LECTURE NOTES I

ON

DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AND NETWORKS

COURSE CODE: COSCE 404

PREPARED BY

DR. ENGR ABDULLAHI ADAMU

SCHOOLS OF CONTINUING EDUCATION (SCE)

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

COMPUTER ENGINEERING AND NETWORK AND SECURITY

OBJECTIVES

• To comprehend and utilize fundamental

• To understand and components essential for data communication.
• To evaluate the monitoring tools and their functionality
• To learn about different internet-based developments.
NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction to Networks – Categories of Networks -Communication model –
Data transmission concepts and terminology –Protocol architecture – Protocols
– OSI – TCP/IP – LAN Topology – Transmission media.

1. DATA LINK LAYER

Data link control – Error Detection – VRC– LRC – CRC – Checksum – Error
Correction – Hamming Codes – MAC – Ethernet, Token ring, Token Bus –
Wireless LAN - Bluetooth – Bridges.

2. NETWORK LAYER
Network layer – Switching concepts –Circuit switching – Packet switching – IP

Addressing –IPV4, IPV6 – Routing Protocols – Distance Vector – Link State.

3. TRANSPORT LAYER
Transport layer – service – Connection establishment – Flow control -
Transmission control protocol – Congestion control and avoidance – User
datagram protocol - Transport for Real Time Applications (RTP).

4. APPLICATIONS
Applications - DNS – E-Mail Protocols –

WWW – SNMP – SMTP - Security – Threats and Services- Cryptography -

DESRSA- Web security -SSL .

OUTCOMES
• Able to trace the flow of information from one node to another node in the
network.

• Able to Identify the components required to build different types of networks.

• Able to understand the functionalities needed for data communication into

layers.

• Able to choose the required functionality at each layer for given application.

• Able to understand the working principles of various application protocols.

• Acquire knowledge about security issues and services available.

Networking Overview
The origin of network from the historical perspectives of electronic
communication it has been into existent for every long time, the idea was
introduce by Samuel Morse through telegraph. The telegraph massage was
officially launch on 24th may 1844, in United State of America which covers
almost 37 miles distances from Washington DC to Baltimore MD. A study
conducted by Alexander Graham Bell to improve the quality and signal
transmissions straight through analog systems in less than 25 years 1867. The
language for electronic communications devices was developed by Emile
Baudot through printing telegraph and signal transmissions by bit-oriented that
requires devices to sent pulses of electricity where either positive or no voltage
at all. The designed is to use Baudot five levels code sent five pulses down the
wire for each character transmitted rather than using Morse code. The machine
was configure and enables encoding and decoding to eliminate the need for
operators at both ends of the wires and it was the first time electronic message
sent by any one.
In 1966 additional technical advancements of networks communications devices
initiate by single persons known as ``Carter`` by attach a telephone receiver that
allowed transmission of voice over the telephone for two way radio. As a result
of developing two way radio transmission by bell which makes American
Government to intervene in other to provide security in communication and
establish a standardizations and regulatory commission in telecommunication
industries in united state of America Federal communication commission
(FCC). In 1975 the federal communication commission introduced new policies
and guidelines for networks communications devices most meets the required
specifications and standards for devices to be connected for phone systems.
Those specifications and guidelines where approved in 1977 and fully become
known a FCC part 68. In years ago after the established federal communication
commission all networks communications devices manufactured by approved
vendors most carries a stamps, trademarks and approval of federal
communication commission (FCC) certified by a regulatory commission to
ensured safety of devices interoperability and information security.
Data Communication:
The information is shared when we communicate. This sharing can be
local or over long distance. Data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using it. Data
communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. A communication
service enables the exchange of information between users at different
locations. The communicating devices must be a part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). Communication services &
applications are everywhere. Some examples are given below:

Features of the information Communication: Four essential qualities

determine how well a data communication system is:
1. Completion
2. Precision
3. Timeliness
4. Shiver

Delivery: Data must be sent by the system to the right place.

