CIPS Level 5 Advanced Diploma

in Procurement and Supply

Module title: Managing Teams and Individuals [L5M1]

Leading global excellence in procurement and supply

 Learning Outcome 2: Understand and apply approaches to
managing individuals involved in the procurement and supply
function
2.2 Examine how the different learning styles of individuals can impact
on their management style and approach

❖ Learning as a formal and spontaneous process

❖ Explicit and tacit knowledge
❖ Cognitive theories of learning
❖ Approaches to knowledge management

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Leading global excellence in procurement and supply

• We continue our discussion of factors and processes in individual
behaviour, by looking and learning and development- specifically
looking at theories of how adults learn-develop knowledge, skills and
competencies- and how this process can be managed to enhance
individual, team and organizational capability.
• Learning can be described as a cognitive and physical activity
involving an individual’s perception of an experience and their input
to a situation in which they discover a ‘personal relationship to and
with people, things and ideas (Knowles et al., 2015)
• Different individuals have different learning styles and strategies
• Learning can take place at individual, group and organizational levels
• However, managers should facilitate the learning of their team
members on a day –to-day basis
Learning Theories
Several different theories have emerged to explain how people learn.
Some of the main theories of learning include:
1. Behavioral learning theory
2. Cognitive learning theory
3. Constructivist learning theory
4. Social learning theory
5. Experiential learning theory
EXPERIMENTAL LEARNING THEORIES
Two theories can be applied to understand how individuals learn;
• Lewin's Experimental Learning Model
• Kolb's 1983 model of experiential learning
• Honey and Mumford (1986) Four Learning styles
Lewin's Experimental Learning Model

• Lewin's Experimental Learning Model/ Lewinian Experimental

learning , often referred to as the "Experiential Learning Model," is a
straightforward yet influential framework for understanding how
individuals learn and adapt through experience-Developed by Kurt
Lewin in the mid-20th century.
• Lewin's model suggests that change is a process, not an event, and it
highlights the importance of reflection and adaptation in the learning
and change process.
• Refer to L3M4 module for comprehension of the model
How do individuals learn
• Experiential learning emphasizes hands-on experiences and active
participation to acquire new skills, knowledge, and insights about
how individuals and groups behave in an organizational setting.
• It is the most common type of learning in the workplace
• The model underscores the need for a supportive environment and
leadership that facilitates and encourages these stages, as well as a
recognition that change can be challenging and may meet resistance
during the "unfreeze" phase. Overall, it's a foundational model for
understanding how individuals and organizations can navigate and
adapt to change effectively.
How do individuals learn
• it's a way of learning by doing and reflecting on those experiences to
improve one's understanding of how people behave and interact in a work
environment.
• This approach often involves activities like simulations, role-playing, team
projects, and real-world problem-solving to help individuals grasp concepts
related to organizational behavior and enhance their abilities to work
effectively within organizations.
• learning occurs as a result of practice and or experience- and this
influence the way individuals do things/ behave
• During practice (daily tasks and responsibilities) one acquire knowledge,
skills and competencies
• This emphasizes that learning is a continuous process
• Kolb (1983) model
represent the four
stages that Kolb claims
must be fulfilled for
learning to take place
• Kolb says that the
learning cycle can really
begin at any one of the
four points, but it often
begins with step 1,
which involves a person
carrying out a particular
action and seeing the
effect of the action in
the given situation.
The Experiential Learning Circle according to Kolb:
1). Concrete experience: Learner carries out a particular action and
sees the effect of the action in the given situation.
2). Observation & experience: Learner continues reflecting about the
effects in the situation so that if the same action was taken in the
future, he/she could anticipate the consequences of the action.
3). Forming abstract concepts: The learner begins to see a connection
between their actions and its effects over a variety of
circumstances, generalizing their knowledge.
4). Testing in new situations: Learner can now apply their knowledge
through action in a new circumstance (within the range of
generalization).
EXAMPLE 1
A trainee nurse might start learning how to lift a patient by taking part in
supervised practice with a dummy, which would give experience of (a
simulation of) what it is like (stage 1 in the diagram below).

The charge nurse might then ask: "How did that feel? What might you
have done differently?" to encourage the nurse to be reflective about the
experience (stage 2).

