Salary

Q. Find the nth highest salary in a given dataset.

Steps to find the nth highest salary:

Step 1: Select the column which you want to show the final result i.e salary.

Step 2: Order the salary in descending order so that you have the max at the first.

Step 3: Now the value of n could 1,2,3....till n, so we have to make the query in such a
way so that whatever be the value of n it can provide the result.

Step 4: So at the end of the query we will provide a LIMIT so that on the data set
which we have got after ordering the salary in descending order, we can fetch the
nth highest one.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Nth Highest Salary

Q. Find the nth highest salary in a given dataset.

LIMIT- LIMIT clause is used to restrict the number of rows returned by a query.

LIMIT n - It helps to retrieve a maximum of n rows from the beginning of the

result set.

LIMIT m, n- It helps to retrieve a specific range of rows where

m- number of rows to skip from the beginning

n- number of rows to fetch after skipping
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Nth Highest Salary

Q. Find the nth highest salary in a given dataset.

QUERY:
SELECT DISTINCT Salary
FROM tableName
ORDER BY Salary DESC
LIMIT n-1, 1;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Stored Procedure- These are programs that can perform specific tasks
based on the stored query. It is basically a collection of pre-written SQL
statements grouped together under a specific name.
Query: (to create a procedure)
CREATE PROCEDURE procedureName()
BEGIN
Query
END;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL procedureName();
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Examples: Stored procedure without params

Query 1:
CREATE PROCEDURE getAllOrderDetails()
BEGIN
Select * from orders;
END;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL getAllOrderDetails();
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Sometimes we encounter an issue in SQL workbench so we use delimiter there

Query 1:

DELIMITER /
CREATE PROCEDURE getAllOrderDetails()
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM orders;
END/
DELIMITER ;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL getAllOrderDetails();
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Stored Procedures

Examples: Return the details of the order by id (Stored procedure with params)

Query 2:
CREATE PROCEDURE getAllOrderDetailsById(IN id int)
BEGIN
SELECT *FROM Orders WHERE id = id;
END;

Query: (to call the procedure)

CALL getAllOrderDetailsById(2);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Views In SQL

A view is a virtual table in SQL. It helps in providing a filtered view

of data for security purposes.

QUERY:
CREATE VIEW viewName AS
SELECT columns FROM baseTableName; (Specify the columns to be
included in the view)

It helps in Data Abstraction, Security and simplify complex queries.

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Views In SQL

To see all the data in view

QUERY:
SELECT * FROM viewName ;

To drop a view

QUERY:
DROP VIEW IF EXISTS viewName;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
CASE AND IF IN SQL

CASE: It allows you to perform conditional logic within a query. It can be used in
both SELECT and UPDATE statements to evaluate conditions and return specific
values based on those conditions.
QUERY:
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1 WHEN
condition2 THEN result2 ... ELSE resultN
END
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
CASE with Select statement

Q. Categorise the students on basis of their percentage to Top, Pass and fail in a new
column category

QUERY:
SELECT sid, name, percentage,
CASE
WHEN percentage > 90 THEN ’Top’
WHEN percentage BETWEEN 89 AND 34 THEN ‘Pass’
ELSE ‘Fail’
END AS category
FROM student;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
CASE with Update statement

Q. Students have got some grace marks so update their grades. Where its A update to A+
and where its B update to A.

QUERY:
UPDATE student
SET grade = CASE
WHEN grade= = ‘B’ THEN ‘A’
WHEN grade = ‘A’ THEN ‘A+’
END;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
IF IN SQL

IF: It is used to return one of two values depending on whether a condition is true or
false. It is not supported in may DB but supported in MySQL

QUERY:
IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false)
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
IF with Select statement

Q. Categorise the students on basis of their percentage to Top, Pass and fail in a new
column category

QUERY:
SELECT sid, name, percentage,
IF(percentage > 90, ’Top’ , IF(percentage BETWEEN 89 AND 34, ‘Pass’, ‘Fail’)) AS category
FROM student;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
IF with Update statement

Q. Swap all 'f' and 'm' values (i.e., change all 'f' values to 'm' and vice versa) with a single
update statement and no intermediate temporary tables.