Accuracy: Data delivery from the system must be accurate.
 Timeliness: The system needs to provide data quickly. Delivering data in a
timely manner entails doing it as soon as it is created, in the same order, and
with minimal delay.
This refers to this type of delivery as real-time transmission.
Jitter: The term "jitter" describes the fluctuation in packet arrival times.
Put simply, a data communication system needs to accurately and promptly
transmit data to the right place.
Parts: a data communication system's fundamental elements are the
message, sender, Receiver, Medium and Protocol.

Message: The data that has to be shared. It may include audio, video, text,
images, and numbers.
Sender: The device that transmits the data transmission is the sender. It could
be a video camera, phone, computer, workstation, and so forth.
Receiver: The device that gets the message is known as the receiver. It could be
a video camera, phone, computer, workstation, and so forth.
Medium: The actual channel that a message passes through to go from sender
to recipient is known as the transmission medium. It could be radio waves,
coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or twisted pair wire.
A protocol is a collection of guidelines that controls data transmissions. It
stands for a consensus among the communicating devices.

Data representation:
Any format, including text, numbers, pictures, music, and video, can contain
information.
Write something
A bit pattern is used to represent text.
The quantity of symbols in a language determines how many bits are used in a
pattern. The collection of bit patterns used to represent text symbols is called
code.
ANSI
The American Standard code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was created
by the American National Standards Institute.7 bits are used for each symbol in
this code.
Enhanced ASCII
An additional 0 is added to the left of the ASCII bit patterns, which doesn't
affect the pattern's value, to make each pattern one byte (8 bits) in size. Unicode
Unicode is used to represent a symbol or code in any language. It makes use of
32 to represent.
ISO
The international organization for standardization known as ISO has designed a code
using a 32 – bit pattern. This code can represent up to 4,294,967,296 symbols.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by using bit patterns. Instead of using ASCII to
represent numbers, the number is directly converted to a binary number.

Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. An image is divided into a matrix of
pixels (The smallest element of an image) where each pixel is a small dot having
dimension. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and value of the pattern
depends on the image.

Audio
Audio is the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers or images. It is continuous not discrete.

Video
Video is the recording or broadcasting of picture or movie. Video can be produced
either a continuous entity or it can be a combination of images.

Direction of data flow

Two devices can communicate in simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode.
Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive.

Ex. Keyboard and

monitor Half-duplex

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive. Ex. Walkie-talkies and
CB (citizen band radios)

Full-duplex
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Ex. Telephone network

When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can listen and talk at
the same time.

Network:
Definition:
 A network is set of devices (nodes) connected by communication
links (media)
 A node can be a computer, printer or other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data Link connecting the devices are often called
communication channels most network use distributed processing.

Distributed Processing
Networks use distributed processing in which a task divided among multiple
computers. Separate computers handle a subset instead of a single machine
responsible for all aspects of a process.

Performance
Performance can be measured in terms of transit time, response time, number of
users, type of transmission medium, and capabilities of the connected hardware and
the efficiency of the software.

Transit time
The time required for a message to travel from one device to another.

Response time
The time spent between an inquiry and a response

Reliability
It is measured by the frequency of failure and time required to recover from a failure.

Security
Network security is protecting data from unauthorized access.

Type of connection
Two types of connections

a. Point to point

b. Multipoint

In point-to-point connection the two devices are connected by a dedicated link. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

A multipoint (also known as multi drop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link. The capacity of the channel is shared either
spatially or temporally.
Physical Topology
Physical Topology refers to the way in which network is laid out physically. The topology of
a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and the linking
devices. The physical or logical arrangement of a network is also topology. The basic
topologies are
 Mesh
 Star
 Bus
 Ring
Networks architectures Designs
A computer network communication is a group of interconnections of systems
in entities to shared resources and not limited to modern computer network. It is
framework that contains detailed information and specifications of physicals
components, configurations, managements its operations, principles and
methods of executions as well as data transmission paths designed.
The computer network devices components are operate globally under open
systems interconnections reference model architectures (OSI) designed by
international standard organisation. The reference model of open systems
interconnection is design with seven layers approach from the physical layer to
applications layer with fixed standards from different vendor equipments
interoperability and applications for network architectures design for data and
voice communications over internet connectivity. Although the OSI reference
models is not widely deployed is rather than consider as basic primary of
network architectures for inter computing and networking communications.
There are others vendors network architectures apart from OSI models in inter-
communications networking such as IBM systems network architectures, Hp
digital equipments corporation, Digital network architectures apple computers
and Novell’s NetWare. The idea of networks computing provides conceptual
frameworks of computer communications and does not give a detail of network
methods and communications systems.
Networks Components Architectures

It is obvious to identify various network architectures topologies with their

functions and standards distance scales transmissions technology. Computers
systems networks are designed to communicate and shared resources within a
specified building, towns, and regions based on various standardized approved
guidelines by international standardizations institutions (IEEE, EIA, IEE and
IETF).