That night the nurse could look up, in a textbook, how to lift patients and
read about the reasons for doing it in particular ways (stage 3).

Next day, confronted with a real patient to lift, the nurse would think:"As a
result of what happened yesterday, and because of what I read last night I
ought to do it like this" (stage 4). This would provide a new experience
and start the nurse on the next learning cycle.
• Experimental learning is powerful in business. E.g.
• Business training sessions are increasingly using
experiential learning!
• This way, information learned in these sessions isn’t
stored away in a filing cabinet and never used but is
remembered because participants have used the
information and applied it to a business problem.
• This model is criticized of failing to mention learning
from other people and its overly individuality.
• What about "HOW INDIVIDUALS PREFER TO LEARN”
Honey and Mumford (1986) Four Learning
styles
• What about "HOW INDIVIDUALS PREFER TO LEARN?”
• Building on Kolb's learning style model, Honey and Mumford (1986)
developed a learning styles Questionnaire (LSQ) that explores the
learners behavioral tendences- HOW INDIVIDUALS PREFER TO LEARN
• This questionnaire is designed to find out individual preferred
learning style(s) and perhaps managers can use to identify how their
employees prefer to learn
• According to this model, the simplest way of describing 'learning
styles' is to say that they are different methods of learning or
understanding new information; the way a person takes in,
understand, expresses and remembers information.
• There are four different ways in which people prefer to learn that
Honey and Mumford have identified, relate to Kolbs stages in the
learning cycle. ;
1. Activists
2. Theorists These styles are based on the idea that individuals have
different ways of processing information and acquiring new
3. Pragmatists knowledge.

4. Reflectors
• Most people prefer to use at least two of these style
• Activists- learn best by doing, they a re enthusiastic about new
things, and work with others (brainstorming, puzzles, problem solving
group discussions and hands on problem solving)they learn least
when listening to lectures, reading or thinking about the problem on
their own.
• Theorists- they want facts to be able to learn. They enjoy rational
thinking; they want to ask questions to form their own
understanding. (they rely on models, applying theories, story telling,
facts and figures, quotes and story telling). They enjoy analyzing and
assimilating information to form their own theories. They value logic
and rational thinking. Theorists learn least when conclusions are
ambiguous and when feelings and emotions are involved.
• Pragmatists- when they see what they are learning can be practical,
they try it out and find ways of using what they have learnt. They
learn best through feedback (they use case studies, problem solving
and putting theory into practice, Discussing how to translate theory
into practice )
• Pragmatists learn best when they can see the connection between
what they are learning and its use in practice, and when there is a
practical example they can copy or build on.
• Pragmatists learn least when they can’t see a practical application for
what they are learning
• Reflectors- they learn by observing and reflecting on what happened, they
want to be given time to think. They use observation, paired discussions,
receiving feedback, coaching. They avoid jumping straight in and prefer to
watch first.
• They like to collect data from many sources and perspectives, then think
about it thoroughly before reaching any conclusion. They are cautious and
like to consider all the angles before committing to action.
• Reflectors learn best when given time to think before they must act, when
given time to investigate before they must act.
• Reflectors learn least when aggressive deadlines rush them; when they
must do things without having adequate time to prepare; when forced to
take the lead in a group situation.
• These four learning styles represent different preferences for
how individuals like to learn and solve problems.
• It's important to note that most people have a combination
of these styles but may lean more toward one or two of
them.
• Understanding these styles can help managers
educators/trainers and organizations tailor their teaching
and training methods to better suit the needs of individuals,
ultimately enhancing the learning experience and improving
performance.
Learning approaches
There are two distinct approaches to acquiring knowledge and skills
within an organizational context.
1. Formal Learning
2. Spontaneous Learning

