FOREST ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY FR 05

Unit 2: Ecosystem and its Structure

Unit Structure

2.0 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Types Ecosystem
2.3.1 Types of ecosystem based on energy resources
2.4 Structure of Ecosystem
2.5 Major Ecosystem
2.5.1 Freshwater Ecosystem
2.5.2 Marine Ecosystem
2.5.3 Forest Ecosystem
2.5.4 Desert Ecosystem
Summary
References
Suggested Readings

2.0 Learning Objectives

After completing this unit you shall be able to:

 Define ecosystem

 Discuss the types of ecosystems

 Discuss the structure of an ecosystem

 Discuss the important ecosystems

2.2 Introduction
An ecosystem is defined as, “natural functional ecological unit comprising of living
organism and their non-living environment that interact to form a stable self supporting
system”.

The term ecology was coined by Earnst Hackel in 1869 and derived from two Greek
words “oikos” meaning house, habitation or place of living and “logos” meaning study.

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Ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living entities, all biotic and abiotic
organisms are inter dependent on each other for their survival i.e. living organisms
cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the later provides
material and energy for the survival of the former. Natural ecosystem has evolved over
millions of years manifesting a wide variety of life forms with complimentary interaction
and dynamic equilibrium. Human being has manipulated the environment for his gain
these manipulation has brought large changes in the ecosystem. It has deviated from
natural trends and is losing the equilibrium through evolution and test of time. So, any
interruption in the function of any of the factor may imbalance the ecosystem. So there
must be a constant interaction between both of them to maintain the stability of
ecosystem. Plants, animals and human beings live in association with a wide variety of
other plants and animals. These communities of organisms are not only a collections of
individuals or populations but they represent a highly ordered dynamic and complex
organization. Such complex natural organization with their living and non-living an
environment that controls them and from which the living organisms derive their
sustenance are technically called as "ecosystem" or an "ecological system".

The interaction between living organisms and their environment is very much a two
way process: organisms affect and are in turn affected by their surroundings. Professor
A. Tansley, a British botanist, in 1935 proposed the term ecosystem and defined it as
the "system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the
environment". He regarded ecosystem as not only the organism complex but also the
whole complex of physical factors forming the environment.

The concept of this interacting system has proved extremely valuable and the
ecosystem is regarded as a basic unit for ecological studies.

2.3 Types Ecosystem

The kind of organism which can live in a particular ecosystem depends upon their
physical and metabolic adaptations to the environment of that place of ecosystem and
on certain aspects of the history of our planet, which has determined what organisms
have been able to travel where. On earth, there are sets of ecosystems within a
geographical region which are exposed to same climatic conditions and having

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dominant species with a similar life cycle, climatic adaptations and physical structure.
This set of ecosystem is called Biome. In the biosphere, there are natural and artificial
biomes (ecosystem).

1) Natural ecosystem (Biomes): Natural ecosystems operate by themselves under

natural conditions without any interference by man. Natural ecosystems carry out many
public service functions for us. Waste water from houses and industries is often
converted to drinkable water by filtration through natural ecosystems, such as soil. Air
pollutants from industries and automobiles are often trap on leaves or converted to
harmless compound by forests. On the basis of particular type of habitat, they are
further sub-divided as

a) Terrestrial Biomes: They are often classified by the vegetation type that dominates
the community. The types of vegetation affect the climate and soil structure and that
characterize the particular biome. Terrestrial vegetation has a rapid exchange of
oxygen, water and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide concentration is affected by
terrestrial vegetation seasonally and annually. Terrestrial biomes include tropical rain
forests, grassland, deserts, cultivated land, etc.

b) Aquatic biomes: They fall into two categories, Fresh water and Marine. Fresh
water biomes may be lotic (running water) such as streams, rivers and springs, or
lentic (standing water)such as lakes, ponds and swamps, whereas, marine biomes
include deep Sea and Oceans.

2) Artificial Ecosystem: They are maintained artificially by man. A pond constructed

as a part of a waste water treatment plant is an example of artificial ecosystem, the
management can vary over a wide range of actions. Agriculture can be thought of as
partial management of certain kind of ecosystem. Here, natural balance is distributed
regularly by addition of energy and panned manipulation. For e.g. Wheat maize and
rice- fields etc, where man tries to control the biotic community as well as the
physiochemical environment. The smallest artificial ecosystem that has been non to
sustain a life over long period of time is ‘Folsom bottles’. These materially closed
ecosystems were created by Professor Claire Folsom of university of Hawaii by placing
water algae, bacteria and sediment from Honolulu bay in a liter flask and sealing the

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top. The sealed bottles were placed near the window so that some energy is utilized by
the biotic components during day time. Some of these have sustained life for nearly
twenty years.

2.3.1 Types of ecosystem based on energy resources

Ecosystems are based on two major source of energy, the sun and chemical or
nuclear fuels. So, on the basis of the major input, there can be solar powered and fuel
powered ecosystems. On the basis of energy resources, the ecosystems are classified
as:

1) Unsubsidized natural solar powered ecosystem: In these types of ecosystem,

the only source of power/energy is solar energy. For e.g.: ocean, upland forest,
grasslands etc.

These are unsubsidized in the sense that there is no auxiliary source of energy
available to supplement solar radiation/energy.

2) Naturally subsidized solar powered ecosystem: In these types of ecosystems

the main source of energy is sun, which is originated by natural non solar energy. As a
result of which extra amount of energy is available to the system that can be used for
the production of more organic matter that may be exported to other systems or stored
in themselves. The auxiliary natural source of energy may be tides, waves and
currents, wind, torrential rains etc.

3) Man subsidized solar powered ecosystem: In these types of ecosystems

auxiliary fuels or other energy, like man and machine labor, is supplied by man. Here
again, the main source of energy is sun. Examples of these types of ecosystems are
agriculture and aquaculture. The power/energy input by man may be in the form of
fertilizers, animal power, machine power, sprays etc.

4) Fuel powered ecosystems: In these ecosystems, the sun energy is replaced by

highly concentrated potential energy of fuel, chemical or nuclear fuel. Examples of
these systems are cities, suburds, industrial parks, etc. these systems are man’s
wealth generating and also pollution generating systems. In this system there is no
limit of energy input.

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2.4 Structure of Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical
features of environment including the amount of description of nutrients in a particular
habitat. It also provides information regardingthe range of climatic conditions prevailing
in the area.

Each ecosystem has two main components:

1. Abiotic components: The nonliving factory or the physical environment prevailing

in an ecosystem from the abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the
structure, distribution, behavior and inter-relationship of organisms. Abiotic
components are mainly of two types - Climatic factors and edaphic factors

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments, they contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and
living organism, soils provide nutrition’s, water, a none and a structural organism
medium for fragments and organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is
closely linked to this component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling. The
atmosphere provides organism found within ecosystem with carbon dioxide for

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photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The process of evaporation transpiration

and precipitation cycle water b/w the atmosphere and the earth surface.

2) Biotic components: The living organisms including plants animals and

microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that are present in an ecosystem from the biotic
components. On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic component can be
classified into three main groups

A. Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap
solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrate using simple
inorganic compounds using namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is
known as photosynthesis as the green plants manufactures their own food they are
also known as autotrops. (i.e. auto= self, trophos= feeder).

The chemical energy stored by the producer is utilized partially by the producer for
their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plants parts for their
future use.

B. Consumers: The animal lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesis their own
food. Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as
hetrotrops. (i.e. htros= other, trophos= feeder). The consumers are of four types,
namely

i. Primary consumers or first order consumer or herbivores: these are the animal which
feed on plants are the producers, they are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit,
deer, goat etc.

ii. Secondary consumer or second order consumer or primary carnivores: the animal
which feed on the herbivores is called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats,
foxes, snakes etc.

iii. Tertiary consumers or third order consumers: these are large carnivores which feed
on secondary consumers. Examples are wolves etc.

iv. Quaternary consumer or forth order consumer or omnivores: these are the largest
carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten by the any other
animals. Examples are lions, tigers, etc.

