Computing

1. How Do Computers Work?

Units of Data
Smallest unit of data — bit (binary: 1 or 0)
Data represented as — byte (8 bits)

Unit Size in Bytes

kilobyte KB 1000 or 10³

megabyte MB 1000² or 10⁶

gigabyte GB 1000³ or 10⁹

terabyte TB 1000⁴ or 10¹²

Binary System

(Computer System)

kibibyte KiB 1024

mebibyte MiB 1024²

gibibyte GiB 1024³

tebibyte TiB 1024⁴

Processor
Processes data

Follows instructions

Consists of an ALU and a Control Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Performs basic mathematical and logical operations (+-*/)

Control Unit

Follows instructions

Computing 1
 Decides when data should be stored, received or transmitted

Makes sure that data is transported to where it needs to be

Makes sure that data is processed in the correct order

Memory
Stores data instructions and results of processing for later use

Types of Memory
1. Processor Registers

Physically located inside the processor

Extremely fast but small

Used directly by the ALU and control unit

2. RAM (Random Access Memory)

Main memory

Where data and instructions are stored temporarily so that they can be
quickly accessed by the processor when needed

Data stored in RAM can be easily changed

Data is volatile

Data is lost once power supply to the computer is interrupted

3. ROM (Read-only Memory)

Where data and instructions that rarely need to be changed or needed for
the computer to start up are stored

Data stored in ROM cannot be easily changed and thus remains there
whether power supply is on or off

Ideal for storing instructions needed before data can be loaded into RAM

Secondary Storage
Non-volatile memory medium storing large amounts of data

Cheaper but much slower in speed than RAM

1. Magnetic

Data is stored on a magnetic material

Computing 2
 Data is read by a magnetic ‘head’

a. Large storage capacity up to TB of data; relatively cheaper than optical

and solid-state

b. Easily damaged, will break over time; much slower than solid-state

Hard disk (HDD), Magnetic card

2. Optical

Data is stored as very small pits or indentations that can be read or written
by a laser

a. Relatively large storage capacity up to GB of data

b. Lower maximum storage capacity than magnetic storage media;

vulnerable to scratches and fingerprints

DVD, CD, Blu-ray disc

3. Solid-state

Data is stored in electronic circuits called ‘flash memory’ that have no

moving parts

a. Much faster; not as vulnerable to drops, mechanical shocks, scratches or

fingerprints; smaller in size and lighter in weight; uses very little power
and produces no noise

b. Much more expensive

SSD, USB flash drive, Memory cards (SD, microSD)

Data Bus and Address Buses

A bus is a collection of wires which serves as a “highway” for data to travel on

Can be made of physical wires or conductive lines

Data Bus
Transport data between memory and processor

Bi-directional

Address Bus
Transport required memory location from processor to memory

One direction

Computing 3
 When the processor reads from or writes to memory (RAM), the relevant
address information is provided on the address bus

Input and Output

Input
Data or instructions received

Scanner

Camera

Keyboard

Microphone

Mouse

Output
Immediate or final results produced by the computer usually in the form of
processed data

Printer

Monitor

Speaker

2. Algorithm
Input and Output
a. Input

Computing 4
 i. Data / instructions that the computer receives

ii. from human / external environment

iii. for processing

Lets users enter data and/or instructions into computer

b. Output

i. Intermediate / final results

ii. produced by computer

iii. in the form of processed data

Outputs (displays / projects / prints) processed data from computer

Problem Solving Techniques

Decomposition
1. Incremental Approach

💡 Identifies individual features of the input and output causing the

problem to be too large to handle → deals with the problem in steps

Purpose: Adds functionality in stages.

Development Process: Built step by step in versions.

System Growth: Grows progressively with each stage.

Interdependencies: Stages depend on previous stages.

Testing: Tests after each stage.

Flexibility: Easy to add features over time.

2. Modular Approach

Computing 5
 💡 Solve simple steps of the problem manually and identify tasks that are
of different natures, which can be separated from each other to
become distinct and/or unrelated sub-problems → results in
different sub-problems

Purpose: Splits system into independent modules.

Development Process: Develops modules separately and integrates them

later.

System Growth: Modules are developed independently from the start

Interdependencies: Modules work independently.