Knowledge may also be acquired through formal or informal

(spontaneous) learning
Formal learning vs Spontaneous learning
• Formal learning arises from planned, deliberate learning
interventions facilitation of workshops. Formal learning is
organized learning with structured content
• Spontaneous/Informal learning- may be acquired through
unofficial unscheduled activities such as small talks,
observing others, trial and error and simply working with
people in the department. It may be accidental unintentional
or opportunistic.
formal and spontaneous process and Learning
and development
• Learning and development (L&D) in organizations focuses on
providing opportunities for individuals to contribute effectively to the
achievement of organizational objectives through formal and
spontaneous process
• Purpose of L&D is to ensure that the right skills are employed in the
right place at the right time to achieve strategic objectives
formal and spontaneous process and Learning
and development (LD)
Methods used to facilitate, and co-ordinate formal learning include:
o Education
o Training
o Development See pg 92-93
• Traditional reliance on formal training courses to provide ‘hard’
(technical training) and ‘soft’ skills (interpersonal skills). This reliance
on training courses is a flaw of the learning process. It limits
individuals formal learning opportunities to the size of the training
budget and training days available.
• In some cases, a sizeable percentage of training budget is reserved for
those who are seen to have high potential, or those on a career
progression track
• But organizations need to work towards individual fulfillment, team
cohesion, healthy functioning department, competitive advantage of
the organization and wellbeing within society.
• This goes beyond simply providing training courses, and instead
focuses on learning as a core component of human behaviour.
• To enable the L&D to develop a strategy that is aligned to to the
business strategy, Garavan (2007) proposes a Multi-level Model of
Strategic Human Resource Development.
• Balanced Approach: Organizations often benefit from a balanced approach that
combines both formal and spontaneous processes. Formal processes ensure that
employees acquire foundational knowledge, while spontaneous processes allow
them to continuously adapt and apply that knowledge in evolving contexts.
• Flexibility: A combination of both approaches allows employees to adapt to
changing circumstances, keep up with industry trends, and develop a broader skill
set.
• Continuous Improvement: By encouraging a culture of continuous learning that
incorporates both formal and spontaneous processes, organizations can foster
ongoing development and adaptability among their workforce.
• In essence, the relationship between formal and spontaneous processes and
learning and development is about creating a dynamic and adaptable learning
environment within an organization. This balance helps employees acquire the
necessary skills and knowledge while also empowering them to apply their
learning effectively in their roles.
Learning and development (LD) strategy
• Garavan 2007 argues that the L& D function needs to develop a strategy that is
vertically aligned to the business strategy and strategic practices in Human
Resource functions- SHRD Model- See pg 94
Strategic Human Resource Development
SHRD (Strategic Human Resource Development) focuses on how organizations
develop their human resources to meet strategic goals. SHRD recognizes four levels
of dynamic context within an organization which management actions should
consider to promote individual and team learning;
• Context
• Internal context
• Job value and uniqueness
• Professional expectations
Strategic Human Resource Development
• It involves planning, designing, and implementing HR strategies and
initiatives that contribute to the long-term success of the
organization. SHRD aims to ensure that employees have the
necessary skills, knowledge, and capabilities to support the
organization's strategic direction. It goes beyond traditional HR
functions and considers how HR practices can help the organization
achieve a competitive advantage.
• SHRD's four levels of dynamic context in organizational behavior start
from individual development and expand to encompass group
dynamics, the entire organization, and the external environment.
• the SHRD model emphasizes the importance of aligning HR strategies
with the organization's external and internal context, recognizing the
value of different job roles, and considering the professional
expectations of employees.
Organizational learning
• While Strategic Human Resource Development is about strategically
managing and developing an organization's human resources to align
with its long-term goals. Organizational learning is a crucial
component of this process, as it involves the acquisition and