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C. Decomposers or reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this group. They break
down the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumer (animals). For
their food and release to the environment. The simple organic and inorganic
substances produced as byproducts of their metabolisms. These simple substances
are reused by the producers resulting in the cyclic exchange of materials b/w the biotic
community and abiotic environment of ecosystem. The decomposers are known as
saprotrophos (i.e. sparos= roftn, trophos= feeder).

2.5 Major Ecosystem

2.5.1 Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater pond represents a complete self-maintaining and self-regulating

ecosystem. The pond can be defined as a body of shallow standing water
characterized by relatively quiet water and abundant vegetation with thousands of
micro-organism, large plant and animal. In the pond ecosystem all the four basic unit of
an ecosystem are well represented these are:

A) Abiotic substances: These are non- living components of the pond eco
system and include basic inorganic and organic compound such as water,
carbon dioxide, oxygen, calcium, Nitrogen and phosphorus and their
compound, amino and humus etc. Only a small amount of these vital nutrients
is found in soluble state in the pond water, but much large proportion is held in
reserve solid form especially in the bottom sediments, as well as in the
organisms themselves. The rate of release of the nutrients from the solids, the
solar input and cycle of temperature, day length and other climatic conditions
regulate the rate of function of the entire ecosystem of pond on day-to-day
basic.

B) Biotic Component: The biotic component of a pond ecosystem comprised the

producers and variety of consumers. In a pond the produces organism are of
following main types:-

i) Phytoplankton’s- These are minute floating plants usually algae,

distributed throughout the pond as deep as light penetrates. When in

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abundance, phyto
phytoplankonts give a greenish colour to pond water. These
are very important in the production of basic food for the ecosystem such
as lakes, deep ponds and even oceans. The phytoplankton of a pond
usually comprise of Eudorina, Volvox, Closterium, Mycrocystis, Anabaena,
O
s Pond ecosystem
c
i
l
l
a
t
o
r
i
a

E
uglena, Ceratium and Malosira. The phytoplanktons are more important as
produ
producers in a pond ecosystem than the large plants.

ii) Filamentous algae

algae:-These
These also occur floating in water and include
Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Nitella and chara.

iii) Marginal and emergent plants

plants- These
hese are Ipomea, Jussiae which are
found floating on the surface and Phragmities,
ities, Typha and Acorus, which
are rooted plants or sedges.

iv) Sub
Sub-merged plants- These
hese are Vallisneria, Potamogeton, Naias and
Otelli, which are rooted to the bottom. Utriculariaand Ceratophyllum and
rootless sub
sub-merged plants.

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v) Surface- floating plants- These are Pistia, lemnaea, wolffia and

Ecichorina.

C) Marco- consumers’ organisms: The macro -consumers represents animal

fauna of a pond ecosystem. These are categorized as primary consumers or
herbivores, secondary consumers or carnivores and the tertiary consumers.
Then primary marco-consumers feed directly upon living plants plat remains
and are of the following topics-

i) Zooplanktons- These animals drift on the water surface through the

agencies of water current and include dinoflagellates, hellizoans and
copepods.

ii) Nektons- These are free- swimming aquatic animals which swim
independent of wave and current action. There for, these possess definite
locomotory organs. Insecet and insect larvae which feed upon plants are
included in this category.

iii) Benthos-These are bottom-dwelling forms found crawling or attached to

the bottom. These include mollusks and annelids. The secondary
consumers or carnivores are predaceous insects and tertiary consumers
are game fish.

D) Saprotophic or saprophytic organisms: The fungi and saprophytic bacteria

and flagellates are especially abundant in the mud water and bottoms of the
ponds, where dead bodies of plants and animals are deposited. These
decompose the dead bodies of the organisms and derive their nourishment.
Decomposition is more rapid when temperature conditions are favorable.

2.5.2 Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystem is the biggest ecosystem, which cover around 71%of earth’s surface
and contain 97% of out planet’s water. Water in Marine ecosystems features in high
amounts minerals and salts dissolved in them. Each ocean indeed represents a very
large and stable ecosystem. Marine environments as compared with fresh water
appear to be more stable in their chemical composition due to being saline, and

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moreover other such physico-chemical as dissolved oxygen content, light and

temperature are also different. The biotic components of an ocean ecosystem are of
the following orders:

Producers: These are autotrophs and also designated as primary producers, since
they are responsible for trapping the radiant energy of sun with the help of their
pigments. Producers are mainly the phytoplankton, such as diatoms, dinoflagellates
and some macroscopic algae. Besides them, a number of macroscopic seaweeds, as
brown and red algae, also contribute significantly to primary production. These
organism show a distinct zonation at different depths of water in the sea.

Consumers: These all are heterotrophic macro-consumers, being dependent for their
nutrition on the primary producers.

Primary consumer: The primary consumers are the herbivores, that feed directly on
producers, are chiefly crustaceans, mollusks Fish etc.

Secondary consumer:Secondary consumers which are carnivorous fish, as Herring,

Shad, Mackerel etc., feeding on the herbivores.

Tertiary consumers: Tertiary consumers are other carnivorous fishes like cod
haddock, Halibut etc. that feed on other carnivores of the secondary consumers level.
Thus these are the top carnivores in the food chain.

Decomposers:Decomposers are mainly the microbes active in the decay of dead

organic matter of producers and macro consumers are chiefly bacteria and some fungi.

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Marine ecosystem
 FOREST ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY FR 05

2.5.3 Forest Ecosystem

Forest occupy roughly 40%of the land in India, the forests occupy roughly one –tenth
of the total land area. The different components of a forest ecosystem are abiotic and
biotic component.

A) Abiotic Component: These are the inorganic as well as organic substances

present in the soil and atmosphere. In addition to the minerals present in
forests we find the dead organic debris-the litter accumulation chiefly in
temperate climate. The light conditions are different due to complex
stratification in the plant communities.

B) Biotic component: The living organisms present in the food chain occur in
the following order:

i) Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and
greater degree of stratification especially in tropical moist deciduous
forests. The trees are of different kinds depending upon the kind of the
forest formation developing in that climate. Besides trees, there are also
present shrubs and ground vegetation/grass. In these in forest, dominant
members of the flora, the producers, are such trees as Tectona grandis,
Butea frondosa. Shorea rubstaand, Lagerstromia parvifioria. In temperate
coniferous forest, shrubs and ground flora are insignificant. In temperate
deciduous forests the dominant trees are species of Quercus, Acer,
Betula, Thuja, Picea etc., whereas in a temperature coniferous forest, the
producer tress are species of Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus, Juniperus,
Rhododndron etc.

ii) Consumers: Consumers are categorized under the followings:

a) Primary consumers: Primary consumers are the herbivores that

include the animals feeding on trees leaves as ants, flies, beetles,
leafhoppers, bugs and spiders Etc., and large animals grazing on
shoots and/ or fruits of the producers the elephant, nigai, deer, moles,
squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, fruit bats, mongooses etc.

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b) Secondary consumers: Secondary consumers are the carnivores

like snakes, birds, lizards, fox etc. feeding on the herbivores.

c) Tertiary consumers: Tertiary consumers are the top carnivores like

lion, tiger etc. That eats carnivores of secondary consumers level.

d) Decomposers: These are wide variety of microorganism including

incl
fungi (species of Aspergillus, Coprinus, Polyporus, Ganoderma,
Fusarium, Alternaria, Trichoderma etc.) bacteria (species of Bacillus,
Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Angiococcus etc.) and actinomycetes, like
species of streptomyces etc. Rate of decomposition
decompositio in tropical and
subtropical forest is more rapid than that in the temperate ones.