QUERY:
UPDATE employee
SET gender = if(gender = 'm', 'f', 'm')
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a database Company, 2.create a table employee in it
delete/drop the database

1.Create a Database Company

CREATE DATABASE company;

2. Create a table Employee

USE company; -> to tell the server to create table in this DB

CREATE TABLE employee(

employee_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(50),
last_name VARCHAR(50));
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write the SQL Query to 1.create a database Company, 2.create a table employee in it,
delete/drop the database

3. Delete the Database company

DROP DATABASE company;
 LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews
Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a table employee, 2.Insert data into the table employe
3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000 4. Delete data for employee
having empId =1 5. Delete the entire table
1. Create a table employee
CREATE TABLE employee(
empId INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
department VARCHAR(50),
salary INT);

2. Insert data into the table employee

INSERT INTO employee(empId,name,department,salary)
VALUES(1, ’Riti’, ’IT’, 30000),
(2, ’Rahul’, ’HR’ , 15000);
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a table employee, 2.Insert data into the table employ
3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000 4. Delete data for employee
having empId =1 5. Delete the entire table

3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000

UPDATE employees
SET salary = 20000
WHERE department=’HR’

4. Delete data for employee having empId =1

DELETE FROM employee
WHERE empId = 1;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Write the SQL Query to 1.create a table employee, 2.Insert data into the table employ
3. Update Salary for all people in HR department to 20000 4. Delete data for employee
having empId =1 5. Delete the entire table

5. Delete the entire table

DROP TABLE employee;

To delete all the data

DELETE FROM employee;
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the total number of employees working in the ‘IT’ department’.

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employee
2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
WHERE department = 'IT';
3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

COUNT(*) is a SQL aggregate function that returns the total number of rows in a
specified table or query. It counts all the rows, regardless of whether they contain NULL
values or not.
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find all the employees that have their name starting from ‘R’

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
name LIKE 'R%'; 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

LIKE- It is used to search for a specified pattern in a column

We use ‘%’ and ‘_’ for searching patterns
LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Condition Query

Name start with A LIKE ‘A%’

Name contain ra LIKE '%ra%'

Name start with 'A' and have exactly five

LIKE ‘A____’
characters

Name has a as second character LIKE '_a%'

LET’S START WITH SQL :)
Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find unique salaries in employee table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT DISTINCT salary 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee; 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

DISTINCT- It is used to retrieve unique records from a table

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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the second highest salary in a table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT MAX(salary) 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
WHERE salary <> (SELECT
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
MAX(salary) FROM employee);
5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

MAX- gives the aggregated max value from a column

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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the nth highest salary in a table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT DISTINCT Salary 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
ORDER BY Salary DESC
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
LIMIT n-1, 1;
5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

ORDER BY - Order the salary in descending/ascending order

LIMIT m, n- It helps to retrieve a specific range of rows
m- number of rows to skip from the beginning
n- number of rows to fetch after skipping
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the top 2 salaries from a table

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT salary 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
ORDER BY salary DESC
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
LIMIT 2;
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to calculate the total salary and average salary in a department

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT department, SUM(salary) AS 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000

total_salary, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

FROM employee 4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

GROUP BY department; 5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the rows where a department has NULL values

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT *FROM employee 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
WHERE department IS NULL; 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500

4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400

5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500

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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q.Write a query to find the duplicate rows in employee for column department.

id name age departmen city salary

Query : 1 Rahul 25 'IT' 'Mumbai' 1500

SELECT department, COUNT(*) 2 Afsara 26 'HR' 'Pune' 2000
FROM employee 3 Abhimanyu 27 'IT' 'Mumbai' 2500
GROUP BY department
4 Aditya 25 'Marketing' 'Surat' 2400
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;
5 Raj 24 'Finance' 'Indore' 1500
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is SQL?
-> SQL stands for Structured Query Language
It is a standard language used for managing and manipulating databases.

Q. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE

-> DELETE removes rows from a table based on a condition and can be rolled
back.

while, TRUNCATE removes all rows from a table without logging individual row
deletions and cannot be rolled back.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is UNION and UNION ALL.

-> UNION combines the results of two queries and removes duplicate rows.

while, UNION ALL combines the results of two queries and includes all duplicates.

Q. What is a stored procedure?

-> A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save and reuse in
other queries.

Q. What is difference between CHAR() and VARCHAR()

-> CHAR is used when we have data with a fixed length
while, VARCHAR is used when we have data with variable length
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. Explain the types of JOINS in SQL?