application of knowledge to enhance the organization's overall
performance and adaptability.
• Together, these concepts emphasize the importance of linking HR
practices with organizational strategy and fostering a culture of
continuous learning and improvement within the organization.
Organizational learning
• Organizational learning is the process through which an organization
acquires, creates, and applies knowledge to improve its performance
and adapt to changing circumstances.
• It involves not only individual learning but also collective learning at
the organizational level.
• Organizational learning emphasizes the importance of sharing
knowledge, experimenting with new ideas, and continuously
improving processes.
• It helps organizations become more adaptive, innovative, and better
equipped to face challenges in a rapidly changing environment.
Organizational learning
• When learning is transferred to the job, employers are encouraged to
sponsor further opportunities for growth and development, both
individual and of the organization.
• The learning systems not only influence immediate members, but also
future members, due to the accumulation of histories, experiences,
norms, and stories.
• The encouragement of self-managed, informal and continuous
learning is an important concept in modern learning and
development- and distinguishes the concept of human resource
development from the narrower organization- driven process of
‘training’
learning organization
• A learning organization is an organization that facilitates the learning of all
its members and continually transforms itself.
• Peterson (2008) argues that workplace learning is optimized when
employees are offered opportunities to achieve personal and professional
goals, which lead to improved performance through transfer of learning.
• Organizational learning processes contribute to building a learning
organization. These processes include capturing lessons from experience,
sharing knowledge, fostering a culture of inquiry and experimentation, and
implementing mechanisms for continuous improvement.
• A learning organization is a proactive and intentional approach to
organizational learning. It's about embedding learning into the
organization's DNA, whereas organizational learning encompasses all the
activities and processes related to learning within an organization.
Characteristics of a learning organization
Learning organizations are good at the following key processes;
• Experimentation: searching out and testing new knowledge
• Learning from the past: constantly gather and provide feedback on
processes and results. Mistakes are regarded as learning opportunities
• Learning from others: encourage employees to seek information and
learning opportunities outside the organization and supports wide
environmental monitoring, networking and borrowing ideas to allow
‘outside the box’
• Transfer knowledge: makes information available at all levels and across
functions. Education, training and networking opportunities are constantly
available.
two tools for organizational learning
• Senge (1990) popularized the idea of organizational learning.
However, Levitt and March (1988) heavily influenced the concept of
organizational learning
• The authors argued that organizational learning from experience is
‘an important instrument of organizational intelligence if the
organization offers two tools for learning;
➢Trial and error experimentation
➢Organizational search, whereby alternative routines are adopted
when better ones are discovered.
This form of spontaneous learning builds on three key observations of
organizational behaviour;
1. Behaviour based on routines
2. Routines based on interpretation of history and anticipation of the future
3. Behaviour depends on observed outcomes versus the aspiration of the
outcome, with more emphasis being placed on the gap between success
and failure.
This verifies that organizational learning is the process of detecting and
correcting errors
Today, with many companies moving more towards remote working -those
employees are may miss out on all these informal learning. Conversely, not
knowing what your organization knows is a recipe for rework, stagnation,
and inefficiency.
• The idea of organizational learning from experience suggest that the
learning process is beneficial to organization and provide space for
individuals, teams and the organization to experiment and learn from
experience which contributes to organizational development
• Organizations may use several learning techniques to understand and
improve their processes and results- Single and double-loop learning
are two ways that employees can evaluate their actions, assumptions
and results to increase efficiency and productivity.
Types of Organizational Learning
The two types/ approaches/ techniques of organizational learning;
• Single- loop learning
• double-loop learning