2.5.4 Desert Ecosystem

The deserts ecosystem are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than
25%.They occupy about 17%of all the land on our planet. Due to extremes of
temperature, the species composition of desert ecosystem is less varied and typical.
The various components of a desert ecosystem are
are-

A) Producers: The shrubs, bushes, grass and some trees are the main producer
in deserts. The shrubs have exten
extensive
sive and much branched root system with
the stems and leaves
variously modified.
Some succulent cacti
are also found in
deserts. These store
water in their stem to
be used during the
time of water scarcity.
Some lower plants Desert Ecosystem
such as lichens, xerophytic mos
mosses
ses and blue green algae are also found there.

B) Consumers: Only a few animals are found in deserts. The most common
animals are those reptiles and insects which are able to live under xeric
conditions. Mammals are represented by a few species of nocturnal rodents.

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Some birds are also present. The camel, called the ship of desert, feeds on
tender shoots of the plants and conserves large quantities of water in its
stomach.

Summary
Abiotic components: The nonliving factory or the physical environment prevailing in an
ecosystem from the abiotic components.

Biotic: Living; usually applied to the biological aspects of an organism’s environment,

i.e. the influence of other organisms (opposite of abiotic).

Community: The species that occur together in space and time; (see diversity and
isotherms).

Ecosystem: All of the organisms of a given area and the encompassing physical
environment.

Epidemic: The outbreak of a disease which affects a large number and/or proportion of
individuals in a population at the same time.

Population: Any group of individuals, usually of a single species, occupying a given

area at the same time; groups of organisms with homologue (same) alleles.

Organism (individual): Any individual living creature, either unicellular or multi-cellular.

References
LINK=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/ecosystem/ecosystems-concept-
structure-and-functions-of-ecosystem-with-diagram/28211/

https://en.wikipedia.eorg/wiki/food-chain

www.biocab.org/Energy.Pyramid.htm.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org.

http//www.google.com.in/search?energy+flow+of+ecosystem&aqs

https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>productivity

Dhameja S. K. ,Environmental studies , Page No. 131

Deshwal S. and Deshwal A., page No. 3.19

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Kumar Satish and Deepshikha ,Environmental Studies

Sharma Balwant ,Modern publisher

Sharma P.D., Ecology and Environmental studies, Rastogi publication.

1990, Concise Science Dictionary, Oxford University Press.

Annual reports of ministry of Environmental and Forests.

2002, Glossary of Useful terms in EIA, a Wildlife Institute of India Publication.

Suggested Readings

Ecology in practice, Castri and Barker

Environmental studies , S.C. Shantra
Ecosystem Ecology, David G. Raffaelli
Fundamental concepts in Environmental studies by Dr. D.D .Mishra
Ecology and Environment Rastogi publication (PD Sharma)
Environmental studies (Dr. Suresh K. Dhameja)

Self Assessment Question

A) Multiple Choice Questions
1) Natural ecosystem carries out many public service functions for us like –
a) Air pollutants from automobiles.
b) Wastewater from houses & industries is often converted to drinkable water through
natural ecosystem,such as soil.
c) Both of them.
d) None of the above.
2) Which of the following statement are correct about ecosystem classification
On the basis of energy resources:
P: Naturally subsidized solar powered ecosystem.
Q: Fuel powered and radioactive ecosystem.
R: Unsubsidized natural and man subsidized solar powered ecosystem
S: Fuel powered and thermal powered ecosystem.
a) P,and R b) Q and S
c) P, Q and R d) P, R,and S
3)Chemosynthetic bacteria found around deep sea vents are example of
a) producers b) consumer
c) chemical cycling d) decompsers
4) Decomposers includes:
a) Fungi and bacteriophage b) Bacteria and virus
c) Fungi and algae d) Fungi and bacteria
5)Autotrophs are also known as –

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a) producers only b) lithotrophs

c) lithotrophs and producers d) producers and osmotrophs
6) Which of the followings are correct for decomposers:
P: saprotrophs and osmotrophs .
Q: reducers and scavenger only.
R: saprotrophs and reducers.
S: scavengers and detritivores
a) P and R b) Q and S
c) R and Q d) P,Q,R, and S
B) Fill in the blanks
1) Set of ecosystems within geographical regions which are exposed to ……………
2)Aquatic biome falls into …….. categories.
3) Example of unsubsidized natural solar powered ecosystem are……………….
Answer Keys:A)1. c, 2. d, 3. a, 4. d, 5. c, 6. a
B)1-Same Climatic Condition and Physical Structure, 2-Two, 3- Ocean, Upland forest,
Grasslands,
C) Terminal Questions
a) Write short notes on the following:
1) Lithotrophs
2) Scavenger and Decomposers
3) Predator
4) Edaphic factor
5) Man subsidized solar powered ecosystem
b) Long answer type questions
1) Describe the categories of carnivores with suitable examples.

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Unit 3: Ecosystem: Functions

Unit Structure

3.0 Learning Objectives

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Function of Ecosystem
3.3 Food Chains and Food Web
3.3.1 Food Web
3.3.2 Food Web
3.4 Trophic Levels
3.5 Ecological Pyramid
3.5.1 Pyramid of number
3.5.2 Pyramid of Biomass
3.5.3 Pyramid of Energy
3.6 Energy Flow
3.7 Productivity in an Ecosystem
3.8 Biogeochemical Cycles (Material Cycles)
3.8.1 Nitrogen Cycle
3.8.2 Oxygen Cycle
3.8.3 Carbon Cycle
3.8.4 Sulfur cycle
3.8.5 Phosphorus Cycles
3.9 Ecosystem Control
Summary

3.0 Learning Objectives

After completing this unit you shall be able to:

 Discuss the function of an ecosystem

 Discuss trophic levels

 Discuss energy flow and biogeochemical cycling of nutrients

 Discuss food chains and food webs, and their importance

3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt that ecosystem has two main components- living and
non-living components. Living components include may be categorized based on
trophic levels i.e., herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and saprobes. These living

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components interact among themselves and with the non-living components for
meeting their various requirements such as nutrients and energy for their growth and
development. The nutrient and energy pass on from living beings of one level to
another level as a result of eating and being eaten kind of relationship. Thus,
ecosystems are interacting units and living components are associated with one
another for performing certain functions such as flow of energy and cycling of nutrients.
These are the main functions of ecosystems and these functions are performed
through food chain or food web.

In this unit, we will discuss various trophic levels, cycling of nutrients and flow of
energy through the various components of ecosystem in detail.

3.2 Function of Ecosystem

The function of the ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of materials which
ensures stability of the system and continuity of life. These two ecological processes
include interaction between the abiotic environment and the communities. For the sake
of convenience, the ecosystem dynamics may be analyzed in terms of the following:

(i) food chains and food web

(ii) trophic levels
(iii) food pyramids,
(iv) energy flow,
(v) nutrient cycles,
(vi) development and evolution of ecosystem, and
(vii) homeostasis and stability of ecosystem
These are discussed in separate heads as below:

3.3 Food Chains and Food Web

3.3.1 Food Web

In an ecosystem the living organisms (biotic community) have a pattern of feeding. The
producers are eaten by the herbivores. Herbivores in turn are eaten by carnivores.
Carnivores may further be eaten by other larger carnivores. In this process the food

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energy is transferred from plants to herbivores to carnivores to larger carnivores who

feed on them.

A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from producer organics
& ending at apex predator species, detritivores, or decomposer species.
Tertiary consumer Fourth trophic level Man, lion
(Top Carnivores)
Secondary consumer Third trophic level Birds, fishes wolf
(Carnivore)
Primary consumer Second trophic level Zooplankton Grasshopper
(Herbivores) and cow
Producer First trophic level Phytoplankton grass, trees

Characteristics of food chain

1. In a food chain, there is a repeated eating in which each group eats the smaller
one and is eaten by the larger are so a food chain involves a nutritive interaction
between biotic components of an ecosystems.

2. The plants & animal which depend successively on one another from form the
links of a food chain.

3. In a food chain there is a unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers and
then to a series of consumers of various types.

