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Mechanical Properties of Steel-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete

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DOI: 10.3390/engproc2022022006

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Proceeding Paper
Mechanical Properties of Steel-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete †
Inayat Ullah Khan *, Akhtar Gul, Khalid Khan, Saeed Akbar and Irfanullah

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar 25000, Pakistan
* Correspondence: 16pwciv4553@uetpeshawar.edu.pk
† Presented at the 12th International Civil Engineering Conference (ICEC-2022), Karachi, Pakistan,
13–14 May 2022.

Abstract: The rapid increase in a vehicle’s use leads to tire waste, the management of which is of
social and environmental concern. The steel wires in a tire have good application in concrete if the
proper amount and distribution of steel fiber in the concrete matrix is ensured. This experimental
setup evaluates the dosage effect of steel fiber with different ratios on the compressive, splitting
tensile, and flexure strength of concrete. The relationship of flexure and compressive strength vs.
the dosage of steel fiber is also investigated. A significant enhancement in compressive and flexure
strength was found with the use of steel fiber. Moreover, the effect of the length of steel fiber on the
mechanical properties of concrete is checked. A 2% dosage of steel fiber with a 300 length showed
excellent performance in compression and flexure. The first crack appeared at a 10% greater load
than the control specimen. Based on detailed analysis, a 2% dosage with a 300 fiber length can be used
for the commercial production of structural concrete.

Keywords: steel fiber; mechanical properties; tire waste; flexure strength

1. Introduction
Citation: Khan, I.U.; Gul, A.; Khan, The tire is one of the non-biodegradable materials and is globally produced at a rate
K.; Akbar, S.; Irfanullah. Mechanical of 1.5 billion per year [1]. With the population increase, the use of vehicles is increasing
Properties of Steel-Fiber-Reinforced day by day, which leads to the production of more tire waste. The average lifetime of the
Concrete. Eng. Proc. 2022, 22, 6. tire is 50,000 km, after which it needs to be replaced [2]. This tire waste can catch fire and
https://doi.org/10.3390/ create hotbeds for mosquitoes, mice, etc. [3]. Tire waste comprises 85% of rubber material.
engproc2022022006 Ways of carefully dealing with tire waste have attracted public interest recently due to its
Academic Editors: Sarosh H. Lodi, environmental impact and the rapid degradation of its disposal sites [4]. Pakistan is the
Sohail Bashir, Abdul Jabbar Sangi fifth most populous country in the world, with an annual population growth of 2% [5].
and Shamsoon Fareed The number of vehicles is increasing with the population, which ultimately leads to the
production of more tire waste and requires more land for proper disposal. The management
Published: 23 September 2022
of such a number of tires is also a serious problem for the Pakistan EPA (Environmental
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Protection Agency) [6].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in Concrete is a widely used material in the construction industry, and some researchers
published maps and institutional affil- reported its use next to water [7,8]. Concrete is weak in tension, a quasi-ductile material,
iations. and offers low resistance to crack creation. High-performance concrete is required for
skyscrapers and large-span buildings to meet the needs of the construction industry [9,10].
One of the ways to reduce brittleness and enhance the tension capacity of concrete is
through the usage of fibers, which improve the tensile strength of concrete before cracking
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
and its ductility after cracking. Fiber helps in the improvement of impact and fatigue
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
strength and minimizes temperature and shrinkage cracking [11]. Used tires are one of the
This article is an open access article
most easily available and cheap sources of steel fiber in Pakistan with high tensile strength.
distributed under the terms and
A large number of tires are collected annually in Pakistan due to the absence of a recycling
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
industry for it [6,12].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
Tire waste largely consists of steel fiber, the proper extraction of which would be
4.0/). very beneficial for the construction industry [13]. Recently, researchers and practitioners

Eng. Proc. 2022, 22, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2022022006 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/engproc