Testing: Tests each module individually.

Flexibility: Easy to modify or replace modules.

Pattern Recognition

💡 Identifying the patterns among two or more problems from different

situations or sub-problems obtained from decomposition

Patterns are clues that the solutions to these problems may be similar

Generalisation

💡 Replacing two or more similar items with a single, more general item

Can be done for both problems and solutions

eg: a² + 2ab + b² = (a + b)²

Computing 6
 3. Flowcharts and Pseudo-code
Flowcharts
Symbols
1. Terminator

Begin and end the program

PILL SHAPED

eg: START, END

2. Process

Do something

RECTANGLE SHAPED

eg: counter = counter + 1

3. Decision

Gives condition

DIAMOND SHAPED

eg: IS counter >= 100?

Computing 7
 4. Data

Input and output

PARALLELOGRAM SHAPED

eg: INPUT x

Pseudo-code
Keywords
1. INPUT variable
OUTPUT “text”
and/or variable

2. IF…THEN
ELSEIF…
THEN
ELSE

ENDIF

3. WHILE…

ENDWHILE

4. FOR...

NEXT…

4. Programs
Syntax
1. Meaning

Computing 8
 Rules that determine how the words and symbols in a valid instruction
are arranged

2. Error

Result of incorrect source code that does not follow the rules of the
language

Translators
Compilers
Advantages

Faster than interpreters

All translation has been done beforehand

Compilation does not need to run the program after compilation is

complete

Syntax errors are detected before the program is run

Disadvantages

Changes to the source code need to be recompiled before taking effect

Compilers usually do not offer interactive mode

Interpreters
Advantages

Changes to the source code take effect immediately

Interpreters usually offer interactive mode

Facilitates learning and experimentation

Disadvantages

Slower than compilers

Translation occurs while the program is running

Interpreter needs to be run every time the program is started

Syntax errors may interrupt the running of a program

Computing 9
 5. Programs RLA (teaches python)
Stages in developing a program

💡 Go Pee With The Donkey:

a. Gather requirements

b. Plan solutions

c. Write code

d. Test and refine code

e. Deploy code

1. Gather requirements

a. Interview intended audience of program to understand the nature of the

problem and their expectations

b. Specify the complete set of inputs necessary for the problem and how they
are supplied

c. Specify the complete set of outputs necessary for the problem and their
formats

2. Plan solutions

a. Solve simplified examples manually and generalise steps for the required
output

b. Break the problem into smaller parts and refine them closer to the solution

c. Compare the problem to previously solved ones and identify useful

algorithms

d. Estimate the effort or time needed before deciding on an algorithm

e. Write potential algorithms using flowcharts or pseudocode

3. Write code

a. Write code as planned in the Plan solutions stage as efficiently as possible

4. Test and refine code

Computing 10
 a. Correcting mistakes made while translating the planned algorithm into
code:

i. accidental syntax error

ii. forgotten to check for invalid input

b. Programmer could have forgotten to consider exceptional cases

c. Requirement gathering stage may have been incomplete

d. Feeding the algorithm a set of inputs and comparing the outputs with their
corresponding expected set of outputs

5. Deploy code

a. Program is released and used by its intended audience

b. Tasks performed under the Deploy code stage:

i. Users are trained to use the program

ii. Transition from old program to new program

iii. Evaluate usefulness of the program and consider changes which could
improve usability or effectiveness

6. Ensure that a program works as intended

Validating Input Data
1. Length Check — recall the number of items in a list or number of characters in
a string

2. Range Check — limit the input to a particular range of values

3. Presence Check — ensure that all the required inputs are provided

4. Format Check — ensure that the input satisfies additional complex

requirements (eg emails or URLs)

5. Existence Check — checking that a particular condition is met or item exists

before performing an operation

Designing Test Cases

Program Errors
1. Syntax Errors

Computing 11
 Errors due to incorrect source code not following the rules of the
language

Caused by spelling mistakes or incorrect use of symbols in source code

2. Run-time Errors

Errors detected while the program is running, usually causing the

program to crash or hang

Incorrect use of commands, input data not properly validated or

conditions occurring outside program control (eg input is a string instead
of an integer)