4. Usually there are 4 or 5 trophic level in the food chain shorter food chain will
provide greater availability of energy and vice versa.

5. Omnivorous generally occupy more than are trophic level in the food chain.

6. Some organisms (e.g. man) occupy different trophic positions in different food
chains.

7. The respiration cast increases along successive trophic levels of a food chain on
an average, it is about 20% at producers level, about 30% at the level of
herbivores, and as high as 60% at the level of carnivores. So the residual energy
decreases at successive trophic levels.

8. A food chain consists of series of population which are related by eating & be
eaten.

9. A food chain is generally straight.

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10. The number of trophic levels is 3-6.

11. There is progressive reduction in available biomass energy & no. of individuals
with the rise is trophic level.

12. In each trophic level a lot of biomass is consumed is liberating energy.

13. A major part of energy made available at each trophic level is lost as heat.

14. Some organisms like human operate at more than are trophic level.

15. Food chains are sustained by producers & decomposers.

Types of food chain

There are two basic types of food chain

1) Grazing food chain (GFC): It is a simple food chain that extends from producers to
herbivores to carnivores. These types of food chains originate from plants and go to
grazing animals and then on to animal eaters.

e.g., -Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons fish

Grass rabbit fox lion

Producers Herbivores Carnivores

(Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiary consumer)

The general characteristics of grazing food chain are as follows:

 There are directly dependent on solar radiation as the primary source of
energy.

 Green plants (or producers) form the first trophic level of the food chain. These
synthesize their plant biomass by the process of photo synthesis in which
kinetic energy of color radiations in tropped in the presence of Mg++containing
green pigment chlorophyll and is converted into potential energy of organic
food (i.e glucose).

 Herbivores or primary consumers eat upon the producers and form the second
trophic level.

 Herbivores are eaten up by carnivores which are of different categories.

 These always end at decomposer level.

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e.g., Phytoplankton’s Zooplanktons fish

Grass rabbit fox lion

2) Detritus food chain: It begins with dead organisms or dead organic matter and
passes through detritus feeding organisms in soil to organisms feeding on detritus
feeders.

This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into microorganisms to
organisms feeding on detrivores & their predator. This system is thus less dependent
on solar energy.

e.g.- Detritus Earthworm sparrow Falcon

Frog Snake Peacock

The general characteristics of detritus food chain are:

 Primary energy source of detritus food chain is dead organic matter called
detritus.

 Main source of dead organic matter are fallen leaves or dead animal bodies.

 Primary consumers are detritivores (detritus eating). These include

protozoan’s, bacteria, fungi etc. which food upon the detritus saprophytically.

 The detritivores, in term, are eaten by secondary consumers which include

insect larvae, nematodes etc.

 There are generally shorter than grazing food chain.

 In nature, detritus food chain is indispensable as the dead organic matter of

grazing food chains is acted upon by the detritivores to recycle the inorganic
elements into the ecosystem.

3.3.2 Food Web

A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection of food chains and generally a
graphical representation of what – eats – what in an ecological community. Another
same for food web is a consumer resource system. Examples are- gram or plants may
be eaten by grass hoppers as well as rabbits, cattle and deers. Each of their
herbivores may be eaten up by number at carnivores like frogs, birds, crakes and tiger
depending on their food habits.

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The general characteristics of food web are as follows:

 In an ecosystem, no food chain is independent and the linear arrangement of

food chains hardly occurs.

 It is formed by interlinking of 3 types of food chains. e.g., predatory chains

(proceeds from smaller to larger organisms), parasitic chains (proceed from
larger to smaller organisms) and saprophytic chains (starting from dead
organic matter).

 Food web provides the alternative pathways of food availability. e.g., if a

particular crop is destroyed due to some disease, the herbivores are that areas
do not perish as they can graze other type of crop or herbs. Similarly, dogs
(secondary consumers) may feed on rats and mice in the event of decrease in
the number of rabbits on which they feed.Greater number of thepathways
result in more stable ecosystem.

 These also help in checking the overpopulation of some species of plants and
animals.

 The age and size of the species and availability of food source are important
factors in determining the position of an animal in a food web.

 Normally, a food web operates according to taste and food preferences of

organisms at each trophic level for e.g. Tigers in Sunderbans eat fish and crab
instead of their natural pray.

 Food web also helps in ecosystem developments time allows increasingly

intimate associations and reciprocal adaptations between plants and animals.

 Food web is more real than food chain.

 It consists of a number of food chains interlinked at various trophic levels.

 Food web is not straight. The component food chains do not run parallel.

 Food backs checks operate in food webs that keep the population of different
species rarely constant.

 It is essential for satiability of ecosystem.

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3.4 Trophic Levels

In an ecosystem, the various biotic components remain in a kind or eating and being
eaten kind of relationship with one another and forms what is known as food chains. If
we group all the organisms in a food chain according to their general source of
nutrition, we can assign them different trophic (feeding) levels. The producer
organisms belong to first trophic level, primary consumers (herbivores) to the
second trophic level, secondary consumers (carnivores) to the third trophic level
and tertiary consumers (top carnivores) to the fourth trophic level. Man, who is an
omnivore may belong to more than one trophic level.

There are usually four or five trophic levels, and seldom more than six levels in any
ecosystem. This is because of the fact that at each level when energy is transferred a
proportion of the food energy is lost as heat and subsequently at each level this
amount is further reduced and finally after four or five levels the amount of energy
becomes so low that further levels cannot be sustained. This is the reason why the
number of trophic levels in a food chain I any ecosystem cannot be more than five and
seldom six.

3.5 Ecological Pyramid

An Ecological Pyramid is graphical representation of the trophic structure and also
trophic function. In ecological pyramid the first all producer level forms the base and
successive level from the tier which make up apex.

The idea of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton (1928). So the
Ecological Pyramid are also called Eltonian Pyramid. An Ecological pyramid may be
upright tapering towards the tip) or inverted (widen towards the tip) or spindle shaped
(broader in the middle andnarrow above and below an upright ecological pyramid
indicated that the producers outnumber or outweigh the herbivores which in turn,
Outweigh or outnumber the carnivores.

On basis of Ecological Parameters there are three types of ecological pyramid

1) The Pyramid of number

2) The pyramid of biomass

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3) The pyramid of Energy

3.5.1 Pyramid of number

It is graphic representation showing the arrangement of the number of individual

organization at different level in an ecosystem is depicted. There are again of three
types:

(a) Upright pyramid of Number.

(b) Partially Upright pyramid of Number.

(c) Inverted Pyramid of Number.

(a) Upright Pyramid of Number: This type of upright pyramid of number is found in
grassland Ecosystem are band ecosystem the size of aquarium increase from the
carnivore level while their no decrease in food chain.

(b) Partially Upright pyramid of Number: This type of pyramid is found in tree

Fig. 1 Inverted pyramid of number Pyramid of numbers in a grassland

dominated Ecosystem single large size tree (T.) Is attacked by numerous minute plant
eating and carnivorous insect (T3) which are further less by small sized (T4) and (T5).

(c) Inverted Pyramid of Number: In parasitic food chain e.g.:- an oak tree pyramid
Number is an inverted pyramid in which single oak tree supports large no. of fruit
eating birds and large no. of parasites. Hyper parasite like bacteria, fungi etc are the
greatest in no. and occupy the top of inverted pyramid of number.