Local Area Networks

Local area networks are called LANs. LANs are designed to cover a few
distances of kilometers in organisation offices or several buildings within a
campus. It consist of interconnections of personal computer systems, printers
and other peripherals devices that is capable to shared resources. There are three
basic elements that distinguished LANs with other network, they are as follows.

Figure1

a) A size of the area covers

b) Topology
c) signals transmissions technology
  Sizes of Area Covers: As mention earlier a local area network covers a
few kilometres or miles it all defended on sizes of network designs and
workstations locations that suite organizations needs. It most comply with
industries standards in terms of point to points links specifications and
signal straight to cover otherwise the result may not be favourable.

 Signal transmission technology: the initial maximum speeds of LANs

signals transmissions is 100Mbps with a limits number of errors and
delay in microsecond or nanoseconds, now the newer LANs operate at
high speeds of 10Gbps. It consist of packet switches and circuits switches
networks, circuits switches end to end transmissions while a packet
switches massages are divided into a small unit of partitions before send
to destinations through intermediate switches.
 Topologies: Basically various network topologies are applied in LANs
broadcast refers to figure 2.3 examined the available topology for best
practice.

Wide Area Networks

Wide area network WANs is an interconnection of networks resources that are

widely spread in large geographical area. It covers almost 100 km a ways in
specific continent or region, the connections is a collections of various local
area networks nodes hosts known as users personal systems and communication
subnet own by internet services provides (IPS). The basic idea be hid a subnet
in wide area networks distribution of massaged from host to host.

Figure 2

Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network normally own and operate by large organization

that has many branch across the nation. Newer network technology plays vital
roles in transforming various small and medium enterprises to satisfy their
esteemed customers. MANs are an internetworking of local area networks own
by organisation that are located in different cities.

Figure 3

Residential Networks

A residential networks known as home network is an interconnection of

networks computing resources within a particular building. The home networks
are configured to access internet connectivity through central home gateway and
the major difference between home networks with other, network devices are
easy to install.

Figure 4

Networks Topologies
The term network topology refers to physical maps descriptions of nodes and
connecting lines arrangements and technical distance measures of nodes,
interconnections and transmissions rates. There are two types of network
topology measures are physical topology and signal topology.

Physical Topology

The physical topology describe networks layout and how cables are terminate,
end to end cables laying, and connection of each workstation.

Logical Topology

A logical topology is a configurations and settings data transmissions path over

workstations.

Features of Networks Topologies

Networks topologies features describes six basic concepts and methodology

applied for data shared and images on networks which was approved as
standards by the international industries standards and professional
organizations.

Bus

The topology in which all workstations are directly connected through one
medium line, it is easy to connect other networks peripherals. It consumes less
amount of cables compared with any others topologies.

Figure 5

Star

A star topology all workstations are connected directly through central nodes,
hub, and switch point to point links. The configurations are normally done with
twister pair cables or fiber optic cables LANs. A switch manage and controls all
functions of data transmissions and failure of central workstations transmission
will affect entire connections and downfall or malfunction of one workstation
amongst other that will not affect the connections only the affected one will be
out of connection.

Figure 6

Tree Star

Re-arrangements of interconnections of star topology were each and every node

required to transmit and received from other node. The main function of central
server is distribution and it is the only node that has no one above it in
hierarchy. The topology design shows that any network device that links to
central node is a center of other star.
 Figure 7

Ring

A ring topology is in form of cycle were by the each workstations is being

connected to two other workstations in network and first and last workstations is
connected to other called a ring. Data flows from one workstation to another in
network in a circular manner and generally one single direction.
 Figure 8

Mesh

A mesh topology design in such away any workstation can be connected to

other. It provides several routes for data transmitting and fails of one links can
switch to another and it is possible for data transmission simultaneously from
any single workstation to another it is difficult to implement and manage
because is costly.