3. Logic Errors

Errors caused by mistakes in the algorithm producing

unexpected/incorrect results even when the code runs without crashing
or hanging

Use of an incorrect or incomplete algorithm

Conditions for Test Cases

1. Normal Conditions

2. Boundary Conditions

3. Error Conditions

Debugging
1. Using (intermittent) print statements

2. Testing the program in chunks or parts

7. Being a Safe and Responsible Computer

User
Data Corruption and Loss
Human Error
Reasons

Computing 12
 Storage devices may be accidentally damaged during transport

Multiple users working on the same file may accidentally overwrite each
other’s data

Preventive Measures

Make regular backups of data *

Use adequate protection when transporting storage devices

Set up rules when collaborating with multiple users to prevent them from
writing to the same file at the same time

Power Failure
Reasons

1. Data in the process of being written to a storage device may become

corrupted

2. Data stored in volatile memory but not yet written to a storage device will
be lost

Preventive Measures

Make regular backups of data

Set up a backup power source or UPS (uninterruptible power source) so

storage devices can complete any write operations in case of a power
failure

Hardware Failure or Damage

Reasons

All magnetic / optical / solid-state storage devices (secondary storage)

can fail due to

overuse,

manufacturing defects

or age

Preventive Measures

Make regular backups of data

Check storage devices regularly and replace them immediately when

signs of failure are detected

Computing 13
 Malicious Software or Viruses
Reasons

Some malicious software may purposely damage and corrupt data as a

way to attack the computer

Preventive Measures

Make regular backups of data

Avoid opening emails or chat attachments or files from unknown sources

Install and configure a firewall to prevent them from spreading through the
network

Install anti-virus and anti-spyware software

Perform regular scans and updates

Unauthorised Access
When data owned by someone is used by someone else (eg intruder or even
member of public) without permission

Causes
1. Poor authentication

2. Poor access control or authorisation

3. Poor understanding of privacy policies

Authentication
Process of verifying the user using something the user:

1. knows, eg password

2. owns, eg mobile phone

3. physically has which is unique, eg thumbprint

1. Password

Avoid:

using:

Computing 14
 birth dates

surnames

re-using passwords

leaving them unchanged for a long time

Use:

mixture of

lower-case letters

upper-case letters

numbers

symbols

unique passwords for each computer or online account

update them at least once every 90 days

2. Security Tokens

To access bank account online, the user has to confirm his/her identity by:

1. providing a secret password or personal identification number (PIN)

2. followed by a one-time password (OTP) generated by the security

token or mobile phone owned by the user

Two-Factor Authentication → uses evidence from something user knows

and owns

3. Biometrics

Authentication based on the measurement of human physical

characteristics

eg fingerprint, voice, etc

More secure than passwords as physical characteristics are typically

unique to the individual and cannot be easily replicated

Biometrics can help guard against attempts to establish fraudulent

identities and prevent identity theft

Access Control or Authorisation

Computing 15
 Ability of the computer to control the access of data and resources once a user is
logged in

1. File Permissions

Administrator

Special user who can override permissions for almost any file or
folder

Administrator rights

Ability of a user to perform tasks related to authentication and

authorisation (A&A)

creating and removing user accounts

resetting passwords

overriding file permissions

2. Firewalls → networks

A device or computer program which prevents unauthorised access to or

from a private network

Firewalls prevent harmful content from passing through it to reach other

computers connected to the network

Monitors each piece of data transmitted through a network

Either blocks or allows the data to pass through based on a set of

rules configured by an administrator

When properly configured, firewalls can

make sure external traffic is blocked

protect computers within the network from unauthorised access

3. Encryption

Encoding data so that a secret key is needed to access the data

Before the encrypted data is decoded using the secret key, it shows up as
random, meaningless data.