Eng. Proc. 2022, 22, 6 2 of 7

have given great attention to the use of sustainable, environmentally friendly, and green
concrete by using different recycled materials in concrete; recycled steel fiber (RSF) is
one of these [14]. Recently, various studies were carried out to determine the effect of
RSF, extracted from tires, on the mechanical properties of concrete, and an excellent result
was found. It was reported that RSF has a negligible effect on durability, with significant
enhancements in mechanical properties [15]. It reduces the probability of chemical-agent
entry into concrete by minimizing the dimensions of the concrete [16]. Enhancements in
flexure and compression strength were also reported by different researchers of the addition
of RSF [17]. However, a high amount of SF in concrete affects workability, leading to porous
concrete, which causes different durability issues [14].
The level of increase in the mechanical properties of concrete (post-cracking, shear
strength, etc.) is related to the uniform distribution of SF and length factor in the concrete
mix [18]. Different researchers used 0.26% and 0.46% SF by volume of normal concrete
to ensure proper workability [19]. In previous research studies, it was concluded that
commercial SF significantly enhances flexure strength, ductility, and resistance to post-
cracking in concrete [6]. Furthermore, the brittle behavior of concrete was reduced by
the bridging action of SF, ultimately leading to enhancement in post-cracking resistance
through the control of crack origination and propagation [20]. Some researchers reported
decreases in the compressive strength when SF was more than 2% [21]. The inclusion of SF
causes workability problems and produces low-quality concrete. This issue can be resolved
through proper selection of the length and dosage of SF. The amount and length of SF
significantly contribute to the tensile strength of concrete.
In this study, steel fiber from tires was utilized in concrete in different dosages and
lengths to select the most optimum combination from detailed scrutiny. Experiments
were performed on control and Steel-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) specimens and
the compressive, splitting tensile, and flexure strengths were evaluated. The test was
performed according to different ASTM standards.

2. Methodology and Materials

The properties of the material are given in Table 1. To find the optimum amount for the
mix, locally available material was used. The material’s physical and mechanical properties
were found in the lab of the Civil Engineering Department of the University of Engineering
and Technology, Peshawar, according to the standards [22]. A total of 540 cylinders were
cast with a length of 30.5 cm and a diameter of 15.5 cm. The properties of the ingredients
used in concrete specimen preparation are given in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Material properties.

Property Value
Concrete 1:2:4
w/c ratio Constant for all, 0.61
Steel fiber extraction from the tire Manually (Figure 1b)
Diameter of SF 0.015700 (0.40 mm)
Average tensile strength of SF 990 MPa (conforms to ASTM A370 [23])
% elongation of SF 1.30
Length of SRF 300 (76.2 mm) and 400 (101.6 mm)
Amount of RSF used 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4% by weight replacement of concrete
Cement type Type-1
Fineness of cement 96%
The specific gravity of cement 3.10
 Coarse Aggregate (20 mm) Fine Aggregate
Property Specification, Reference Values Property Specification, Reference Values
Sieve analysis ASTM C136, [24] Well-graded Specific Gravity ASTM C128, [25] 2.72
Moisture content ASTM C566, [26] 0.25% Water absorption ASTM C128, [25] 3.10%
Eng. Proc.gravity
Specific 2022, 22, 6 ASTM C127, [22] 2.66 Fine modulus ASTM C136, [24] 32.84
of 7

Water absorption ASTM C127, [22] 1.23% Moisture Content ASTM C70, [27] 2.40%

Figure 1.1.(a)(a)Cross
Figure Crosssection
sectionof
ofthe
thebeam.
beam. (b)
(b) Wires extractedfrom
Wires extracted fromtire.
tire.