INNER JOIN: It returns all records that have matching values in both tables.
LEFT OUTER JOIN: It returns all records from the left table, and the matched
records from the right table.
RIGHT OUTER JOIN : It returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table.
FULL OUTER JOIN: It returns all records when there is a match in either left or right
table.
CROSS JOIN: It returns the Cartesian product of the two tables.
SELF JOIN : A join where a table is joined with itself.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is NULL in SQL?

-> It is used to handle NULL values. It is used to indicate that a data value does not
exist in the database.

Q. What is a foreign key?

-> A foreign key is a key that helps in establishing a relationship between the two
tables.
It uniquely identifies a row of another table. A foreign key is a key in one table,
that refers to the primary key in another table.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is a primary key?

-> A primary key is a unique identifier/key which uniquely identifies all record in a
table/relation.
It must contain unique values and cannot contain NULL values.(UNIQUE+NOT NULL)

Q. What is the difference between WHERE and HAVING

-> WHERE is used to filter records before any groupings are made.

while, HAVING is used to filter records after groupings are made.

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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews

Q. What is the view in SQL?

-> Views are a kind of virtual table in SQL

Q. What is DEFAULT constraint

-> Whenever we need to fill a column with default and fixed values we use
DEFAULT, like set the default salary as 0 where salary is null.

Q. What is an ALIAS command in SQL

-> These are temporary names given to a table or column which is just a
temporary change i.e the table name does not change in the original database.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

How to think on what SQL clause/operator/function to choose?

1.Data retrival
SELECT: Use for retrieving data from one or more tables.

2. Data Filtering
WHERE: Filter records based on specific conditions
AND, OR, NOT: Combine multiple conditions.
BETWEEN : Range search
IN: Checks whether a specified value matches any value in a subquery or a list
LIKE : Pattern matching(%, _)
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)
How to think on what SQL clause/operator/function to choose?

3. Aggregation on data
AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.
MIN(): Returns the minimum value in a column.
MAX(): Returns the maximum value in a column.
SUM(): Returns the total sum of a numeric column.
COUNT(): Counts the number of non-NULL values in a specified column
COUNT(*) : Counts the total number of rows in a table, including rows with
NULL values.

4. Grouping and Filtering Groups

GROUP BY: Groups rows that have the same values in specified columns
HAVING: Filters groups based on specified conditions (used with GROUP BY).
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)
How to think on what SQL clause/operator/function to choose?

5. Sorting data
ORDER BY: Sorts the result set by one or more columns.

6. Data retrival from combination of 2 or more tables

INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN: Combine rows from two or more tables
based on related columns.

7. Conditional logic
CASE : Perform conditional logic within a query using WHEN, THEN and ELSE
IF : Return values depending on whether a condition is true or false.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

How to solve SQL questions

Step 1: Understand what the question says?

Retrieving data, aggregating results, joining tables, or performing updates/deletes.

Step 2: Check data types, constraints ,primary key, foreign keys, and relationships
between tables

Step 3: Use the Appropriate SQL Clauses and Functions

Step 4: Ensure appropriate indexes on columns used in WHERE, JOIN, and ORDER
BY clauses.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions

1. Swap Salary : https://leetcode.com/problems/swap-salary/description/

2. Duplicate Emails : https://leetcode.com/problems/duplicate-emails/description/
3. Employees Earning More Than Their Managers :
https://leetcode.com/problems/employees-earning-more-than-their-
managers/description/
4. Not Boring Movies : https://leetcode.com/problems/not-boring-
movies/description/
5. Classes More Than 5 Students: https://leetcode.com/problems/classes-more-
than-5-students/description/
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Swap Salary

Q. Write a solution to swap all 'f' and 'm' values (i.e., change all 'f'
values to 'm' and vice versa) with a single update statement and
no intermediate temporary tables.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Duplicate Emails

Q.Write a solution to report all the duplicate emails. Note that it's guaranteed that the
email field is not NULL.
Return the result table in any order.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Employees Earning More Than Their Managers

Q. Write a solution to find the employees who earn more than their managers.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Not Boring Movies

Q. Write a solution to report the movies with an odd-numbered ID and a description that
is not "boring".
Return the result table ordered by rating in descending order.
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Top SQL Questions asked in interviews(Part-2)

Leetcode Questions
Classes More Than 5 Students

Write a solution to find all the classes that have at least five students.