3.5.2 Pyramid of Biomass

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It is a graphic representation of biomass (total amount of living or organic matters in an

ecosystem at any time) present per unit area in different tropic levels. A typical pyramid
of biomass is more fundamental as it shows the quantitative relationships of the
standing crop. Pyramid of biomass may also be straight or inverted. In grassland and
forest ecosystems, there is a
gradual decrease in biomass
of organisms at successive
tropic levels from producers
onwards to top carnivores
(uprights or straight pyramid).
In pond ecosystem, on the
other hand, produces are the
smallest organisms while
carnivores are large in size. Fig. 2 Pyramid of Biomass in a grassland
Consequently, there is a
gradual increase in biomass of Aryanisms at successive tropic levels from producers
onwards to top carnivores resulting in inverted pyramid. There the biomass of
phytoplankton’s will be smaller than that of zooplanktons; the biomass of zooplanktons
will be lesser than of primary carnivores (E.g. Small fishes). In such an inverted
pyramid of biomass a small standing crop of phytoplankton supports a large standing
crop of zooplanktons.

3.5.3 Pyramid of Energy

“An energy pyramid is a graphical model of energy flow in community. The different
levels represent different groups of organisms that might compose a food chain. From
the bottom-up, they are as follow: producers bring energy from nonliving sources into
the community”. When, the production of a community is measured in terms of energy.
We find that a pyramid is formed starting from each tropic level. Than that was put into
it. Energy pyramid gives the best information on the nature of the states of passage of
food mass through the food chain.

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There is always a gradual decreasing the energy content at successive levels from the
producers to consumers. The Source of energy for living being on earth is the sun. The
energy that the sun emits at present is of 1366.75W/Mˆ2. When the studies of the
capture of energy by the producer organisms (photosynthetic organisms) were made,
the solar Irradiance (SI) was of 1365.45W/mˆ2.

Fig. 3 Pyramid of Energy

The energy usable by photosynthetic organisms is 697.04W/mˆ2; never the less, the
photosynthetic organisms take only 0.65W/mˆ2 and the rest of the incident energy on
the surface is transferred to the biotic surroundings (oceans, soil, atmosphere, etc) and
from there, the energy is emitted to the outer space and to the gravity field. The
atmosphere absorbs 191.345W/mˆ2, maintaining the tropospheric temperature of earth
in the hospitable 35.40oC (95.720F).

3.6 Energy Flow

Energy flow is the movement of energy through an ecosystem from the external
environment through a series of organisms and back to the external environment.

Every ecosystem needs energy resources for its survival. The supply of energy has to
be continuous to maintain the biotic structures and their function. The energy flow
refers to a cyclic movement of energy comes from the environment which is external to
the ecosystem, passes through a series of organism, and then return to same external
environment from where it has come. The flow of energy through an ecosystem is very
essential requirement. The quality and quantity of energy flow helps to tell or decide

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the richness or poorness and shortness of life. The Biosphere, the sun is ultimate
source of energy.

In every ecosystem the energy flow provides a foundation for life and thus impure a
limit on shortness and richness of life. The behaviour of energy on ecosystem can be
termed energy flow due to unidirectional flow of energy. From energetic point of view it
is essential to understand for an ecosystem.

 The efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of solar energy.

 The use of this converted chemical form of energy by the consumers.
 The total input of energy in form of food and its efficiency of assimilatory.
 The loss through respiration, heat, excretion etc
 The gross net production
Summarize in the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few
generalizations can be made.

 The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystem is the scene)

 The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystem is for it to be lost as heat.

 Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism. Through the food
chain as one organism eat another.

 Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organism.

 Inorganic nutrients are yield energy.

Continuous and One way flow of energy

In different ecosystem the nutrients are low in a cyclic manner. The non energy
yielding components like C, N, H2O etc, also calculate from abiotic segment to biotic
segments and vice versa.
But the energy does not
do so; it does not circulate
rather flow unidirectional.
The flow of energy is
continuous and one way
in every ecosystem. A
Fig. 4 Unidirectional flow of Energy
Unidirectional flow of

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energy from “sun” to decomposer is shown in Fig.4.

The energy transverse through producers and main consumers before reaching to
decomposer. However it cannot flow in reverse direction. It is because of one way
nature of energy flow.

Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from

external sources. At the best tropic level, primary producers use solar energy to
produce organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivore animals that feed
solely on plant make up the second tropic level. Predators that eat herbivore
compromise the third tropic level, if larger predators are present, they represent still
higher trophic level and organisms that feed at survival tropic levels are classified as
the highest on the trophic levels at which they feed. Decomposers which include
Bacteria, fungi, worms and insects break down waste and dead organisms and return
to the soil.

On average about 10 percent of energy production at one trophic level is passed on to

the next level processes that reduce the energy transferred because consumers can
conserve high quality food sources into new living tissue more efficiently than low
quality food sources.

The low rate of energy transfers between trophic levels makes decomposers generally
more important than producers in terms of energy blow. Decomposers process large
amount of organic material and return.

How many trophic levels can an ecosystem support? The answer depends on served
including the amount of energy entering the ecosystem, energy loss between trophic
levels, and the formed structure and physiology of organism at each level. At higher
trophic levels predators generally are physically layer and are able to utilize a fraction
of the energy that was produced at level beneath them, so they have to over
increasingly large area to meet their calorie needs.

Due to energy losses, most ecosystems have no more than five levels, and marine
ecosystem is likely due to difference in the fundamental characteristics of land.
Phytoplankton are small organisms with extremely simple structures so most of their
primary production is consumed and used for energy by grazing organisms that feeds
on them. In contrast, a large fraction of the bio mass that fund plant produce such as

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roots, trunks and branches cannot be used by herbivore for food. So proportionally less
of the energy fixed through primary production travels up the food chain.

The simplest way to describe the fluxes of energy through ecosystem is as a food
chain in which energy passes from the one trophic level to the next, without factoring In
more complex relationship between individuals species some very simple ecosystem
may consist of food chain with only a few tropic levels for example the ecosystem of
the remove wind spot Taylor valley in Antarctica consist mainly of bacteria and algae
that are eaten by nematodes warms more commonly, however producers and
consumers are connected in intricate food wave with some consumers Breeding at
several tropic levels.

Important consequences of the loose of energy between tropic levels that

contaminants collect in an animal tissue a process called bioaccumulation

The insecticide DDT which was widely used in a USA from the 1940 s through the
1960s is a famous case of bioaccumulation. DDT build up in Eagle and other raptors to
levels high enough to effect the reproduction, causing the birds to lay thin shelled Eggs
that broke in their nests fortunately population have bound over nutrients to the
ecosystem in a organic form which are then taken up again by primary producers.
Energy is not recycled during decompositions but rather is released mostly as a heat.

An ecosystem is a gross primary productivity is the total amount of organic matter that
is produces through photosynthesis net primary productivity describes the amount of
energy that remains available for a plant to growth after subtracting the fraction that
plant use for respiration productivity in land ecosystem generally rises with temperature
upto 30`c after which is a declines and is positively corrected with moisture on land
primary productivity thus is a highest in worm, wet zones in the tropics where tropical
forest biomes on located in contrast desert have lowest productivity . In the oceans
light and nutrients are important controlling factors for productivity. Photosynthesis
occurs in surface and near surface water.

Bioaccumulation can threaten humans as well as animal. For example in the USA
many federal and state agencies currently warn consumer to avoid or limit their
consumption of large predatory fish that contain high level of Mercury such as shark,
swordfish. To avoid resting neurological damage and birth defects.

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Energy flow in Ecosystem

The behaviour of energy in ecosystem can be termed energy flow due to
unidirectional flow of energy. From energetic point of view it is essential to understand
for an ecosystem (i) the efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of
solar energy, (ii) the use of this converted chemical form of energy by the consumers,
(iii) the total input of energy in form of food and its efficiency of assimilation, (iv) the
loss through respiration, heat, excretion etc, and (v) the gross net production.

Fig. 5 Energy flow diagram for a lake (freshwater ecosystem) in g cal/cm2/yr

1-Single Channel Energy Flow Model: The flow of energy takes place in an
unidirectional manner through a single channel of green plants or producers to
herbivores and carnivores. From the energy flow model shown in Fig.5, two things are
clear:

(i) There is unidirectional flow of energy. The energy captured by autotrophs does
not revert back to solar input but passes to herbivores; and that which passes
to herbivores does not go back to the autotrophs but passes to consumers. Due to
one way flow of energy, the system would collapse if the primary sources of energy
(i.e., sun) were cut off.