Encryption is used to protect data from unauthorised access by allowing

only authorised users to have the secret key

Can be used in combination with file permissions to disallow

unauthorised user from accessing data without the secret key

Computing 16
 Privacy Policies
Privacy: Ability to keep specific data or resources from being known to others

Privacy policy: Rules and practices followed by an organisation regarding the

collection, protection and use of personal or private data provided by users

1. Social Networking Sites

Personal data can be harvested for spam or other threats to privacy

Users should be aware that once data is digitised and uploaded to a public
network (internet), it can potentially remain there forever

Digital data is easily copied and republished in ways no longer in the

control of the original uploader

Personal data is sensitive and should not be shared publicly

Good measures to prevent unauthorised access in social networking sites

Read and fully understand the privacy policy of the social networking
site

Set sharing settings to private to only allow people known in real life to
read shared posts

Think twice before posting personal photographs or information you

feel uncomfortable sharing

Accept friend requests wisely

Privacy and Security Threats

Types of Privacy and Security Threats
1. Cookie

Small file used by websites to store personal information on a user’s web

browser

Cookies can be misused maliciously to collect personal information on

others

2. Pharming

Computing 17
 Interception of request sent from a computer to a legitimate website and
redirection to a fake website to steal personal data or credit card details

Stolen data can be used for unauthorised access to even more of the
victim’s data

More difficult to detect than phishing as fake website uses the same
address as the real website

3. Phishing

Use of emails and fake websites which appear to be from reputable

companies to steal personal information such as passwords and credit
card details from users

Stolen data can be used for unauthorised access to even more of the
victim’s data

4. Spamming

Mass distribution of unwanted messages or advertising to email

addresses collected from sources such as public mailing lists, social
networking sites, company websites and personal blogs

5. Spyware

Hidden program that secretly collects personal information about users

and transmits information to attackers without the users’ knowledge

Collected data can be used for unauthorised access to even more of the
victim’s data

6. Trojan Horse

Computer program that pretends to be a harmless file or useful application

Once the Trojan horse is run, it does something harmful such as giving
intruders unauthorised access to computer instead

7. Unauthorised Access

Use of data by someone else, such as an intruder, without permission

Result of other privacy and security threats that bypass authentication

and authorisation

Unauthorised access to passwords or private information can lead to

identity theft, stolen money or public embarrassment

8. Virus

Computing 18
 Computer program that attaches itself to a normally harmless program
and modifies it

When the modified program is run by a user, the virus attaches copies of
itself to other programs it can find, “infecting” them

9. Worm

Computer program that runs automatically and attempts to spread by

sending copies of itself to other computers

Unlike virus, worm does not need to attach itself to existing programs

Defensive Measures Against Privacy and Security Threats

1. Install Anti-Virus and Anti-Spyware Programs — Spyware, Virus, Trojan
Horse

a. Anti-spyware

Software to detect, remove and stop (DRS) spyware and other malware
from running

b. Anti-virus

Software to detect, remove and stop (DRS) viruses and other malware
from running

c. Operating System

Software designed to support a computer’s basic functions

d. Malware Signature

Unique evidence used to detect a known version of some malware

Used to:

Detect when malware is about to be run and stop it from running

Detect malware that is already running and try to stop it

Scan the user’s storage and email to detect and remove malware; if a
program has already been infected by a virus, it will also try to restore
the original program

Most anti-virus and anti-spyware programs rely on a list of signatures

List needs to be updated regularly to ensure that protection is

effective against new malware

Computing 19
 Most anti-virus and anti-malware programs can update the list
automatically through the internet

Some especially devious Trojan horses appear to be anti-malware or anti-

spyware programs

Trust only anti-malware or anti-spyware programs provided by

reputable companies or websites, or as part of computer’s operating
system

2. Update Software Regularly — Worms

Worms do not need human interaction to start running, but can run
automatically.

Worms do this by exploiting bugs or unintended behaviour in

legitimate programs already running on computers

A flawed web browser may have a bug that allows websites to run
malicious programs without the user’s knowledge

Important to update software regularly so that bugs discovered since the

last update can be fixed

Especially important for software used to interact with public networks

such as the internet as data from public networks is more likely to be
malicious and designed to take advantage of bugs

3. Identify Phishing — Phishing

Ignore and delete phishing emails

Tell-tale signs of phishing:

Claims to be from company or bank and asks for personal data or

confidential information

When in doubt, call the company or bank to verify

Uses a generic greeting (”Dear customer” / “Dear user”) — sign that

the email is sent automatically and not by a person

* Inaccurate logos or grammatical and spelling errors

Email seems to come from a fake sender or from an address or contact

that does not match the supposed source of the email

Contains hyperlinks with destinations that do not match what the

hyperlink text says or is expected

Computing 20
 To check destination, hover mouse cursor over the hyperlink and
the destination will appear as a pop-up or on the status bar