Organizations may use these learning techniques to understand

and improve their processes and results

Employees can use these techniques to evaluate their actions,

assumptions and results to increase efficiency and productivity
Types of Organizational Learning
• Single-loop learning. This occurs when errors are detected and
corrected by following their present policies, goals, rules and norm.
• It refers to constantly adjusting actions until desired results are
achieved
• It is concerned with accepting change without questioning the
operating norms. It tends to minimize effort.
• Single-loop learning can be equated to activities that add to the
knowledge-base or firm-specific competences or routines without
altering the fundamental nature of the organization's activities.
• Single-loop learning has also been referred to as "Lower-Level
Learning“, "Adaptive Learning" or "Coping".
Types of Organizational Learning
• Double-loop learning occurs when, in addition to detection and correction of
errors, the organization questions and modifies its existing norms, procedures,
policies, and objectives.
• Double-loop learning involves changing the organization's knowledge-base or
firm-specific competences or routines (Dodgson, 1993). It allows us to question
which situation is the best and critically question why it is the best situation
• It is concerned with the why and how to change the organization. double-loop
learning implies questioning the fundamental assumptions.
• It cultivates creativity and innovation for both organization and individuals.
Allows us to act in different situations.
• Double-loop learning is also called "Higher-Level Learning or "Learning to Expand
an Organization's Capabilities" or "Strategic Learning" by Mason (1993).
• Strategic learning is defined as "the process by which an organization makes
sense of its environment in ways that broaden the range of objectives it can
pursue or the range of resources and actions available to it for processing these
objectives.
knowledge
• The outcome of learning is knowledge
• The outcome of learning is knowledge and must be managed
• Encouraging the sharing of employee knowledge to serve enterprise
objectives remains an important goal.
• Organizations with successful content -sharing cultures focus on
removing barriers to information flow.
• One of the key concepts in knowledge management is differentiating
between tacit and explicit knowledge.
• In organizational learning, both explicit and tacit knowledge play
important roles.
• Explicit knowledge is knowledge that is straightforwardly expressed
and shared between people. It has been clearly documented in a
tangible form.
• Knowledge isn’t held as much in the heads of employees so others
can take advantage of the documentation. Individuals can view the
knowledge of others, so they waste less time bothering colleagues for
help.
• Having explicit knowledge available means employees can make
decisions faster. If you document past solutions that have been
achieved in the company, less time is spent replicating work that
already exists.
• Instead of producing a new solution from scratch, employees can
benefit from the previous successes of others in the company
• Documenting your policies and procedures makes it less likely that
employees will make errors. When undertaking a task, employees can
consult the documentation to follow established procedures and
make sure they get it right.
• Capturing your explicit knowledge and sharing it means your
employees have the right access to information, at the right time.
• Tacit knowledge is in someone’s head, and the challenge is to make
that knowledge explicit, or codified in recorded form so that it can be
shared.
• When knowledge resides in the heads of employees, you’re at risk of
losing that knowledge if the person decides to leave the organization.
• E.g Companies that introduce on-the-job training (OJT) or mentoring
programs do so to pass along the tacit knowledge of their more
senior or experienced staff to junior, less-experienced staff.
• The process of organizational learning seeks to change experiences
into knowledge. It does this by creating the knowledge in the first
place, retaining it and transferring it through a process of social
learning. For this process to work, individuals must be mindful and
attentive to the experiences that they have, to create knowledge.
Organizational Development(OD)
• Organizational Development(OD)focuses on improving an
organization's effectiveness, adaptability, and overall health.
• It aims to enhance the organization's capacity to change, grow, and
achieve its goals and Learning within an organization is essential for
the organizational development.
• It involves acquiring new knowledge, skills, and competencies, both
individually and collectively, to enhance performance and drive
positive change.
• How can organizations promote organizational development?
Through Diagnostic and Dialogic
Organizational Development
Organizational development
• Organization Development (OD) has been around since the early 50s and
traditionally has focused on what is termed diagnostic OD
• According to this view, Organizational development is defined as a planned
effort, managed by leadership and supported by employees, to increase
employee engagement and organization effectiveness through planned
change in processes and systems mostly via trainings
• Its objective is to enable the organization to adapt better to the fast-
changing external environment of new markets, regulations, and
technologies. Executed successfully, organizational development maximize
employees’ potential and aligns their behavior with organizational strategy.
• It assumes leaders provides visions and solutions to problems and expect
employees to adapt- there are predetermined solutions, processes etc
• This is often termed a diagnostic approach to OD or simply diagnostic OD.
• In the last few years, a new approach to OD has started to emerge
called Dialogic OD
• Diagnostic OD is primarily about behaviors that anyone can adopt
within an organization or without, while Dialogic OD is about
organizational interventions by OD practitioners and consultants.
• The chief advocates of dialogical OD are Professor Gervase Bushe and
Robert Marshak.
• They advocates for dialogic mindset and approaches of managers to
achieve organizational development
• In dialogical approaches, the focus is on encouraging new thinking in
the people who are the targets of change themselves – new thinking
that is not prescribed by some expert or management consultant, but
that emerges individually and collectively from going through the
change process.
Dialogic OD
• Dialogic OD, or Dialogic Organization Development, is an approach to
organizational development that emphasizes open and inclusive
communication and dialogue as a means to facilitate change and improve
organizations.
• From a dialogic perspective, change results from transformational
conversations.
• It is about “changing the conversations” that shape everyday thinking and
behavior by:
✓involving more and different people in the change discussions(cross
functional concept) integration
✓altering how and which people engage with each other
✓by stimulating different perspectives to shape how people think about
