Matter is the "stuff" that makes up the universe — everything that takes up space and has

mass is matter.

All matter is made up of atoms, which are in turn made up of protons, neutrons and
electrons.

Atoms come together to form molecules, which are the building blocks for all types of
matter, according to Washington State University. Both atoms and molecules are held
together by a form of potential energy called chemical energy. Unlike kinetic energy, which
is the energy of an object in motion, potential energy is the energy stored in an object.

The five phases of matter

There are four natural states of matter: Solids, liquids, gases and plasma. The fifth state is the
man-made Bose-Einstein condensates.

Solids

In a solid, particles are packed tightly together so they don't move much. The electrons of
each atom are constantly in motion, so the atoms have a small vibration, but they are fixed in
their position. Because of this, particles in a solid have very low kinetic energy.

Solids have a definite shape, as well as mass and volume, and do not conform to the shape of
the container in which they are placed. Solids also have a high density, meaning that the
particles are tightly packed together.

Liquids

In a liquid, the particles are more loosely packed than in a solid and are able to flow around
each other, giving the liquid an indefinite shape. Therefore, the liquid will conform to the
shape of its container.

Much like solids, liquids (most of which have a lower density than solids) are incredibly
difficult to compress.

Gases

In a gas, the particles have a great deal of space between them and have high kinetic energy.
A gas has no definite shape or volume. If unconfined, the particles of a gas will spread out
indefinitely; if confined, the gas will expand to fill its container. When a gas is put under
pressure by reducing the volume of the container, the space between particles is reduced and
the gas is compressed. A look at the periodic table shows that only eleven elements exist as
gases under normal conditions (H,N,O,Cl,F,He,Ni,Ar,Kr,Xe,Rn).
Plasma

Plasma is not a common state of matter here on Earth, but it may be the most common state
of matter in the universe, according to the Jefferson Laboratory. Stars are essentially
superheated balls of plasma.

Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy. The noble
gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are often used to make glowing signs
by using electricity to ionize them to the plasma state.

Bose-Einstein condensate

The Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) was created by scientists in 1995. Using a combination
of lasers and magnets, Eric Cornell and Carl Weiman, scientists at the Joint Institute for Lab
Astrophysics (JILA) in Boulder, Colorado, cooled a sample of rubidium to within a few
degrees of absolute zero. At this extremely low temperature, molecular motion comes very
close to stopping. Since there is almost no kinetic energy being transferred from one atom to
another, the atoms begin to clump together. There are no longer thousands of separate atoms,
just one "super atom."

A BEC is used to study quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level. Light appears to slow
down as it passes through a BEC, allowing scientists to study the particle/wave paradox. A
BEC also has many of the properties of a superfluid, or a fluid that flows without friction.
BECs are also used to simulate conditions that might exist in black holes.

Going through a phase

Adding or removing energy from matter causes a physical change as matter moves from one
state to another. For example, adding thermal energy (heat) to liquid water causes it to
become steam or vapor (a gas). And removing energy from liquid water causes it to become
ice (a solid). Physical changes can also be caused by motion and pressure.

Melting and freezing

When heat is applied to a solid, its particles begin to vibrate faster and move farther apart.
When the substance reaches a certain combination of temperature and pressure, its melting
point, the solid will begin to melt and turn into a liquid.

When two states of matter, such as solid and liquid, are at the equilibrium temperature and
pressure, additional heat added into the system will not cause the overall temperature of the
substance to increase until the entire sample reaches the same physical state. For example,
when you put ice into a glass of water and leave it out at room temperature, the ice and water
will eventually come to the same temperature. As the ice melts from heat coming from the
water, it will remain at zero degrees Celsius until the entire ice cube melts before continuing
to warm.

When heat is removed from a liquid, its particles slow down and begin to settle in one
location within the substance. When the substance reaches a cool enough temperature at a
certain pressure, the freezing point, the liquid becomes a solid.
Most liquids contract as they freeze. Water, however, expands when it freezes into ice,
causing the molecules to push farther apart and decrease the density, which is why ice floats
on top of water.

Adding additional substances, such as salt in water, can alter both the melting and freezing
points. For example, adding salt to snow will decrease the temperature that water freezes on
roads, making it safer for drivers.

There is also a point, known as the triple point, where solids, liquids and gases all exist
simultaneously. Water, for example, exists in all three states at a temperature of 273.16
Kelvin and a pressure of 611.2 pascals.

Most liquids contract when they freeze but water expands, making it less dense when it
becomes ice. This unique characteristic allows ice to float in water, like this massive iceberg
in Antarctica.

Sublimation

When a solid is converted directly into a gas without going through a liquid phase, the
process is known as sublimation. This may occur either when the temperature of the sample
is rapidly increased beyond the boiling point (flash vaporization) or when a substance is
"freeze-dried" by cooling it under vacuum conditions so that the water in the substance
undergoes sublimation and is removed from the sample. A few volatile substances will
undergo sublimation at room temperature and pressure, such as frozen carbon dioxide, or dry
ice.