Tone of the email is urgent, threatening, or too good to be true

Phishers use scare tactics

Promise an unrealistically perfect offer

4. Identify Pharming — Pharming

a. Victims enter web address of bank into browser

b. Presented with website which appears to be genuine but is provided by

attacker’s web server

c. When trying to login to the fake website, the victim’s usernames,

passwords and account details are recorded by the attacker

d. Attacker uses these details to access the victim’s bank account on the
bank’s actual website

Attacker must have malware running on the victim’s computer or have

taken control of a network device such as a router or server

Measures to protect against pharming:

Ensure that encryption is used when submitting credit card or

sensitive information via the internet

Regularly check bank, debit/credit card and other statements to ensure

all transactions are legitimate

Regularly update web browsers and software running on network

hardware so all bugs are fixed

Make sure two-factor authentication is used for all bank transactions

No unauthorised transactions can take place as attacker cannot

provide the required OTP

5. Manage Spam — Spam

Measures to reduce impact of spam:

Avoid giving email address to unfamiliar contacts or untrusted

websites

Read and understand privacy policy of any website that requests an

email address before providing it

Computing 21
 Look out for options to turn off email updates or participation in
mailing lists in settings of online account

Use filtering system provided by email service to block specific

senders or allow specific senders through

6. Manage Cookies — Cookies

Cookies can be used to keep track of user movements and preferences

within the website

Advertising companies with advertisements on multiple websites can use

cookies to keep track of users as they move between websites

Most web browsers have settings which can be configured to disable

cookies or only allow cookies from selected websites

Intellectual Property
Copyright: The legal right of owners to control the use and distribution of their
intellectual property

Intellectual property: Creations of the mind that have value but can exist purely as
data with no physical form

Licence: Official description of activities that are authorised or forbidden by the

owner of intellectual property

Types of Software Licences

1. Public Domain Software

Software where legal protections typically granted to intellectual property

are expired, surrendered or inapplicable

Anyone can legally copy, modify and distribute

Does not need to come with source code

Not protected by copyright

2. Free and Open-Source Software

Software where users can freely change, copy, study and share the
software

Anyone can legally copy, modify and distribute

The authors retain ownership through copyright law

Copyright owners can use copyright protection to require that:

Computing 22
 Software is always distributed with source code

Attribution to the original authors is always provided

Modifications must use a similar licence if distributed

Open Courseware: Higher-education course materials such as videos and

notes created by universities and distributed for free on the internet

3. Proprietary Software

Commercial software where most legal protections under copyright are

retained

It is usually NOT legal to copy, modify or distribute propriety software

Source code is usually kept secret

4. Freeware and Shareware

a. Freeware

Similar to proprietary software except it is available for use at no cost

b. Shareware

Demonstration software distributed for free but only for a specific

evaluation period

After the evaluation period, program expires and user cannot access
the program anymore unless the user pays a registration fee

Like proprietary software, the source code is usually kept secret and
modifying
the software is usually illegal

Unlike proprietary software, it may be legal to copy and distribute

freeware and shareware

Software Piracy
The crime of copying, distributing and/or use of proprietary software in a manner
not permitted to its licence

Specific to software

Forms:

Unauthorised copying of software

Computing 23
 Installing software on multiple devices without paying the appropriate
number of licences

Cracking software

Modifying proprietary software so that the software cannot tell that it is

being used illegally

Distribution of pirated copies

Sharing or selling unauthorised copies of the software

Copyright Infringement
The use or distribution of copyrighted work without the permission of the
copyright owner illegally

Can occur for any copyrighted materials, eg text or images on the internet

Equivalent to theft, hence illegal

Measures to avoid committing copyright infringement:

Check and follow website’s terms and conditions

Limit reproduction of copyrighted work to 10% (educationally)

Use public domain material instead

Plagiarism
The act of passing off someone else’s original work as your own, without
providing proper credit or attribution to the actual author