(ii) At each trophic level, there occurs progressive decrease in energy. This is
accounted largely by the energy lost as heal in metabolic reactions (respiration)
coupled with unutilized energy. The figure depicts a simplified energy flow model of
three trophic levels. One can clearly note that the energy flow is greatly decreased at
each successive trophic level starling from producers (autotrophs) to herbivores and

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then to carnivores. In the Figure, boxes represent the trophic levels and pipes
represent the energy flow in and out of each level. Working of both the laws of
thermodynamics is clearly seen as energy inflows balance outflows at each trophic
level (as per first law of thermodynamics) and energy transfer is accompanied by
dissipation of energy into unavailable heat i.e., respiration as per the second law of
thermodynamics. Thus, of the total 3,000 kcal of light falling upon green plants, 1,500
kcal (50%) is absorbed level (first trophic level). 1% (15 kcal) is converted at autotroph
level (first trophic level). Thus, net production is mearly 15 kcal. Secondary productivity
(shown as P2 and P3 in Fig.5 tends to be about 10% at successive consumer levels
i.e., at herbivore level and carnivore level. As has earlier been mentioned, there is
successive decrease in energy flow at successive trophic levels. Therefore, shorter the
food chain, greater would be the available food energy.

2- Y-Shaped or Double Channel Energy Flow Model: The Y-shaped energy flow
models as pioneered by H.T. Odum in 1956, is shown in the figure. This model shows
a common boundary, light and heat flows as well as the import, export and storage of
organic matter. Decomposers are placed in a separate box as a means of partially
separating the grazing and
detritus food chains. In
terms of energy levels,
decomposers are, in fact, a
mixed group. The significant
part in Y-shaped model is
that the two food chains are
not isolated from each Fig. 6 Y-shaped energy flow model showing linkage
between the grazing and detritus food chains
other.

Y-shaped energy flow is more realistic and practical than the single-channel energy
flow model because of following points:

 It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems.

 It separates the two chains i.e., grazing food chain and detritus food chain in
both time and space.

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 Micro consumers (e.g.. bacteria, fungi) and the macro consumers (animals)
differ greatly in size-metabolism relations in two models.

3- Universal Energy Flow Model: E.P. Odum (1983) gave a generalized model by
combining both single channel model and Y-shaped models which are both applicable
to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem and this combined model is known as Universal
energy flow model. In
this model I- Incident
solar rays; A-
Assimilated energy; P-
net production; G-
Growth; B-Biomass; R-
Respiration; S-Stored
I=input or ingested energy; NU= not used; A= assimilated energy; P
energy; E-Excreted = production; R= respiration; B= biomass; G = growth; S= stored
energy; NU-Unutilized energy; E= excreted energy
Fig. 7 Components for a Universal model of energy flow
energy. This model can
be used in two ways as:

a) It can represent a species population in which case the appropriate energy inputs
and links with other species would be shown as a conventional species oriented
food levels and

b) The model can represent a discrete energy level in which case the biomass and
energy channels represent many populations supported by the same energy
source.

3.7 Productivity in an Ecosystem

The amount of food energy produced or obtained or stored by a particular tropic level
per unit area, in a unit time is referred to as productivity. It is a rate function and is
expressed in terms of dry matter and energy captured per unit area of land per unit
time. It is generally expressed in terms of gm-2 year-1 or kcal m-2 year-1.

In ecology, productivity or production refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an

ecosystem. It is usually expressed in units of mass per unit surface (or volume) per unit
time, for instance grams per square metre per day (gm-2d-2). The mass unit may

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relate to dry matter or to the mass of carbon generated. Productivity of autotrophs such
as plants is called primary productivity, while that the hetrotrophs such as animals is
called secondary productivity.

1. Primary productivity: It refers to rate at which sunlight is captured by producers for

the synthesis of energy-rich organic compounds.

Primary production is the synthesis of new organic material from inorganic molecules
such as H2O and CO2. It is dominated by the process of photosynthesis which uses
sunlight to synthesize organic molecules such as sugar, although chemosynthesis
represents a small fraction of primary production. Organisms responsible for primary
production includes: land, plants, marine algae and some bacteria (including cyano-
bacteria).

Primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or

aqueous carbon dioxide. It principal occurs through the process of photosynthesis,
which uses light as it source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis,
which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as it source of
energy. Almost all life on earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The
organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or
autotrophs and form the base of food chain. In terrestrial eco regions, these are mainly
plants, while in aquatic eco regions algae predominates in this role. Ecologists
distinguish primary production as either net or gross, the former accounting for losses
to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not.

Under primary productivity it is again classified in two types:

(a) Gross primary productivity (G.P.P.) or Total photosynthesis: During the

measurement period, the total photosynthesis including the amount of organic matter
used up in respiration is called as gross primary productivity. It is defined as the total
rate of photosynthesis during the measurement period. The rate of gross productivity is
limited by the number and activity of producers and by the amount of solar energy
available. It is associated with photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms. It
includes green plants, phytoplanktons and bacteria. The rate of primary productivity is
estimated in terms of either chlorophyll contents as chl/g dry weight/unit area, or
photosynthetic number i.e., amount of CO2 fixed/g chl/hr.

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(b) Net primary productivity (N.P.P.): It refers to gross production minus losses by
way of respiration and decomposition (GPP- losses = NPP). It is called as apparent
photosynthesis. It is defined as the rate of storage of organic matter in plants in excess
of the organic matter used up in respiration during the period of measurement. Thus by

Table 1. Geographical Area, Mean Plant Biomass and Productivity in Major World System
Ecosystem Area Mean Plant Mean net primary
Biomass productivity
Tropical rain forest 17 440 20
Tropical deciduous forest 8 360 15
Temperate coniferous forest 12 200 8
Temperate deciduous forest 7 300 12
Savanna 15 40 9
Temperate grassland 9 20 5
Desert Shrub 18 10 0.7
T= ton= 1000kg
Ha= 10,000 meter square

definition it is the balance between total photosynthesis and respiration. It is also

known as net assimilation. It is the energy which is potentially available to the next
trophic level.

Net primary production is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net
useful chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate at which the
plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which
they use some of that energy during respiration.

2. Secondary Productivity: The rate of energy storage at consumer’s level is called

secondary productivity. The total energy flow at heterotrophic levels, which is
analogous to gross production of autotrophs should be distinguished as assimilation
and not production.

This productivity is not static. The efficiency of any ecosystem greatly depends upon
the production rates of its primary producers. Oceans from the largest ecosystem and
their productivity vary in different regions. On the shares, the productivity may be 2 to
3.5 g/m2/day, and in deep seas only 0.5g. in highly productive lakes the productivity
value may be 5 to 10 g/m2/day and reaches upto 50g in exceptionally favorable
conditions. The net productivity of crop plants ranges from 0.25 to 1 kg or a little more

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for wheat and rice crops per m2/year. Sugarcane is one of the very efficient converters
of solar energy and its NPP value ranges from 2 to 4 kg/m2/year or even more.

On the other hand, secondary productivity is associated with the heterotrophic and
saprophytic types of nutrition and applies to all consumers and decomposers. The
primary productivity remains laugely in situ, while the secondary productivity remains
mobile and potential for dispersion.

3. Net Productivity: The amount of the food energy not utilized by heterotrophs per
unit area time is referred to as net productivity.
N.P.P.- Consumption of heterotrophs = N.P.

3.8 Biogeochemical Cycles (Material Cycles)

The major plant nutrients derived from soil are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
because these are biologically available to plants, out of these three nutrients .

Nitrogen stands out as the most significant to microbial transformations as it builds up

protein and many components of microorganisms, plants and animal .

