Image Detection

Hough Transformation:
The Hough Transform is a popular technique in computer vision and image processing
used for detecting geometric shapes, such as lines, circles, and ellipses, in digital images. It
was originally developed by Paul Hough in 1962 for detecting lines in binary images.
The main idea behind the Hough Transform is to convert the task of detecting shapes
in an image into a parameter space, where each shape corresponds to a curve or peak in this
space. This transformation makes it easier to identify shapes that might not be easily detectable
in the original image space due to noise, discontinuities, or other factors.

Here's a brief overview of how the Hough Transform works:

1. Edge Detection: The process often begins with edge detection using techniques like
the Canny edge detector to identify potential shape boundaries.
2. Parameter Space: For detecting lines, each edge point in the image is represented as a
line in parameter space. In a standard Hough Transform for lines, the parameters are
usually the angle of the line (θ) and the distance of the line from the origin (ρ). Each
edge point corresponds to a sinusoidal curve in the (ρ, θ) space.
3. Accumulation: The next step involves accumulating votes in the parameter space. For
each edge point, the corresponding curve in the parameter space is incremented,
indicating that a line passing through that point contributes to the detected shape.
4. Peak Detection: After accumulating votes, peaks in the parameter space indicate
potential shapes. These peaks represent the parameters of the detected shapes, such as
lines or circles, in the original image.
5. Thresholding: To filter out false positives, a threshold is often applied to the parameter
space. Only peaks above this threshold are considered significant, and they correspond
to the detected shapes.

The Hough Transform is widely used in computer vision tasks such as lane detection in
autonomous vehicles, shape recognition in industrial automation, and circle detection in
medical imaging. It provides a robust method for detecting shapes even in noisy or cluttered
images and can be adapted for various types of geometric shapes beyond lines.

Numerical Examples for Hough Transformation

Example-1: Detecting Lines in Binary Image

Consider the following binary image with edge points representing potential lines:
000000000
000000000
110000000
000111100
000000011
000000000

Here, '1's represent edge points obtained after edge detection.

1. Parameter Space: We'll use the Hough Transform to detect lines represented by the
parameters (ρ, θ), where ρ is the distance from the origin to the closest point on the line
and θ is the angle between the line and the x-axis.
 2. Accumulation: For each edge point in the image, we'll compute the corresponding ρ
and θ values and increment the accumulator array.
3. Peak Detection: Identify peaks in the accumulator array to determine the lines in the
image.

Example-2: Detecting Lines in Grayscale Image

Consider a grayscale image with edge points identified:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 255 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 255 255 255 255 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 255 255
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Here, '255' represents edge points after edge detection.

1. Parameter Space: Define the parameter space for lines (ρ, θ).
2. Accumulation: Compute the ρ and θ values for each edge point and increment the
accumulator array.
3. Peak Detection: Find peaks in the accumulator array to identify lines in the image.

Example with Python Implementation:

import cv2
import numpy as np

# Load the image

image = cv2.imread('lines.jpg')
gray = cv2.cvtColor(image, cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
edges = cv2.Canny(gray, 50, 150, apertureSize=3)

# Perform Hough Line Transform

lines = cv2.HoughLines(edges, 1, np.pi / 180, threshold=100)

# Draw detected lines on the original image

if lines is not None:
for line in lines:
rho, theta = line[0]
a = np.cos(theta)
b = np.sin(theta)
x0 = a * rho
y0 = b * rho
x1 = int(x0 + 1000 * (-b))
y1 = int(y0 + 1000 * (a))
x2 = int(x0 - 1000 * (-b))
y2 = int(y0 - 1000 * (a))
cv2.line(image, (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (0, 0, 255), 2)
# Display the image with detected lines
cv2.imshow('Detected Lines', image)
cv2.waitKey(0)
cv2.destroyAllWindows()
Commentary: In this example, we first load an image and convert it to grayscale. We then
apply edge detection using the Canny algorithm to obtain a binary edge image. Next, we use
the Hough Line Transform (cv2.HoughLines) to detect lines in the edge image. The threshold
parameter in the HoughLines function determines the minimum vote for a line to be considered.
We iterate through the detected lines and draw them on the original image.

Image Features
Image features, also known as keypoints or interest points, are specific locations in an image
that are distinctive and can be used for various computer vision tasks like object detection,
image matching, and image stitching. Here are detailed notes with examples explaining image
features:
1. What are Image Features?
Image features are local structures or patterns in an image that stand out from the surrounding
areas. These features are characterized by their uniqueness, repeatability, and robustness
under different imaging conditions such as changes in scale, rotation, illumination, and
viewpoint.
2. Types of Image Features:
a. Corners/Interest Points: Points where two or more edges meet, like corners of objects or
intersections.
b. Edges: Points along abrupt changes in intensity, representing object boundaries.
c. Blob/Region-Based Features: Regions of uniform texture or color, such as blobs or
patches in an image.