Table
2.1. 2. Properties
Compressive of coarse and fine aggregate.
Strength
For
Coarse Aggregate (20compressive
mm) and splitting tensile strength, aFine
total of 140 cylinders were prepared:
Aggregate
5 cylinders each with different % of SF for 3” and 4” fiber length. For comparison pur-
Specification, Specification,
Property Values was prepared
poses, a control specimen Property
with no SF. Reference Values
Reference
Sieve analysis ASTM C136, [24] Well-graded Specific Gravity ASTM C128, [25] 2.72
Moisture content ASTM2.2. Flexure
C566, [26] Strength 0.25% Water absorption ASTM C128, [25] 3.10%
Specific gravity ASTM C127,For
[22]flexure strength,
2.66 Fine modulus
four specimens ASTM
of the beam C136, 1a)
(Figure [24]with dimensions
2.84 of 145
Water absorption ASTM×C127, [22] 1.23% Moisture Content ASTM C70, [27] 2.40%
288 × 2286 mm were cast with the proper combination of ingredients, as given in Tables
1 and 2. Minimum reinforcement was provided according to ACI 318 [28] to obtain failure
at2.1. Compressive
a lower load, asStrength
given by an author of [29] with the addition of an economic aspect. All
beamsFor were cast and tested
compressive as per ASTM
and splitting standardaprocedure
tensile strength, total of 140[30]. The load
cylinders werewas applied
prepared:
as5per the third-point
cylinders each with loading
differentmethod
% of SF for 00
and3 three 00
and 4Linear
fiber Variable
length. ForDisplacement Transduc-
comparison purposes,
ersa control
were used specimen
in the was prepared
region with no bending
of maximum SF. moment. Two beams were constructed
without RSF, acting as a control beam, while the two beams were cast with 2.5% SF.
2.2. Flexure Strength
For and
3. Results flexure strength, four specimens of the beam (Figure 1a) with dimensions of
Discussion
145 × 288 × 2286 mm were cast with the proper combination of ingredients, as given in
The compressive strengths of the control specimens and Steel-Fiber-Reinforced Con-
Tables 1 and 2. Minimum reinforcement was provided according to ACI 318 [28] to obtain
crete (SFRC) are shown in Figures 2 and 3. The experimental results show that both the
failure at a lower load, as given by an author of [29] with the addition of an economic
percentage
aspect. Allcontent and dimensions
beams were cast and testedof the
as perRSF can affects
ASTM standard theprocedure
compressive
[30]. strength
The load of
SFRC. Compressive strength increases with an increase in percentage
was applied as per the third-point loading method and three Linear Variable Displacement content of SF for
both the 3” and 4” lengths. At a fiber content of 2%, the maximum
Transducers were used in the region of maximum bending moment. Two beams were compressive strengths
are found to be
constructed 20% and
without RSF,16% higher
acting than thebeam,
as a control controlwhilebeams for 3”
the two and were
beams 4” fiber,
cast respec-
with
tively.
2.5% SF.A further increase in the dosage of RSF causes a decrease in the compressive
strength, both for the 3” and 4” length fibers. However, the compressive strength is higher
for3.the
Results and as
3” fibers Discussion
compared to the 4” fibers. Additionally, the best-fitted line was drawn
through Thethecompressive
compressive strengths
strengthofdata,
the control
through specimens
regression and Steel-Fiber-Reinforced
analysis, and it was found Con-
that
crete (SFRC) are shown in Figures 2 and 3. The experimental results
the decrease in compressive strength with a dosage of SF follows quite linear behavior for show that both the
percentage
both lengths of content
fibers.and
Thedimensions of the
linear line fits bestRSF can 4”
for the affects
fiber the compressive
compared to 3”. strength of
The decrease
SFRC. Compressive
in compressive strength increases with an increase in percentage content
strength with an increase in the length and dosage of RSF may be due to of SF for both
the 300 and 400 lengths. At a fiber content of 2%, the maximum compressive strengths are
the low workability of concrete, which results in poor-quality concrete in terms of cavities
found to be 20% and 16% higher than the control beams for 300 and 400 fiber, respectively. A
and pores, which causes a decrease in compressive strength.
further increase in the dosage of RSF causes a decrease in the compressive strength, both
for the 300 and 400 length fibers. However, the compressive strength is higher for the 300
fibers as compared to the 400 fibers. Additionally, the best-fitted line was drawn through
the compressive strength data, through regression analysis, and it was found that the
decrease in compressive strength with a dosage of SF follows quite linear behavior for both
lengths of fibers. The linear line fits best for the 400 fiber compared to 300 . The decrease in
compressive strength with an increase in the length and dosage of RSF may be due to the
low workability of concrete, which results in poor-quality concrete in terms of cavities and
pores, which causes a decrease in compressive strength.
, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 7