Figure 9

Hybrid

Hybrid is a combinations of two or more physical interconnections that upon

different topology, example combinations of star and mesh topologies.

Factors considered choosing topology

There are various options in designing computer networks systems. it all depend
on organizations capabilities and locations were they want to connect as well as
technical competences of personals in selecting the appropriate topology that
meet the needs of organization in comply with international and local guidelines
and policies.

 Financial Implications: basically out of various topologies discussed

earlier a linear topology has a least expensive compared with stars and
tree as expansion of star topology and does not required concentrators in
network. In view of rapid growth of the new next generation network
technology and components devices organization most evaluate their
needs for the best and not think about the cost implications.
  Network Components required: the amount of various networks devices
facilities required in bus top is less compared with other topologies. The
bus topology required a shorter network cable in length. If any cable fails
from anywhere none of the workstation will transmit. It is important to
verify the compatibility of devices with their transmission limitations for
best practice.
 Network Scalability and Growth: choosing network topologies that has a
provisions of scalabilities is importance for ever sectors because of
features forecast and easy maintenance with less cost of maintenance.
 Network cables Standards: There are various vendors with many network
cables designed based on industries approved standards for best practice
and each cables has its own specifications and functions design purposely
for operations. The common cables are unshielded twisted pairs that most
of networks engineer/administrators configure Local Area Network
(LAN) with combinations of fiber optic multimode and single mode.
Single mode fibers cables are lay only to covers large distance while
multimode between two buildings short distance.
 Hardware Specifications: Basically a systems weather desktop or laptop
most has an inbuilt network interface card installed on systems and it
requires networks drivers. Although the major concerns is about desktop
systems because the centrals concentrators node and centres links
requires more than one networks interface cards (PCI).

Table 1 A summary of three common topologies with network cables

combinations.

S/ Standards Standards cables Standards Protocols

N Topologies

1 Bus Twisted Pair Coxial Ethernet

Fiber

2 Three Twisted pair Fiber Ethernet

3 Extended Star Twisted Pair Coxial Ethernet

Fiber

Comparison of wired and wireless Connectivity

Basically accessing internet connectivity is classified into brought categories it
could be vied wired or wireless, normally connecting to internet through wired
is being designs for desktop or laptops systems. Initially systems were not
designed with wireless adapters is only designed with network interface card
onboard both desktop and laptops and desktop has an expansion slot where
various cards are installed based on the provisions in cased of any reasons such
as upgrade or repairs VGA, NIC on mother boards. Whoever wirelesses cards
adapters were designed separately that are compatible with various operating
systems and come with compass disk drivers. Newer generations computers
systems come with an inbuilt wireless integrated and compatible with operating
systems.

Wired Connections

The wired connectivity requires physical cables connections in first layer in

open system interconnections reference model. Wired are categorised in
different purposed and sizes in networks connections for the purposed of this
research works the researcher is focused on unshielded twisted pair cables
Cat5e, Cat6e to Cat7 and fiber optic cables in local area networks. Additional
networks components such as face plate, jack models and RJ 45 connectors for
each workstation direct connections with unique identification numbers
terminated from switches in local area networks (LANs) in ever segments.

Figure 10
The principles and techniques of unshielded twisted pairs a cables termination is
colour codes behind the techniques weather straight cables or cross over. A
cross over cables purposed applied only for two systems without any
intermediary network device (i.e. Switched) between nodes a straight cable
required switched to connects a large numbers of workstations each node with
unique Internet protocols (IP) and systems names and all workstations are
configured in the same workgroups.
In some cases networks engineers/administrators configured each workstations
are automate options of internet protocols (IP) that is only serve machined will
be configured with internet protocol address and routers.

Figure 11

A fiber optic cables single mode (SM) is designed to cover a long distance
trunks and multimode cables basically for inter buildings short distance
connections data and voice transmissions a fibre cables consist of copper and
glass is differs from other cat6 Ethernet cables (Unshielded Twisted Pair) in
term of speeds, thickness, terminations, laying, costs, maintenance and distance
covering.