Phosphorus is the 2nd to nitrogen which is required by both plants and

microorganisms. It plays an important role in release of energy during metabolism.

Potassium is obtained from soil. In addition, there are many important chemicals
present in plants, animals and microorganisms.

Principle: The nutrients flow from non living to living and they again return back to non
living in the form of waste product or dead bodies’ i.e., the nutrients are neither created
nor destroyed.

Aspects of a Nutrient Cycle

Input of Nutrients: In this, an ecosystem receives the nutrients from external sources
and stores them for their reutilization in the biological processes for the growth and
development of living organisms.

Output of Nutrients: In this type of nutrients are mixed out of an ecosystem e.g loss
of nutrients like calcium, magnesium etc through runoff water and soil erosion.

Internal cycling of nutrients

1. Regeneration of nutrients during decomposition of detritus by bacteria and fungi.

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2. Nutrients absorption involves uptake of nutrients from soil by the plants.

3.8.1 Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere in the concentration (78%)-gaseous state. It is an

essential constituent of proteins and nucleic acid and chlorophyll found in organisms
.Nitrogen is essential constituent of protoplasm.

Concentration of nitrogen in soil directly proportional to soil fertility is directly

proportional to microbial activity. The nitrogen cycle can be further conveniently
discussed under the following heads:

Nitrogen fixation: It is a process of conversion of gaseous form of nitrogen into

combined forms i.e. ;ammonia or organic nitrogen by some bacteria and cyano
bacteria .These are free living as well as symbiotic living organisms which fix N2 into
proteins . The nitrogen –fixing, micro-organisms are called diazotrophs and the
phenomenon of this activity is known as daizogtrophy. The nitrogen fixation is done by;
Bacteria e.g.; Rhizobium, Cyanobacteria e.gAulosoria ,nostoc .

Industrial fixation: nitrogen and hydrogen combines to form ammonia industrially

under extremely high temp of 400 and a high pressure of about 200 atmospheres

Ammonification: It is the decomposition of proteins, urea, uric acid etc by micro

organisms like ammonifying bacteria, actinomyctes and fungi .They convert nitrogen
presenting wastes dead wastes and decaying bodies into ammonia compounds. The
process of conversion of organic nitrogenous compounds into ammonia
ammonification

Ammonifying bacteria =Baccilus remosur, B. vulgaris

In this process, energy is also produced, so called as exothermic process

PROTIENS AMINO ACIDS AMMONIA

Nitrification: It involves the oxidation of ammonia or ammonium ions to nitrate ions in

the presence of nitrifying bacteria is known as nitrification . The ammonium acts as the
starting point for nitrification.

AMMONIA Nitrosomonas nitrates Nitrobacteria nitrates

These nitrates are absorbed by the plants from the soil

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De-nitrification: It is a
biological process by which
ammonium compounds nitrates
are reduced to molecular
nitrogen .Nitrogen in the
presence of de nitrifying
bacteria like Bacillus subtilis
etc. It reduces the soil fertility Fig. 8 Nitrogen cycle

It involves the following steps

NO3----NO2 (Nitrate)

NO2---- NO (Nitric oxide)

NO ----N20 (Nitrous Oxide)

N20----N2 (Nitrogen)

Free nitrogen refers to the atmospheric poor and nitrous and nitric oxides are taken up
by the plants.

3.8.2 Oxygen Cycle

Sources of oxygen: Oxygen is the most abundant of all elements .It occurs in the free
form as O2 and makes up to 21% by volume of the atmosphere. Oxygen makes up
46.6% by weight of the
earth’s crust. It combines
89% of weight of oceans
.Oxygen occurs as ozone O3
in the upper atmosphere and
is of great importance. Under
normal conditions oxygen
exists as gas organisms
respire aerobically in the
Fig. 9 Oxygen cycle
presence of oxygen .During
respiration; it combines with hydrogen to form water.

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Oxygen Utilization: It enters the plants and animals through respiration during which
carbohydrate is oxidized to form O2 and water .It is also used in combustion of wood,
coal, petroleum, etc to yield CO2, SO2 water etc .The oxygen in the atmosphere is in a
state of dynamic equilibrium. Organisms get it from air or water for respiration.

Oxygen production: Oxygen is mainly produced during the proteolysis of water in the
light phase of photosynthesis. Oxygen returns to the surroundings in the form of CO2
and H2O.It also enters the plant body as CO2 or H2O during photosynthesis and is
released in the form of molecular as a big product in the same process for use in
respiration. Thus the cycle is completed.

3.8.3 Carbon Cycle

Importance of carbon: Carbon is the most important element of the protoplasm .It is
the major constituent of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acid of the cells of an
organism .so, carbon is generally considered as the basis of life. Carbon constitutes
49% of the dry weight of
organisms.

Sources of carbon: In the

biosphere there are four
sources of carbon

1) As carbon in atmosphere and

in water (oceans). They act as
reservoirs of carbon. In
atmosphere 0.034% carbon is
Fig. 10 Carbon Cycle
present .It constituents about
1% of total global c.

2) As carbon molecule in fossil fuels like coal is petroleum.

3) As carbonates in the rocks of earth’s crust.

4) Oceans where it remains stored as bio carbonates as limestone and marble rocks.

Thus, the major reservoirs of carbon in the biosphere are atmosphere, oceans and
fossil fuels.

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Carbon utilization: carbon present in the atmosphere is the basic source that enters
the organism through photo synthesis by plants or producers and then to herbivores to
small and large carnivores and finally to decomposers. During photo synthesis O2 is
released as a byproduct.

Carbon production: CO2 is returned back to atmosphere to various sources like:

1) During respiration plants and animals release carbon back to the surrounding
medium as CO2.

2) By decomposition of organic wastes and dead bodies by decomposers by the

action of bacteria and fungi.

3) By burning of combustion of fossil fuels and wood.

4) Volcanic eruption and hot springs also release CO2 in the atmosphere.

5) Weathering of carbonate contains rocks also add to CO2 in atm.

Hence carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere occurs and living and dead
organisms. The ‘C’ cycle is the perfect cycle in the sense that carbon is required to
atm. as soon as it is required .The recycling of carbon is essentially a self regulating
feedback system. However, human beings may upset the system by excessive use of
fossil fuels and other activities like deforestation massive burning of fossil fuels etc.
Carbon cycle is an example of one way cycle.

3.8.4 Sulfur cycle

Importance of Sulfur: It is an essential nutrient of plants and animals. Sulfur is a

component of three amino acids (cystine, cystiene and methionine). So it is a
component of most proteins
some enzymes and vitamins.

Sources: It is the most

abundant in the earth’s crust
in low concentration and is
unavailable to plants. Sulfur is
a sedimentary cycle as it is
found in nature as element Fig. 11 Sulfur Cycle
and also as sulphates in soil,

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water and rocks.

Organic and in organic forms of Sulfur compounds is micro biologically metabolized in

soil through is different transformation process as given below.

1) Decomposition of organic Sulfur compounds by micro organisms into smaller

units and finally into in organic compounds.

2) Assimilation of simple Sulfur compounds and their incorporation into bacterial

fungi and actinomyctes cells

3) Inorganic ions or compounds such as sulfides thio sulfate and essential Sulfur.

4) Reaction of sulphate and other anions to sulfide.

Sulfur Utilization

1) Producers (green plants need Sulfur in the form of sulphates (SO4) from soil or
water (aquatic plants). some plants get their Sulfur in the form of amino acids.

2) Animals get Sulfur by feeding plants or animals

3) Animals get Sulfur through food chain.

Sulfur Production: After the death of plants and animals they are decomposed by
aerobic microbes like Aspergillus neurospora and anaerobic microbes releasing
hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

1) A part of H2S is obtained to soluble sulphates by Sulfur bacteria like thio

bacillus while Beggiatoa (colorless, Sulfur, bacteria) oxidize a part of H2S to
essential Sulfur.