Eng.
Eng. Proc. 2022, 22,
Proc. 2022, 4, x6FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of
of 77
Eng. Proc. 2022, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 7

Figure 2. (a) Compressive strength vs. SF dosage of 3”. (b) Compressive strength vs. SF dosage of
4”. Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a)
(a) Compressive
Compressivestrength
strengthvs.
vs.SF dosageofof3003”.
SFdosage (b)Compressive
. (b) Compressivestrength
strength
vs.vs.
SFSF dosage
dosage 400 .
of of
4”.
Figure 2. (a) Compressive strength vs. SF dosage of 3”. (b) Compressive strength vs. SF dosage of
4”.
a b
a b
a b

Figure 3. (a) 28-days compressive strength of concrete. (b) Testing of concrete cylinder.
Figure 3. (a) 28-days
Figurecompressive
Figure 3. (a)
(a) 28-days strength of
28-days compressive
compressive concrete.
strength (b) Testing
of concrete. of concrete
(b) Testing cylinder.
of concrete cylinder.
cylinder.
The splitting tensile strength test was performed to find the capacity of SFRC in ten-
sion,Thewhich splitting tensile
tensilestrength
is an important test was
mechanical
strength performed
parameter toto
for find
plain the capacity
concrete of SFRC
performance. in tension,
Figure
The splitting
which
tensile
is an
strength
important
test was test
mechanical
was
performed
parameter
performed
to plain
for
find find
the the capacity
capacity
concrete
ofofSFRC
performance.
SFRC in
in
Figure
ten-
ten-
4 shows
sion, which theiseffect the of themechanical
an important length of fiber on thefor
parameter splitting tensile strength.
plain concrete performance. Figure4
It is obvious
sion, which is 4shows
an
from important
shows the
Figuretheeffect
4 that
effect mechanical
thethe
the ofofthe
splitting parameter
thelength ofoffiber
tensile
length forthe
on
strength
fiber on plain
is
the splitting
greater concrete
splitting fortensile performance.
the 3”
tensile strength. It is
fiber compared
strength. It Figure
is obvious
obvious
to 4”.
00 400 .
4 shows the effect
from the of44the
Figure
The splitting
from Figure thatlength
tensile
that the
thestrength of increases
splitting
splitting fiber
tensile
tensileonstrength
the an
with splitting
strength is greater
greater
increase
is tensile
for
infor
thethethestrength.
dose 3 of
3” fiber
fiber toIt2%,
is and
compared
RSFcompared obvious
to
toafter
4”.
The
from Figure 4 Thethat, splitting
thatsplitting
itthe tensile
splitting
decreases.
tensile strength
The tensile
decrease
strength increases
strength with
may bewith
increases due an increase
is greater
to increase
an the low forinin the 3”
the
workability
the dose
dose ofofRSF
fiber
of RSF to 2%,
compared
concrete
to 2%,atand
and to
high after
4”.
SF
after
that,
levels, it decreases.
which
that, it decreases. producesThe decrease
low-quality may be
concretedue to
with the
poreslow workability
and cavities. of
The concrete
maximum at high
split-
The splitting tensile strength The decrease
increases mayan
with be increase
due to thein low the workability
dose of RSF of concrete
to 2%,atand high SF
after
SF
tinglevels,
levels, tensile
which which
strength produces
produces is 50 low-quality
and 62% greater
low-quality concrete
concrete than
with with
that
poresof pores
the
and and cavities.
control specimen
cavities. The
The maximumfor maximum
the 3” and
split-
that, it decreases. Thetensile
splitting decrease strengthmay 50 beanddue to greater
the low workability of concrete atforhigh 3SF
00
4” fiber
ting tensile lengths,
strength is 50 is
respectively.and 62%The 62%
increase
greater than than
in tensile
that of thattheofcontrol
strength theiscontrol
due tospecimen
specimen the bridging
for the the
action
3” and
levels, which produces
and
of fiber
4”
00
SF4 acrossfiberlow-quality
lengths,
the
lengths, andconcrete
crack,respectively.
respectively. hence, Thewith
controls
The increase pores
increase
the
in inand
crack
tensile tensilecavities.
widening
strength strength
isand
due The
is
todue maximum
propagation.
the to the bridging
bridging split-
action
action
ting tensile strength
of SF acrossof SF across
is 50the and the
62%
crack, crack,
and and
greater hence,
than that
hence, controls controls
theof the crack
thewidening
crack widening
control specimen and
and propagation.propagation.
for the 3” and
4” fiber lengths, respectively. The increase in tensile strength is due to the bridging action
of SF across the crack, and hence, controls the crack widening and propagation.