Wireless Connections
The wireless networking it has been into exiting for many years in
telecommunications industries, wireless is designed to improved internet
connectivity and business transactions for data and voice transmission a cross
the world. The wireless connectivity gives a wide range of benefits amongst its
users and manufacturing industries devices components in relations to
applications and implementations for both home used and public cooperation.
Wireless devices networks components are expensive for the first time of
launching and unreliable in terms of speed and poor security in operations. The
decisions for using both or one out of the two wireless and wired it all depends
with organizations day to day activities.
 Figure 12
A wireless networks in compasses interconnections of radios wave
transmissions in wireless communications for data and voices without physical
cables connections in local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks
(WAN). The wireless connections required a few amount of straight unshielded
twisted pairs cables in ever host machined purposely for access points (AP)
configurations.
Table 2.Comparisons between wired and wireless connections
S/ Wired Wireless
N

1 Wired is easy to set-up maintain Wireless is difficult to set-up

and troubleshoot maintenance and troubleshoot

2 Wired is immobile in terms of Wireless provides mobility of nodes

connecting to host spots and users still connected within
area

3 Wired is expensive to set-up Wireless networks saved time and

network costs comparatively by wired

4 Guarantee of speeds and quality No guarantee of speed compared

of services ( QoS) with wired networks

5 Wired connections needed more Wireless set-up has a shorter time

 time to set-up network compared with wired

6 Wired provides high performance The same frequency may shared by

and security reliability multiples users in wireless network

OSI References Networks Architecture

The open systems interconnections models gives a direct bearing of networks
architectures that serve as a references guides for networks administrators and
engineers to understand how various networks components are connected to
each other to establish communications between two entities from seven
different OSI layers and analyses the most suitable data paths transmission. The
OSI is not directly applied in Transmission Control Protocols and Internet
Protocols (TCP/IP) networks as a defector standard for over roll networks. It is
a technology that helps networks administrators to optimized performances and
monitoring behaviors of ever networks devices within and out networks
architectures to ensured safety and reliable of data transmissions.
According ISO/IEC 7498-1 documents references for standards and guidelines
in telecommunications networks for common basic and coordination of
standards and development for purpose of systems interconnections its allows
the exiting standards to consider for over roll reference model, the model it is
important for new standards because it gives opportunities for networks
developers for continues reasoning and thinking about the existing structures
and standards. The reality about the importance of OSI and relate with TCP/IP
protocols is that TCP/IP was developed before OSI reference model it can be
consider the relations between model. it is very simple to distinguished between
the TCP/IP and OSI reference models in terms of applications layers, the OSI
reference models is serve as the references to understand and analysis TCP/IP
protocols full implementations into real practice for network communications
systems.
The OSI uses by networks engineers as references models architectures to set up
networks and managing. It allow networks administrators to focuses on security
issues on each layer, optimizing layers and troubleshooting networks systems
for easy identification of faulty workstations. The OSI reference models each
layer has a relationship with another in terms of connections, OSI reference
model is segmented into two brought categories host layers and media layers for
computer networks local area networks and wide area networks designed.
 Figure 13
Host Layers Architecture
The three tops layers is categories as host layers known as applications,
Presentations and session is integrated and called data transmissions layers. It
generally deals with software applications implementations by the end users
interaction that contents various data components.

Applications Layer
The applications layer is the highest layer defined in OSI reference model which
provides accessed to other layers. Application networks process applications
packages that are found in application layers such as Excels, CorelDraw
installed and any network software applications installed in workstations or host
machine (server). The application layer contains higher levels protocols in OSI
reference model which applications required to communicate. The application
layer is categories into two functions user applications and program application.

User applications
All applications process likes simple mail transfer protocols (SMTP), file
transfer protocols (FTP) and hypertext transport protocols (HTTP) they are
using applications functions which give a direct results between sender and
receiver after programs executions.

System application
Dynamic configurations and applications settings on how users will access
programs in application layer to communicate between two nodes. The
protocols of systems application are Domain name services and internet
protocols (DNS and IP). All configurations and setting is considered as
applications systems due the reasons that users have no direct access to
applications and it’s only done by networks administrators.