things
The authors identified eight 8 premises of dialogic OD
Dialogic OD premises
• Reality and relationships are socially constructed: The Dialogic OD
mindset believes that organizations are socially constructed realities.
There is no single objective social reality. Instead, there are many
different “truths” about any organization. No one man must make a
decision for the whole world or organization. Cost saving from
specialization may be found in the organization.
• Organizations are meaning making systems: The Dialogic OD mindset
thinks of organizations not just as open systems interacting with an
environment, but as dialogic systems in which people are
continuously sense-making and meaning making, individually and in
groups.
Dialogic OD premises
• Language, broadly defined, matters: The Dialogic OD mindset thinks
that words (and other forms of communication) do more than convey
information, they create meaning. Thinking is powerfully influenced
by written and verbal communications and the underlying narratives,
stories and metaphors people use when engaging with each other.
Change is created and sustained by changing what words mean and
by changing the words, stories and narratives that are used in groups
and organizations rather than just relying on theories and external
industry experts
Dialogic OD premises
• Creating change requires changing conversations: The social
construction of reality occurs through the conversations people have,
everyday. Change requires changing the conversations that normally
take place. This can occur from changing who is in conversation with
whom (e.g., increasing diversity, including marginalized voices), what
is being talked about, how those conversations take place, increasing
conversational skills, and by asking what is being created from the
content and process of current conversations.
Dialogic OD premises
• Groups and organizations are inherently self-organizing: The Dialogic
OD mindset believes that organizations are self organizing, emergent
systems where social reality is being constructed every day. The
Dialogic OD mindset finds it more useful to think of organizations as
continuous flows, rather than stable entities, where different
processes, structures and ideas vary in how quickly they are changing.
• The leader’s job in Dialogic OD approaches is to create spaces where
useful changes can emerge, and then support and amplify those
changes.
Dialogic OD premises
• Increase differentiation in participative inquiry and engagement
before seeking coherence: In foundational OD, organizational system
members are involved at various times in diagnosing themselves and
making action choices to address identified issues.
• The Dialogic OD mindset reflects a much broader conception of
engagement that is based on methods of inquiry intended to discover
new and transformational possibilities. The resulting processes of
participative inquiry (rather than diagnosis), engagement, and
reflection are designed to: a) maximize diversity, b) encourage
stakeholders to voice their unique perspectives, concerns and
aspirations, and c) surface the variety before seeking new
convergences and coherence.
Dialogic OD premises
• Transformational change is more emergent than planned:
Transformational change cannot be planned toward some
predetermined future state. Rather, transformation requires holding
an intention while moving into the unknown. Disrupting current
patterns in a way that engages people in uncovering collective
intentions and shared motivations is required. As a result, change
processes are more opportunistic where change can and does come
from anywhere in the organization, more than planned, hierarchical
and top-down.
Dialogic OD premises
• Consultants are a part of the process, not apart from the process: OD
practitioners cannot stand outside the social construction of reality,
acting as independent facilitators of social interaction. Their mere
presence is part of the context that influences the meaning making
taking place.
• OD practitioners need to be aware of their own engagement in the
organization.
• A dialogic OD interventions that offers a collaborative and
constructive inquiry process is an appreciative inquiry.
Appreciative Inquiry (AI)
• Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is an organizational development approach
that focuses on identifying and amplifying an organization's positive
aspects, strengths, and successes to foster positive change and
transformation.
• It encourages a constructive and affirmative perspective when
addressing challenges and opportunities.
• AI seeks to create a shared vision and inspire collaboration within the
organization.
• Appreciation: To appreciate is to recognize the best in people, or the
world around us. Appreciative Inquiry draws on the strengths of
individuals and organizations. These strengths become the foundation
on which the future can be built.
• Inquiry: To inquire is to ask questions. The 4-D Cycle invites
participants to ask questions so they can learn from one another, and
together identify a shared vision of the future. Participating in an AI
process requires an attitude of curiosity and a hunger for discovery.
the AI process will follow four distinct phases, called the 4-D
Cycle:
•Discovery: participants explore “the best of what is,”
identifying the organization’s strengths, best practices, and
sources of excellence, vitality, and peak performance.
•Dream: participants envision a future they really want – a
future where the organization is fully engaged and successful
around its core purpose and strategic objectives.
•Design: participants leverage the best of what is and their
visions for the future to design high-impact strategies that
move the organization creatively and decisively in the right
direction.
•Destiny (sometimes also called Deploy): participants put the
strategies into action, revising, as necessary.
• Appreciative Inquiry (AI) Called the 4D cycle can be used by individuals,
teams, organizations, to help people move toward a shared vision for the
future by engaging others in strategic innovation.
• While many traditional methods begin by focusing on pitfalls and
problems, Appreciative Inquiry asks people to explore strengths and
successes that already exist, both internally and externally. The method is
used to boost innovation among organizations.
• This positive approach leads to extraordinary performance by reinforcing
relationships and culture, creating common vision and direction, promoting
learning and innovation, and energizing collective action.
• Wholeness: The final AI tenant of wholeness encourages participation from
all levels of an organization, knowing that the best ideas often emerge from
unexpected places.
• Additionally, AI encourages seeking outside perspectives. It is a whole-
system process.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
Cognitive learning theory emphasizes the role of mental processes,
such as perception, memory, and problem-solving, in learning.
Application: In organizations, cognitive learning theory is used in
training and development programs that aim to enhance employees'
problem-solving abilities, decision-making skills, and critical thinking.
Three categories of learning theory are;