Figure 4. Splitting tensile strength vs. % dosage of SF.

Figure 4. Splitting tensile strength vs. % dosage of SF.
Figure 4. Splitting tensile strength vs. % dosage of SF.
Full-scale concrete beams were tested for flexure strength in the lab according to
third-point loading [30] beams
Full-scale for maximumtested
positive bending. For the constant w/c ratio, based
Full-scale concrete
concrete beams were
were tested for
for flexure
flexure strength
strength inin the
the lab
lab according
according toto
on workability
third-point effect on other mechanical properties, the optimum amount
third-point loading [30] for maximum positive bending. For the constant w/c ratio,
loading [30] for maximum positive bending. For the constant w/c of SFbased
ratio, (2%)
based
with
on a length of
workability 3” was
effect used for
on other enhancement
mechanical of the the
properties, flexure capacity
optimum of theofRC
amount SF beam
(2%)
Figure 4. Splitting
withtensile strength
a length vs. %used
of 3” was dosage of SF.
for enhancement of the flexure capacity of the RC beam

Full-scale concrete beams were tested for flexure strength in the lab according to
Eng. Proc. 2022, 22, 6 5 of 7

Eng. Proc. 2022, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 7

Eng. Proc. 2022, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 7
on workability effect on other mechanical properties, the optimum amount of SF (2%) with
a length of 300 was used for enhancement of the flexure capacity of the RC beam (Figure 5).
(Figure
Similarly, 5).theSimilarly,
flexure the flexure
capacity capacity
was found was found atpercentages
at different different percentages
of SF for the of lengths
SF for theof
(Figure
lengths 5).3” Similarly, the flexure capacity was found at different percentages of SF for in-
the
3 and 4 . The test results show that the flexure capacity increases with an increase an
00 of
00 and 4”. The test results show that the flexure capacity increases with in the
lengths
crease inof the 3”percentages
and 4”. The test SF.results show
showsthat
thatthe flexure capacity increases with an in-
percentages of SF. It also ofshows Itthat
alsoflexure flexure
capacity capacity
linearly linearly
increases withincreases with
percentage
crease
percentage in the percentages of SF. It also shows that flexure capacity linearly increases with
SF dosages SF showndosages
by theshown by theline
best-fitted best-fitted
throughline throughanalysis,
regression regression analysis,
with 2
R = 0.98. withThe
R2
percentage SF dosages shown by the best-fitted line through regression analysis, with R2
=maximum
0.98. The flexure
maximum flexure
strength strength
is 56% and is57%56% andthan
more 57% the more than the
control controlfor
specimen the 300 and
specimen for
= 0.98. The 4” maximum flexure strengthincrease
is 56% and 57% more than the control specimen for
400 RSF,
the 3” and RSF, respectively.
respectively. The increaseThe in flexure
in flexure strength is duestrength is due
to the bridging to action
the bridging
of RSF
the
action 3” and
of RSF 4” RSF,
across respectively.
the crack, The
andthe increase
thus, controlsin flexure
theand
crackstrength is
widening anddue to the bridging
propagation.
across the crack, and thus, controls crack widening propagation. Similarly, the first
action
Similarly, of RSF across the crack, and thus, controls the crack widening and propagation.
cracks startthe in first cracks
control and start
SFRCinatcontrol
3.7 andand SFRC
4.9 k, at 3.7 and
respectively, 4.9 k,shows
which respectively,
that the which
elastic
Similarly,
shows
behavior that the
was first cracks
theenhanced
elastic bystart
behavior17%wasin
and control
SFRC and
enhanced SFRC
canbysustain
17% and ata 3.7 and
SFRC
10% 4.9 sustain
can k, respectively,
greaterload a 10%
than which
thegreater-
control
shows
load that
than after
specimen the elastic
the control behavior
specimen
the beginning was
of after enhanced
the crack.
the first by
beginning 17% and SFRC
of the first
The bridging can
crack.
action sustain
ofThe a 10%
SF isbridging greater-
action
clearly shown
ofload
in than
SF is
Figure 6.the control
clearly shown in specimen
Figure 6. after the beginning of the first crack. The bridging action
of SF is clearly shown in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 5.5. Trend line between
Trend line between flexure
flexurestrength
strengthand
and%%dosage
dosagefor
for(Left)
(Left)3003”fiber
fiberlength
length(Right)
(Right)4004”fiber
Figure
fiber 5. Trend line between flexure strength and % dosage for (Left) 3” fiber length (Right) 4”
length.
length.
fiber length.