Presentations Layer
The presentation layer is defined as layer six in open systems reference model
that provides services to application and session layers. It helps in data
transmission and encryptions services between the two nodes in
communications process and syntax management to ensured encryptions and
decryptions of data between sender and receiver hosts communicate using
common languages and understand the encryptions algorithms to provide a
smooth’s of data program for sender or receiver in the networks.

Session Layer
A session layer is an interhost and communications to establish connections
between endpoints for data exchanges. The results for data exchanges is an
orderly procedures for sessions termination, it’s an arrangements for
communications specifications guidelines and communications transparency in
data link layer also charges with the responsibilities for creating sessions and
managing between endpoints and proper termination of sessions.

Media Layers Architecture

The media layers are the remaining four layers in open systems interconnections
in reference model networks architectures designed. It consists of segmentations
of networks devices components, packets transmission paths, frames for data
links and bits transmissions for media signals. The layers are defined as
transport, network, data links and physical layer.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is capable and responsible of transparency in data transfer
between session’s entities and relieving from any measure with details and ways
in which data transmissions is achieved for cost effective. As names implies a
transport layer ensuring for data segmentations and compliance with quality of
services (QoS) and requirements for media access controls. However a transport
layer protocols and functions in OSI are transmission control protocols and
internet protocols (TCP/IP) and user datagram protocols. It’s supported end to
end network program connections and reliability of data transmissions.

Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

The protocol it has being recognized as defector standards for long time and
known as connections oriented protocols, three ways hand shake is a primary
protocol. The electronic mails systems, HTTP, SMTP, FTP and classified each
of the open systems interconnections protocols layers functions, the TCP/IP
model has four layers internet architectures.
Application Layer

The transmission control protocol and internet protocol (TCP/IP) layer does
similar functions with OSI reference model. It provides services between the
applications packages running on host machine servers and workstations
network interface. The applications for TCP/IP are webs browsers such as
internet explorer and Firefox which found in clients HTTP systems and
protocols is simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) between mail servers of
sender and recipients.

Transport Layer

The transport layer has two protocols known as transmission control protocols
(TCP) reliable and User Datagram (UDP) unreliable connectionless provides
end to end logical communications between applications that running on
different machines and each layer give a supports service to above it. The
functions of layer are fairly similar the same with international standards
organization OSI reference model, the layer has capabilities of managing and
errors controls.

Internetwork Layer

The internet protocols (IP) defines each workstations with unique (IP) address
and routers on network for easy segmentations and managing. The
implementations of routing information tables fully, the logical IP address
process and guides packet transmissions and understand the whole networks
segments to deliver data correctly.

Network Interface Layer

The network interface defined physical hardware components and protocols that
required for data transmissions across the networks. Onboard networks interface
cards (PCI), switches and routers as a medium to connect host machines and
other workstations through Ethernet protocols between systems and network.
Ethernet is the required cables for IP addressing and entire network topology.
 Figure 14

Figure show layers architectures of OSI and TCP model with network diagram
and routing information table.

Network Layer
The network layer in OSI reference model is paths determination and logical
addressing in internet protocols for packets transmissions. It’s a functional and
methodology measurement and comparisons between user datagram (UDP)
connectionless mode and transmission control protocols (TCP) connection
mode among transport entities and provides transport entities independence
routing and delay consideration in routing tables. The routing table allows a
dynamic configuration of routers and switches from different segmentations by
assigning a unique IP addresses for easy identification for troubleshooting and
IP conflict avoidance within networks. It is required for each sources and
destination to know the IP address for packets transmission and (QoS)
parameters.

Data Link
The data link layer is a physical addressing of media access control and logical
links control (MAC and LLC) for packets transmissions paths. It’s clearly
shows how two physical addressing is carrying packets from sources to
destination. Data links is responsible for errors detections and corrections in
physical layer and provides services for sessions (layer 3) and application (layer
1) which is classified as host layer. The MAC and LLC is categories as a sub
layers under institute of electrical electronics engineers (IEEE) policies for best
practices and identifications of MAC behaviors and physical layers also the
LLC is usually used by many TCP protocols.