May not be illegal but still an act of dishonesty

Impact of Technology on Life

Communication
Social

Positive

Internet has enabled diverse cultures to interact and share ideas with
each other

Social networking sites allow users to remain connected with friends,

family and colleagues even over long distances

Computing 24
 AI has made it possible for anyone to automatically transcribe and
translate speech into different languages with remarkable speed and
accuracy

Negative

People use the internet to reinforce their existing opinions or to spread

rumours and misinformation

News and social networking sites use AI to promote content that the user
is interested in regardless of inaccuracy

Economic

Rise of smart phones has led to an increased focus on mobile devices and
mobile applications in the computing industry

Rise of social media has led to increased use of social media for marketing
purposes and has helped businesses better understand buying habits and
consumer needs through social media posts

Improvements in communications technology has reduced business costs

through the use of cheap and effective video conferencing calls over face-to-
face meetings

Ethical

Should false information on the internet be blocked or would that be taking

censorship too far?

Is it right to collect and analyse social media posts in ways not intended by the
original authors?

Education
Social

Positive

Technology has allowed for lessons to be more engaging and relevant to

students inside and outside of the classroom through better videos,
simulations and collaboration tools

Open sharing of information on the internet has made education

accessible to all, even learners from disadvantaged backgrounds

AI has made it possible to provide personalised learning and testing for

thousands of students with minimal manual effort

Negative

Computing 25
 Technology has made it more challenging for educators as students’
attention spans are getting shorter due to technology and social media

Economic

Rise of open courseware has led to many for-profit and non-profit

organisations that offer customised lessons on a variety of topics for self-
study online

Many educational institutions have invested heavily in materials and

infrastructure needed to conduct lessons over the internet

Some traditional educators have to go through retraining and pick up new

skills to better utilise these new technologies for education

Ethical

Should students be allowed to use mobile phones in school?

Can education technology ever be more effective than a good teacher?

Finance
Social

Positive

Consumers can spend, borrow, invest and save money through low-cost
and easy-to-use web and mobile applications

There is no longer a need to perform transactions in person

Individuals have become better-educated on how to make smart financial

decisions using information freely available on the internet

Using AI, consumers in retail can enjoy the convenience of making

payments via biometric authentication (eg face or fingerprint recognition)

Negative

Threats to privacy and security of data and the ease of obtaining false
information on the internet has made people vulnerable to financial
scams and other get-rich-quick schemes

Economic

Companies have started making financial services more efficient for both
individuals and businesses

Companies use technology and software to reduce the time, cost and effort
needed for payments, investments, fundraising, trading and/or data

Computing 26
 analytics for business and individuals

With the evolution of technology, time needed to perform a financial trade

has decreased by an extreme amount, which leads to the rise of algorithmic
trading

Algorithmic trading is the study and refinement of algorithms to make

trading decisions at speeds impossible by humans

Many banks use AI to analyse transaction data and automatically identify

unusual spending patterns or money transfers. This helps them automatically
detect and prevent instances of financial fraud without the need for manual
intervention

Ethical

Should financial technology be limited to protect more vulnerable users?

Is it safe or acceptable to have financial markets controlled by secret

algorithms instead of humans?

Healthcare
Social

Positive

Technology has enabled telemedicine, the use of video conferencing and

other technology for doctors to provide medical consultations and
diagnoses over the Internet or applications in mobile devices

Gives patients who are located in remote places or have limited

mobility better access to healthcare

By analysing medical data, AI can automatically identify warning signs of

possible health problems and provide doctors with more accurate
diagnoses

Negative

Some patients find the use of robots and other technology in healthcare
impersonal and mistrust the ability of machines to provide proper
healthcare

Other patients may misuse information from the internet and make
potentially dangerous decisions based on incorrect diagnoses

Patients may be uncomfortable with the collection of medical data

necessary to improve the performance of healthcare-related AI

Computing 27
 Economic

Technology has provided telemedicine solutions to existing healthcare

businesses. Many of these solutions provide a way for patients to securely
transfer potentially sensitive medical information over the Internet

Increased focus in automating healthcare processes through the use of

robots to dispense medicine and other menial (skill-less manual) tasks

Can cause such jobs to disappear from the job market

Ethical

Is it acceptable for robots to replace humans in providing certain kinds of

healthcare?