Figure 6. Bridging action of SF in concrete beam.

Figure6.6.Bridging
Figure Bridgingaction
actionof
ofSF
SFin
inconcrete
concretebeam.
beam.
4. Conclusions
4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
From the experimental findings of the current research, the following conclusion can
From
Fromthe theexperimental
experimentalfindings
findingsof ofthe
thecurrent
currentresearch,
research,thethefollowing
followingconclusion
conclusioncan can
be drawn.
be
bedrawn.
drawn.
• The mechanical properties of concrete are greatly affected by the length and dosage
•• The The
of mechanical
SF. mechanicalproperties
properties of of
concrete
concrete are are
greatly affected
greatly by the
affected bylength and dosage
the length of SF.
and dosage
•
• The maximum
of SF.
The maximum compressive strength was increased by 20% and
compressive strength was increased by 20% and 16%, respectively,16%, respectively, for
00 and 400 fiber compared to the control specimen.
• forthe 3
Thethe maximum
3” and 4”compressive
fiber compared strength
to thewas increased
control by 20% and 16%, respectively,
specimen.
• The
for maximum
the 3” and splitting
4” fiber tensile strength
compared to thewas increased
control by 50 and 62%, respectively, for
specimen.
• The maximum splitting tensile strength was increased by 50 and 62%, respectively,
• the 300maximum
Thethe and 400 fiber compared to the control specimen. The byincrease is shown for both
for 3” and 4”splitting tensile
fiber compared strength was
to the control increased
specimen. 50 and
The 62%,
increase isrespectively,
shown for
lengths.
for the 3” and 4” fiber compared to the control specimen. The increase is shown for
both lengths.
• The maximum
bothmaximum flexure strength is 56% and 57% greater than in the
lengths. flexure strength is 56% and 57% greater than in the control specimen control specimen
• The
• for the 300 and 400 RSF, respectively.
for the 3” and 4”flexure
The maximum strength is 56% and 57% greater than in the control specimen
RSF, respectively.
• The
for SF with
the 3” a 2%
and 4” dosage
RSF, with a 300 length can be used for structural concrete.
respectively.
• The SF with a 2% dosage with a 3” length can be used for structural concrete.
•• The Thedecrease
SF with ain2% dosage with
compressive a 3” length
strength beyond can abe2%used for structural
dosage is due to theconcrete.
low worka-
• bility
The decrease in compressive strength
of concrete, as it produces porous concrete.beyond a 2% dosage is due to the low worka-
bility of concrete, as it produces porous concrete.
Eng. Proc. 2022, 22, 6 6 of 7

• The decrease in compressive strength beyond a 2% dosage is due to the low workability
of concrete, as it produces porous concrete.
• The increase in the flexure strength of concrete is due to the bridging action of SF
across the crack, which increases resistance to crack production and propagation.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.U.K. and A.G.; methodology, K.K. and S.A.; formal
analysis, I.U.K.; investigation, K.K.; resources, K.K. and I.U.K.; writing—original draft preparation,
I.U.K. and I.; writing—review and editing, S.A. and I.U.K.; visualization, K.K.; supervision, A.G.;
project administration, I.U.K. and S.A.; funding acquisition, S.A. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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