• Behaviourism
• Cognitive constructivism
• Social constructivism
The principles of these theories can be used as guidelines to help select
tools, techniques and strategies that promote learning.
• Behaviorism looks at observable behaviors
• cognitive constructivism focuses on mental processes, and
• social constructivism adds a social dimension, highlighting the role of
interactions and collaboration in learning.
Each perspective has its applications and implications in various learning
contexts.
• Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and external stimuli,
using reinforcement and conditioning.
• Cognitive Constructivism shifts the focus to the learner's mental
processes and active knowledge construction.
• Social Constructivism builds on cognitive constructivism and
emphasizes social interactions and collaborative learning in
knowledge construction.
Behaviorism
• A manager using behaviorism as the basis for her strategy assumes that
positive and negative reinforcement impact learning. She praises
employees when they behave the way she wants and punishes them when
they do not. Changes in behavior indicate success. You might use this
strategy to get employees to adopt new policies and procedures. For
example, you lecture participants and then you test them on retention of
the material. You reward those who pass the exam and demand that those
who fail retake your course (repetition).
• Or by verbal reinforcement- just by saying ‘good job,
• Providing an incentive or rewarding
• Establishing rules etc
• Unfortunately, behavioral learning does not encourage creative thinking or
problem solving since they do what they are told and do not take initiatives
or improve things.
• The learner/ employee is only prepared to recall on basic facts, automatic
responses or performing tasks.
Constructivism
• Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning
new ideas based on our own prior knowledge and experiences
• The constructivism learning theory states that employees actively
participate in their own learning and development.
• Small business owners need to recognize that their employees bring
the past work experience, cultural background and personality to
their current roles.
• When people take responsibility for their own career development,
their morale typically improves, and their job satisfaction increases.
• Examples of constructivism at work may include problem-based
learning, research and creative projects and group collaborations.
Cognitive construction
• Cognitivism has its roots in cognitive psychology and Information
Processing Theory. Information Processing Theory concentrates on
how the learner comes to know rather than respond in an
instructional situation
• In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that
learners/ employees process information they receive rather than just
responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism.
• In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the learner reorganizes
information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.
• Using the cognitivism learning theory, managers focus on improving
mental processes rather than physical actions.
• These managers believe that their role is to help people expand their
knowledge. Small business owners can use this strategy to encourage
employees to improve their strategic thinking practices, memory and
problem-solving skills.
• By conducting contests, games and activities that challenge
employees' memory, attention span, speed, flexibility and ingenuity,
you can promote well being and workplace productivity.
Social constructivism