Is it acceptable to transfer private medical information over the Internet?

Transportation
Social

Positive

Transport has become less stressful and more predictable for travellers
due to the availability of detailed maps as well as real-time information on
bus frequencies, traffic congestion levels and street-level photographs of
neighbourhoods around the world

All this information is available at low cost through popular mobile devices

Location data from such devices may also be collected by AI to

improve the accuracy and relevance of any map or traffic data
displayed

Negative

Some people are uncomfortable with pictures and information about

them or their home may be used by mapping companies without their
permission for accuracy of maps

This is true with regards to the collection of location data from mobile
devices as this data could reveal personal details such as home and work
addresses that they might wish to keep private

Economic

Rise of self-driving vehicles with the use of AI is likely to open new areas of
growth in the travel industry

Computing 28
 Singapore is one of the first countries where self-driving cars are tested,
and if successful, could revolutionise the motor industry

Multiple new companies are offering on-demand rides via mobile

applications, where these developments have led to sweeping changes in the
taxi service industry as well as employment opportunities for taxi drivers

Mapping technology is an area of growth which focuses on making 3D

mapping and geospatial data more accessible and useful to travellers

Ethical

Is it acceptable for mapping companies to drive through neighbourhoods and

take pictures to put them online?

Is the sharing of personal transport preferences worth the conveniences

offered by AI?

Entertainment
Social

Positive

Technology has offered more exciting and engaging forms of

entertainment

Many computer games have active online communities and mobile games
have even managed to bring participants together through in-game
incentives to meet or team up

AI has also made it possible to provide more accurate recommendations

for consumers based on collection of data of their previous forms of
entertainment

Negative

Some people may be addicted to computer games or social networking

sites. There is increasing concern that this is causing the deficiency of
peoples’ real-life social skills or people abandoning their responsibilities

AI has made it possible for anyone to create doctored images and videos
that appear very convincing to the average viewer

These images while mostly used for entertainment, can be used to

cause public alarm or spread damaging falsehoods

Economic

Computing 29
 Games, animation and media are areas of strong growth in the entertainment
industry with new opportunities opened by the rise of high-quality virtual
reality, augmented reality and motion-tracking technology

Many businesses are using monitoring technology and strategies from game
design to provide rewards and incentives for work-related achievements

Ethical

Is it right for game companies to make money off addicted players?

Is it right for businesses to use technology to monitor employees more

extensively?

8. Number Systems
Applications of Binary and Hexadecimal Systems
RGB Colour Codes
Abbreviation of Red, Green, Blue

RR, GG and BB are two-digit hexadecimal numbers that represent the red,
green and blue components of the colour

The six digits represent three different numbers

IPv4
IP address is made up of 4 bytes (32 bits)

A sequence of 4 denary numbers

Each number represents one byte of the address

Each of the 4 numbers can neither be less than 0 or more than 255

eg: 10.133.16.165

IPv4 address contains 32 bits, so the maximum number of IPv4 addresses is

2³² ≈ 4.3 billion

This number of possible IPv4 addresses is not enough

Computing 30
 IPv6
IP address now made up of 16 bytes (128 bits) → 8 numbers

Maximum number of IPv6 addresses is 2¹²⁸ ≈ 3.4 × 10³⁸

Almost all computers all computers connected to the internet have an IPv4
address and many use the IPv6 address system as well

New format of expressing IP addresses

New format can be compacted

eg: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0020:0017:0bad:c0de

Leading zeroes can be omitted:

2001:db8:0:0:20:17:bad:c0de

Consecutive zeroes can be condensed down to two colon characters:

2001:db8::20:17:bad:c0de

No more than two sets of consecutive zeroes can be condensed:

NOT ALLOWED: 2001:db8::20::1 ←double “::”

Port Number

Used in combination with IP address to identify a program running on a

network

16-bit: assigned in a range from 0 - 65535

SSID

Identifies WAP (Wireless Access Point) and devices connected to it

Wireless devices connected to the same WAP use the same SSID

MAC Address
IP addresses may change each time the device connects to the internet, not
permanent

Using MAC (Media Access Control) is a more permanent way of identifying the
device