2) Many industries release SO2 in the atmosphere. As the lichens are very
sensitive to SO2 they disappear in polluted air containing SO2.

3) Fossil fuels in burning release SO2 into the air.

4) Volcanic emissions also add sulphates to soil and air.

The filamentous fungi (e.g., species of as per genus penicillin, micro sperm), produce
Sulfur from organic substances such as methonine and cysteine, etc.

Sulfur cycle is an perfect example as Sulfur has the potential for being bound under
anaerobic conditions to cations like iron and calcium to form highly insoluble ferrous
sulphide (FeS) ferricsulphide (Ferric) sulpide (Fe2S3)or calcium sulphate (CaSO4).

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SO2 is a major source of air pollution atmospheric Sulfur in the form of elemental Sulfur
or H2S or SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which combines with water to form Sulfuric acid which
comes from land acid rain.

3.8.5 Phosphorus Cycles

Importance of phosphorus cycle: It is an important constituent of protoplasm and for

metabolism of all living organisms. It is the constituent of energy in rich compounds
e.g. ADP, ATP, & GTP. It is also found in plasma membrane, bones and teeth. ‘P’ is
also required for encoding of the information in genes as it is also the component of
nucleotides of n.a.

Sources of Phosphorus: The major store house of the potassium is the rock
deposits. Agriculture crops contain 0.05 to 0.5% of phosphorus in their tissue. In soil 15
to 85% of total ‘P’ is organic. Potassium cycle is an example of sedimentary cycle
having its main reservoir in insoluble ferric and calcium phosphate as rocks. ‘P’ is
usually used in phosphate form.

Phosphorus cycle Pathway: In the

phosphorus cycle the main importance
comes from the weathering. Weathering of
phosphorus contains rocks and deposits. In
soil potassium gets released from rocks and
deposits from weathering. Some plants may
be added to soil by man in the form of natural Fig 12 Phosphorus Cycle

fertilizer. The plants get potassium from soil

especially as ortho-phosphate PO4 ions and are then transferred to consumers and
decomposers as organic phosphate through food chain.

Absorption of potassium by the higher plants is promoted by the presence of

mycorhizae.

Decomposition: Potassium goes back to soil by decomposition of dead and decay

organisms especially by phosphate- solubilizing bacteria.

‘P’ cycle is imperfect cycle as the biological process like teeth and bone formation and
excretion account for considerable losses of phosphorus from the cycle.

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High concentration of phosphorus in natural water causes eutrophication and pollution.

3.9 Ecosystem Control

Another important aspects of ecosystem functioning is ecosystem control, that is, how
various activities I an ecosystem are well coordinated or how ecological balance is
maintained in an ecosystem. It is clear now that an ecosystem is a dynamic system,
wherein a lot of activities take place. For example, animals eat and in turn are eaten,
moisture and nutrients flow in and out of the system, and weathers change. In spite of
all these happenings the ecosystems persist and recover from the slight disturbances.
This capacity of an ecosystem to self-regulate or self-maintain is called homeostasis.
Consider grassland, when there is a drought, the growth is poor. The mice that eat the
grass become malnourished. When this happens, their birth rate decreases. And also
the hungry mice retreat to their burrows and sleep. By doing so, they need less food
and are less exposed to predators, so their death rates decrease. Their behavior
protects their own population balance as well as that of the grasses which are not
being consumed while the mice hibernate. Such a mechanism is known as feedback
regulation and is very important to maintain the ecological balance. It is the prime
regulatory mechanism for the ecosystem as a whole. You may know that there are
several kinds of organisms comprising an ecosystem. So all the organisms in an
ecosystem are part of several different feedback loops. A feedback loop may be
defined as relationship in which a change in some original rate, alters the rate of
direction of further change. In the above example, we had deliberately taken a very
small group of living beings that has primarily the mice and the plants. (Source: LSE
Ecology 02, IGNOU)

Now we take up, another parameter of ecosystem balances. One factor that affects the
stability or persistence of some ecosystems under small or moderate environmental
stress is species diversity- the number of species and their relative abundance in a
given ecosystem. High species diversity tends to increase long-term persistence of the
ecosystem. It is because with so many different species and the linkages between
them, risk is spread more widely. An ecosystem having a good variety of species has
more ways available to respond to most environmental stresses. For example, the loss
or drastic reduction of one species ip an ecosystem, with complex food web usually

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does not threaten the existence of others, because most consumers have several
alternative food supplies. In contrast, the highly specialized agricultural ecosystem,
planted with only one type of crop such as wheat or rice is highly vulnerable to
destruction from a single plant disease or insects. Therefore, the essence of the whole
discussion is that most balanced ecosystems contain many different species. The
discussion so far, might have led you to conclude that the ecosystems have the ability
to cope up with any disruption. You should realize that this ability is limited. Extremities
like fires (destroy the landscape), over-exploitation (e.g., rampant, deforestation,
mining) or excessive simplification, monoculture, plantation, crop fields) or too severe
and prolonged stretch (like drought, pollution) seriously hamper the control
mechanism, resulting in ecosystem degradation. The lesson is obvious. We should
check and control our actions, so that, we do not overload the ecosystem.

Summary
Biogeochemical Cycle: The movement of chemical elements between organisms and
non-living compartments of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Biogeography: The study of the geographical distribution of organisms.
Biomagnification: The increasing concentration of a compound in the tissues of
organisms as the compound passes along a food chain
Biomass (organic matter): Total dry weight of all organisms in a particular population,
sample or area; [J/m2];
Cycle: Biogeochemical cycles on a global and local scale.
Denitrification: The conversion of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen; carried out by a few
genera of free-living soil bacteria.
Density: In relation to population, the number of individuals in a certain amount of
space.
Disturbance: In community ecology, an event that removes organisms and opens up
space which can be colonized by individuals of the same or different species.
Detritus:Primary energy source of detritus food chain is dead organic matter called
detritus.
Food chain: A sequence of transfer of food energy from organism in one trophic level
to those in other.

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Food Web:A graphic depiction of the interrelationships by which organism consume

other organism showing the complex and interlocking series of food chains.
Productivity: The rate at which biomass is produced per unit area by any class of
organisms( see biomass).
Organic: Pertaining to living organisms in general, to compounds formed by living
organisms, and to the chemistry of compounds containing carbon.
Organism (individual): Any individual living creature, either unicellular or multi-cellular.
References
LSE Ecology 02, IGNOU
LINK=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/ecosystem/ecosystems-concept-
structure-and-functions-of-ecosystem-with-diagram/28211/
https://en.wikipedia.eorg/wiki/food-chain
www.biocab.org/Energy.Pyramid.htm.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org.
http//www.google.com.in/search?energy+flow+of+ecosystem&aqs
https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>productivity
Dhameja S. K. ,Environmental studies , Page No. 131
Deshwal S. and Deshwal A., page No. 3.19
Kumar Satish and Deepshikha ,Environmental Studies
Sharma Balwant ,Modern publisher
Sharma P.D., Ecology and Environmental studies, Rastogi publication.
1990, Concise Science Dictionary, Oxford University Press.
Annual reports of ministry of Environmental and Forests.
2002, Glossary of Useful terms in EIA, a Wildlife Institute of India Publication.

Suggested Readings
Ecology in practice, Castri and Barker
Environmental studies , S.C. Shantra
Ecosystem Ecology, David G. Raffaelli
Fundamental concepts in Environmental studies by Dr. D.D .Mishra
Ecology and Environment Rastogi publication (PD Sharma)
Environmental studies (Dr. Suresh K. Dhameja)

Self Assessment Question

A) Multiple Choice Questions
1)Food web is a natural inter connection of food chains……….
a)on ecosystems b) in ecosystems
c) with in ecosystem d) at ecosystem
2)Which of the following trophic levels would have the largest number of individual
a) primary producers b) primary consumer
c) opoortunistic feeders d) scavenger
3)Productivity is generally expressed in terms of:
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