• Social constructivism, extending cognitive constructivism, adds a

social dimension to learning, emphasizing the role of social
interactions and collaborative knowledge construction.
• The theory believes that learners can reach higher levels of
understanding with the support of more knowledgeable peers or
mentors.
social cognitive theory
• One of the major components of social cognitive theory is observational learning.
It is the process of learning others’ desirable and undesirable behaviors through
observation.
• It is a quick way of acquiring information when you individually act. A person who
demonstrates behavior for another person is known as a model.
• These may be real people such as teachers, our peers, and supervisors, or
symbolic models, also known as fictional characters, that influence an observer’s
behavior.
• Observational learning teaches people both positive and negative behaviors. For
example, a manager within a company can teach the employees how they are
supposed to behave ethically and be socially conscious when interacting and
dealing with rude customers. Moreover, the manager can also train his/her
employees on the different procedures that they can take in case of fire or other
low probability hazardous scenarios.
Knowledge management
• The ability to manage knowledge is crucial in todays knowledge economy.
• Knowledge management is the deliberate and systematic coordination of
an organization’s people technology, processes and organizational
structure in order to add value through reuse and innovation
• This is achieved through the promotion of creating, sharing and applying
knowledge as well as through feeding of valuable lessons learned and best
practice into corporate memory in order to foster continued learning
• The creation and diffusion of knowledge have become increasingly
important factor in competitiveness
• Most executives' states that their greatest asset is the knowledge held
by their employees.
• When employees walk out the door, they take valuable organizational
knowledge with them.
• It is therefore inevitable for a company, to create, maintain, and
develop its knowledge and to develop a learning culture in order to
keep up with constantly changing market conditions and to be
successful in the long run
• According to the following framework , organizational experience
interacts with the context to create knowledge. The context is
conceived as having both a latent component and an active
component through which learning occurs
This framework considers knowledge
to be embedded in three major
components of organizations –
members, tasks and tools – and the
networks formed by crossing them and
explicate the framework further by
proposing that learning occurs in an
organizational context.

To achieve the goal of knowledge

management, companies must enable
and promote a culture of learning and
development, creating an environment
where employees are encouraged to
share information to better the
collective workforce.
A knowledge management strategy is most successful when it also
includes:
• Communication to break down silos between departments
• Tools to make it easy for employees to search for and leverage
company knowledge without extensive training
• Opportunities for employees not just to access, but to actively
contribute to, their organization’s collective intelligence
Documenting knowledge and information is only one piece of the
equation: you also need to empower employees to engage with and
add to that knowledge so that it becomes a dynamic, sustainable
resource.
Approaches to knowledge management
• Approaches to knowledge management in organizational behavior involve
strategies and methods for effectively capturing, sharing, and utilizing
knowledge within an organization.
• common approaches include the codification approach focuses on
converting tacit knowledge (knowledge in people's minds) into explicit
knowledge (documented or formalized knowledge).
• In this approach, organizations use tools like databases, manuals,
documentation, and information systems to codify and store knowledge.
• This makes knowledge more accessible and shareable among employees.
Example: A company creates an extensive knowledge base or an intranet
portal where employees can find documented procedures, best practices,
and expert insights.
Approaches to knowledge management
• The personalization approach emphasizes the importance of fostering
interpersonal relationships and creating opportunities for knowledge
sharing through social interactions.
• In this approach, organizations encourage employees to collaborate,
mentor each other, and engage in conversations to transfer tacit
knowledge.
• It's about creating a culture of open communication and learning.
Example: An organization promotes regular team meetings,
brainstorming sessions, or a mentorship program where experienced
employees can share their insights and skills with newer team
members.
Approaches to knowledge management
• The integration approach seeks to strike a balance between codification
and personalization. It recognizes that both explicit and tacit knowledge
are valuable and should be managed together. Organizations using this
approach use a combination of knowledge databases and encourage social
interactions.
• They aim to integrate formal and informal knowledge-sharing processes to
create a holistic knowledge management system. Example: A company
maintains a knowledge repository with documented procedures
(codification) but also encourages employees to participate in regular
knowledge-sharing forums or communities of practice (personalization).
• Effective knowledge management helps organizations harness their
collective intelligence, improve decision-making, foster innovation, and
adapt to changes more efficiently.