3. Examples of Image Features:

a. Harris Corner Detector: Detects corners by looking for significant changes in intensity in
different directions.

import cv2
import numpy as np
# Load image
img = cv2.imread('corner_image.jpg', cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE)
# Detect corners using Harris Corner Detector
corners = cv2.cornerHarris(img, blockSize=2, ksize=3, k=0.04)
# Display detected corners
img[corners > 0.01 * corners.max()] = [0, 0, 255] # Mark corners in red
cv2.imshow('Detected Corners', img)
cv2.waitKey(0)
cv2.destroyAllWindows()

b. Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT): Detects and describes keypoints invariant to

scale, rotation, and illumination changes.

import cv2
# Load image
img = cv2.imread('sift_image.jpg', cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE)
# Initialize SIFT detector
sift = cv2.SIFT_create()
# Detect keypoints and compute descriptors
keypoints, descriptors = sift.detectAndCompute(img, None)
# Draw keypoints on the image
img_with_keypoints = cv2.drawKeypoints(img, keypoints, None)
# Display image with keypoints
cv2.imshow('Image with Keypoints', img_with_keypoints)
cv2.waitKey(0)
cv2.destroyAllWindows()

c. ORB (Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF):

Fast and efficient feature detector and descriptor.

import cv2
# Load image
img = cv2.imread('orb_image.jpg', cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE)
# Initialize ORB detector
orb = cv2.ORB_create()
# Detect keypoints and compute descriptors
keypoints, descriptors = orb.detectAndCompute(img, None)
# Draw keypoints on the image
img_with_keypoints = cv2.drawKeypoints(img, keypoints, None)
# Display image with keypoints
cv2.imshow('Image with Keypoints', img_with_keypoints)
cv2.waitKey(0)
cv2.destroyAllWindows()

4. Applications of Image Features:

a. Object Detection: Features are used to identify objects or regions of interest within an
image.
b. Image Matching: Features help match similar parts of different images for tasks like
image alignment or registration.
c. Panorama Stitching: Features aid in aligning and merging overlapping regions of images
to create panoramic views.
5. Importance of Image Features:
a. Robustness: Features are invariant to common transformations, making them reliable
under various conditions.
b. Efficiency: Feature-based techniques are computationally efficient compared to pixel-
based methods.
c. Accuracy: Features provide precise information about distinct parts of an image,
improving accuracy in tasks like object recognition.

Examples for Image Stitching

Computer vision to create panoramic images by joining multiple overlapping images together
seamlessly:
Example 1: Stitching Two Images Horizontally:
Suppose we have two images, Image A and Image B, with overlapping regions. Let's stitch
them together horizontally.
1. Load Image A and Image B.
 2. Detect feature points and descriptors in both images using a feature detection
algorithm like SIFT or ORB.
3. Match feature points between Image A and Image B to find correspondences.
4. Use a robust estimation method like RANSAC to estimate the homography between
the matched points.
5. Warp Image B to align it with Image A using the estimated homography.
6. Blend the warped Image B with Image A in the overlapping region to create a
seamless transition.
7. Combine the non-overlapping parts of Image A and the warped Image B to form the
stitched panoramic image.
Example 2: Stitching Multiple Images Vertically:
Let's consider stitching three images vertically - Image A, Image B, and Image C.
1. Load Image A, Image B, and Image C.
2. Detect feature points and descriptors in all three images.
3. Match feature points across adjacent images (e.g., between Image A and Image B, and
between Image B and Image C).
4. Estimate homographies for each pair of adjacent images using RANSAC.
5. Warp and blend Image B to align it with Image A, and then warp and blend Image C
to align it with the merged Image AB.
6. Combine the non-overlapping parts of Image A, Image B, and Image C to create the
final stitched panoramic image.
Example 3: Stitching Using a Featureless Approach:
In some cases, feature points may not be reliable or available. Here's an example of stitching
images using a featureless approach:
1. Load Image A and Image B.
2. Preprocess the images (e.g., resize, normalize).
3. Use a technique like image correlation or phase correlation to align and stitch Image
B with Image A based on pixel intensities and spatial relationships.
4. Blend the overlapping region to ensure a smooth transition.
5. Merge the non-overlapping parts of Image A and Image B to generate the stitched
panoramic image.