CHAPTER NO : 2

Thought :
Definition by E.S.Bogardues
“ Social thought is thinking about social problems by one or few
persons,here and there in human history or at present.”
Social thought refers to the collection of ideas, theories, and frameworks developed by individuals
and societies over time to understand and explain social life, human interactions, and cultural norms.
It encompasses a range of concepts from various disciplines, including sociology, philosophy, political
science, and anthropology. Social thought addresses questions about the nature of society, social
order, power, identity, justice, and change.

The development of social thought has been influenced by historical contexts, cultural values, and
prominent thinkers such as Plato, Confucius, Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and many
others. This field explores how human societies function, the role of social institutions (like family,
religion, and government), and the factors that lead to social stability or social change.

Social thought also shapes and is shaped by real-world issues like inequality, race, gender, economics,
and political structures, providing tools and perspectives for understanding complex social
phenomena.

Theory :
Definition by Robert Merton
“ A theory is a conceptual scheme which attempts to explain the
relationship between two or more variables.”
In sociology, a theory is a set of ideas and concepts that explains how society operates, why social
patterns exist, and how social processes and institutions influence human behavior. Sociological
theories are frameworks that help sociologists understand social phenomena, predict social behavior,
and interpret the meaning of social actions within a broader social context.

Theories in sociology often address questions related to power, inequality, identity, and social
change. They are used to analyze aspects of social life, such as group dynamics, social institutions,
and cultural norms. For example, theories can explain why certain inequalities persist in society or
how socialization impacts individual identity.

There are several major sociological theories, including:

1. Structural Functionalism:
Focuses on the ways in which social institutions and structures contribute to the stability and
functioning of society.
2. Conflict Theory:
Emphasizes power dynamics and inequality, exploring how conflicts between different social
groups drive social change.
 3. Symbolic Interactionism:
Examines how individuals interact and create shared meanings through symbols, language,
and social interactions.
4. Feminist Theory:
Analyzes gender inequalities and the ways in which gender shapes social structures and
personal experiences.
5. Postmodern Theory:
Challenges traditional assumptions about social structures and emphasizes the fluid, diverse,
and fragmented nature of modern society.

Each theory offers a different perspective, helping sociologists to view social phenomena from
multiple angles and enrich their understanding of complex social issues.

Research process :
The social research process is a systematic method used by sociologists and other social scientists to
investigate social phenomena, gather and analyze data, and derive conclusions that contribute to
understanding human behavior and society. The process follows a structured sequence to ensure
that research is thorough, reliable, and valid. Here are the main steps in the social research process:

1. Identify the Research Problem:

This step involves selecting a clear and specific research question or problem to address.
Researchers often choose topics based on gaps in existing knowledge, pressing social issues,
or theoretical interests.
2. Literature Review:
Researchers review existing studies, theories, and findings related to their topic to
understand what has already been done and to refine their research question or hypothesis.
This step helps avoid redundancy and can shape the approach or methods used.
3. Formulate a Hypothesis or Research Questions:
Based on the literature review, researchers may develop a hypothesis (a testable prediction
about the relationship between variables) or pose specific research questions if the study is
exploratory.
4. Choose a Research Design:
Researchers decide on the overall strategy or blueprint for the study. Common designs
include surveys, experiments, case studies, ethnography, and secondary data analysis. The
choice depends on the research question, resources, and ethical considerations.
5. Select a Sample:
Since it’s often impractical to study entire populations, researchers select a sample—a
smaller group that represents the population they’re studying. Sampling methods (like
random sampling or purposive sampling) help ensure that the sample is as representative as
possible.
6. Data Collection:
This step involves gathering information according to the research design. Data can be
collected through various methods, such as interviews, questionnaires, observations, or
reviewing existing documents and records.
7. Data Analysis:
 After collecting data, researchers analyze it to find patterns, relationships, or trends.
Quantitative data is often analyzed statistically, while qualitative data may be analyzed
through thematic or content analysis.
8. Interpret and Report Findings:
Researchers interpret the results in the context of their hypothesis or research questions.
They assess whether the findings support or contradict their initial expectations and consider
implications for theory, policy, or further research.
9. Conclude and Publish:
Finally, researchers present their findings in academic journals, reports, or presentations.
Publishing allows the broader community to access, critique, and build upon the research.
10. Reflection and Further Research:
Often, research leads to new questions or areas for further study. Researchers may reflect
on the limitations of their study and suggest directions for future research.

The social research process is iterative, meaning that researchers might revisit earlier steps as new
insights emerge. This structured approach helps ensure that research is systematic, ethical, and
contributes to a broader understanding of social life.

Theoretical perspective :
Theoretical perspectives are frameworks or viewpoints within sociology and other social sciences
that provide different ways to understand, interpret, and analyze social phenomena. Each
perspective offers a unique lens for examining society, guiding the questions researchers ask and the
methods they use to investigate social issues. The main theoretical perspectives in sociology include:

1. Structural Functionalism:
This perspective views society as a complex system with various parts (such as institutions,
norms, and roles) working together to maintain stability and order. Each part of society
serves a specific function that contributes to the whole. For example, family, education, and
religion each play roles in promoting social stability and cohesion.
2. Conflict Theory:
Conflict theory focuses on the power struggles and inequalities within society, often
examining issues of class, race, gender, and wealth. It views social life as a competition for
limited resources, where dominant groups maintain power and control over marginalized
groups. Conflict theory emphasizes how these power imbalances lead to social change and
conflict.
3. Symbolic Interactionism:
This perspective emphasizes the importance of symbols, language, and daily interactions in
shaping human behavior and social reality. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how
individuals create and interpret meanings through social interaction. It highlights the ways in
which people construct their identities, relationships, and the social world.
4. Feminist Theory:
Feminist theory analyzes gender inequality and aims to understand and challenge the ways
that society perpetuates gender discrimination. This perspective examines the role of
patriarchy, the social construction of gender, and the experiences of women and other
gender minorities. Feminist theory also intersects with issues of race, class, and sexuality.
5. Postmodernism:
Postmodern theory questions traditional assumptions about society, knowledge, and truth. It
challenges the idea that there is a single, objective reality, instead suggesting that reality is
 fragmented, subjective, and constantly changing. Postmodernists often analyze media,
culture, and identity, focusing on how these shape individual experiences and societal
norms.
6. Exchange Theory:
This perspective views social interactions as exchanges where people seek to maximize
benefits and minimize costs. Often used in studying relationships and social behavior,
exchange theory suggests that social bonds are formed based on a cost-benefit analysis.

Each theoretical perspective offers distinct insights into social life. While they sometimes contradict
each other, using multiple perspectives can enrich our understanding of complex social issues by
allowing us to see them from different angles.