Vaporization

Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid to a gas and can occur through either evaporation
or boiling.

Because the particles of a liquid are in constant motion, they frequently collide with each
other. Each collision also causes energy to be transferred, and when enough energy is
transferred to particles near the surface they may be knocked completely away from the
sample as free gas particles. Liquids cool as they evaporate because the energy transferred to
surface molecules, which causes their escape, gets carried away with them.

Liquid boils when enough heat is added to a liquid to cause vapor bubbles to form below the
surface. This boiling point is the temperature and pressure at which a liquid becomes a gas.

Condensation and deposition

Condensation occurs when a gas loses energy and comes together to form a liquid. For
example, water vapor condenses into liquid water.
Deposition occurs when a gas transforms directly into a solid, without going through the
liquid phase. Water vapor becomes ice or frost when the air touching a solid, such as a blade
of grass, is cooler than the rest of the air.

Distinctions:

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Has definite shape Takes shape of the Takes the shape of its
container container
Volume Has definite volume Has definite volume Fills the volume of
the container
Particle arrangement Fixed; very close Random; close Random; far apart

Interaction between Very strong Strong Essentially none

particles
Movement of particles Very slow (vibrating) Moderate Very fast

Examples Ice, salt, iron Water, oil, vinegar Water vapor, helium,
air

Why do we put salt on icy sidewalks in the winter?

[Editor's note: In his answer to this question, the late John Margrave argued that salt dissolves
in water as ions of sodium and chlorine, and these ions hydrate, or join to, the water
molecules. This process gives off heat, which thaws ice. A number of readers alerted us to
problems with this explanation. Chemical engineering professor Arthur Pelton of the
University of Montreal provided a representative correction. His explanation follows, and
Margrave's original answer appears below that.]

Although the hydration process gives off heat, this is more than compensated for by the heat
absorbed during the initial decomposition of the salt into ions. In other words, the total
process of dissolution--decomposition into ions plus hydration--absorbs heat. This can easily
be demonstrated: pour some water into a glass and test its temperature with your finger. Add
some salt, stir, and test it again. The temperature will have decreased.

The actual reason that the application of salt causes ice to melt is that a solution of water and
dissolved salt has a lower freezing point than pure water. When added to ice, salt first
dissolves in the film of liquid water that is always present on the surface, thereby lowering its
freezing point below the ices temperature. Ice in contact with salty water therefore melts,
creating more liquid water, which dissolves more salt, thereby causing more ice to melt, and
so on. The higher the concentration of dissolved salt, the lower its overall freezing point.
There is a limit, however, to the amount of salt that can be dissolved in water. Water
containing a maximum amount of dissolved salt has a freezing point of about zero degrees
Fahrenheit. Therefore, the application of salt will not melt the ice on a sidewalk if the
temperature is below zero degrees F.

To understand why water containing dissolved salt has a lower freezing point than pure
water, consider that when ice and water are in contact there is a dynamic exchange at the
interface of the two phase states. Because of thermal vibrations in the ice, a large number of
molecules per second become detached from its surface and enter into the water. During the
same period of time, a large number of water molecules attach themselves to the surface of
the ice and become part of the solid phase. At higher temperatures, the former rate is faster
than the latter and the ice melts. At lower temperatures the reverse is true. At the freezing
point the two rates are equal. If salt is dissolved in the water, the rate of detachment of the ice
molecules is unaffected but the rate at which water molecules attach to the ice surface is
decreased, mainly because the concentration of water molecules in the liquid (molecules per
cubic centimeter) is lower. Hence, the melting point is lower.

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John Margrave, a chemistry professor at Rice University, explains.

All icy surfaces in fact contain small puddles of water. Because salt is soluble in water, salt
applied to such surfaces dissolves. Liquid water has what is known as a high dielectric
constant, which allows the ions in the salt (positively charged sodium and negatively charged
chlorine) to separate. These ions, in turn, react with water molecules and hydratethat is, form
hydrated ions (charged ions joined to water molecules). This process gives off heat, because
hydrates are more stable than the individual ions. That energy then melts microscopic parts of
the ice surface. Thus a substantial amount of salt spread over a large surface can actually
thaw the ice. In addition, if you drive over the ice in your automobile, the pressure helps force
the salt into the ice and more of this hydration occurs.

The rock salt applied to icy roads in the winter is the same substance that comes out of your
salt shaker. The only difference is the size. Rock salt is the material that has crystalized in
larger pieces, whereas table salt has been ground up and pulverized to a more or less uniform
size distribution. Calcium chloride is just as commonly used to melt ice on the streets as
sodium chloride is. In fact, it's cheaper than sodium chloride. Companies manufacture large
amounts of calcium chloride from brines and other natural materials that can be used for the
same purpose.