MAC address is unlikely to change each time it connects

MAC addresses are used to transmit data between devices in a LAN

Computing 31
 Made up of 6 bytes (48 bits)

Sequence of 6 hexadecimal numbers, one for each byte of the address,

separated by hyphens (-) or colons (:)

eg: 20:17:0B:AD:C0:DE

First 3 numbers (20:17:0B) represent the manufacturer’s identity

number

Last 3 numbers (AD:C0:DE) represent the device’s serial number

ASCII and Unicode

ASCII

Represents 128 characters in total

33 control characters

95 printable characters

Uses 7 bits to represent each character but stored in a byte (8 bits) with one
unused bit

Can only represent Latin characters and cannot accommodate characters

from other languages, mathematical symbols or emojis

Letter ‘A’ is represented by the number 65 in decimal or 1000001 in binary

Unicode

Supports over 143,000 characters

Can encode characters from virtually all written languages and symbols

Letter ‘A’ is also represented by the number 65

ASCII is for simple, English-only text representation, uses minimal storage

Small limited system suitable for basic text encoding in English

Unicode is the modern standard for text encoding, capable of handling multiple
languages and symbols

Designed to support characters from most of the world’s languages and

additional symbols

Much more versatile

Computing 32
 9. How do Logic Circuits Make Decisions
Boolean

Computing 33
 10. Spreadsheets
Basic Spreadsheet Understanding
x-axis : Horizontal, Row

y-axis : Vertical, Column

Cell: Space for data in a particular column or row of a spreadsheet

Data Types
1. General

2. Number

3. Currency

4. Date

5. Time

6. Percentage

7. Text

8. Logical Value (bool)

Formulas and Automatic Recalculation

[ Ｆ４]
Absolute

Computing 34
 Absolute Cell Referencing — Comparing against one cell for selection

Absolute Range Referencing — Comparing against a range of cells for

selection

Automatic Recalculation

Spreadsheet can automatically recalculate formulas in affected cells if

referenced cells are updated

Functions
Logical Functions
Same

<, >, <=, >=

Different

= (equivalent)

<> (not equivalent)

Text Functions
1. LEN()

2. MID(text, start_index, length)

3. LEFT()

4. RIGHT()

Date Functions
1. TODAY()

Lookup Functions*
1. HLOOKUP()

2. VLOOKUP()

Computing 35
 Math Functions
1. CEILING.MATH()

2. FLOOR.MATH()

3. POWER(number, power)

4. SQRT()

5. ROUND(number, decimal_places)

6. RANDBETWEEN(lowest, highest)

7. RAND()

random float from 0 (inclusive) to 1 (exclusive)

8. SUM()

9. SUMIF()

10. QUOTIENT()

11. MOD()

remainder

Statistical Functions
1. MAX()

2. MIN()

3. LARGE()

4. SMALL()

5. COUNT()

only for cells with numeric values eg numbers, percentages, dates, times

6. COUNTA()

counting for cells with alphanumeric values

7. COUNTIF()

8. COUNTBLANK()

9. MODE.SNGL()

Computing 36
 most repeated value

10. MEDIAN()

11. AVERAGE()

Goal Seek
Reverse engineering of a given function to obtain a part of the formula when
already given the desired outcome

Conditional Formatting
Formatting cells based on a given condition through a formula or built in
condition

11. Networks
Types of Networks
1. LAN (Local Area Network)

Network of computing devices connected within a small geographical area

Typically in the same building such as a home, school or office

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Network of computing devices covering a larger geographical area — two

or more buildings within the same town or city — than a LAN

Typically owned and operated by a large organisation such as a business

or government body

3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

Network of computing devices covering a large-scale geographical area

Typically across multiple geographical locations

*Can span long distances via long-range transmission media such as

telephone lines, fibre optic cables or satellite links

Generally consists of multiple smaller networks such as LANs or MANs

Computing 37
 eg. The Internet

Network Architecture
1. Router

Routes data packets between different networks

Connects multiple networks

2. Switch

Connects devices

3. NIC (Network Interface Controller)

Provides hardware interface to enable data transfer between a device and

network

48-bit MAC address for it to be able to be identified

Computing 38