Physical Layer

A physical layer is responsible for electrical and network cables wiring, binary
transmission and mechanical functions for establishing connections between
physical and data link entities. The connections from physical layer to
application layer i.e. layer 1 to layer 7 in OSI reference model is logical in the
real sense but the reality the physical connections from physical layer

Figure 15
Figure: 1 shows details on how each layer execution in open systems
interconnection reference models from sources to destinations using standards
Ethernets packets switched.

Networks Design Standardization

There are dozens of telecommunications industries standardizations across the
world establish and own by government of the federation with customized
internal guidelines and policies in comply with international standardizations
bodies approved for best practice (NITDA, NCC MOT). Ensuring manufactures
and end users of network computing devices are operating based on the
standards and procedures topologies. The standardizations organizations are
categories into two parts and each side has its own schedules and
responsibilities in monitoring the activities of manufacturers or end users
assigned by the governing body in design network and managing according to
international standards these are the professional institutions such as ITU, IEEE
and ISO.

A proposed five layers project (Akari, 2010) the idea to improved efficiency
and performance of existing layers of ISO reference models architectures and
designs not to replace. Any network architecture comprises five layer blueprint
is consider as new next generation network framework. Research work
conducted by (Mehra, 2013) as a result of high demand of organizations and
individuals of ICT infrastructures applications operations for business
transactions and communications globally change work habits and required it
necessity to upgrade bandwidth and transmission devices to international
standards requirements. A British computer communications engineer (Russell,
2012) describes the initiatives and innovations of computer network standards
set by ISO that network engineers are referred as guides to designs standards
network architectures.
Open Standards

Open standards is initiate and create by public and private with common agreed
methodology for the operations of network devices interoperability802.3
Ethernet standards and H.323 for media communication standards

Defector Standards

The defect standards are those standards typically developed by private or

public group base on the consideration and reasons to a certain levels of
requirements and popularities acceptable by users. Standard help to provide a
simplicity consistency of communication and implementations of policies into
actions and also a consistency provide contains stable and devices
interoperability for best practice based on agreed level between manufacturing
industries designers and regulatory bodies. Simplicity of devices set-up and
operating gives systems administrators self confidences courage to purchased
devices that meet level requirements for industries standard and believed they
will work together to effectively.

Industries Standardisations
Collaborative efforts from different professional institutions across the world
come together with common ideas and standards to ensure manufacturers are
producing network devices that are compatible with each other with various
vendors brands. The institutions were form based on dynamic and complexity of
internet architectures and services by professionals institution know as institute
of electrical and electronics (IEEE) emphasis on Ethernet 802.3 standards and
wireless networks ranging from 802.11 to 802.22 for quality of services (QoS)
and spectrum services and management. International standards organisation
(ISO) engaged in monitoring and evolutions of national bodies for computing
recourses and open systems interconnections reference model for best practices
networks communications in different country. The international
telecommunications union (ITU) engaged in global standardisation for
telecommunications networks and internet architectures boards (IAB) were
form purposely as editorial management and documentations for publications
and comments on internet architectures standards and technical developments to
achieved a global standardisations and objectives (IEEE, ITU, IAB and ISO).

Nigerian Networks Standardisations practice:

There are various policies and guidelines for telecommunication companies

service providers and networking devices manufacturers companies set by
national communication commission and national information technology
development agency in Nigerian in other to have a total controls and stable
operations in ever sector for the development of information communication
technology in Nigeria, standards for network designed and bandwidth
management based on international standards organizations for governments
agencies and small and medium enterprises and educational institutions. The
agencies are working hand in hand with IT professional institutions to
development of information communication technology in Nigeria as nations
for best practices. This guidelines and standardisations a holistic approached in
terms of infrastructures, legal issues, technical standards, commercial satellites,
international gateway, Internet services providers (ISP), and frequency
management.

A Nigerian standards (Agyema, 2007) survey results shows the levels of

awareness and education and challenges of ICT in Nigeria and possible
solutions for best practice in Nigerian. Cisco cooperation (Cisco Africa, 2012) a
worldwide leading network company identified major network architecture
designed problems for best practice of Ahmed Bello university (ABU) Zaria for
three campuses in Zaria and recommends the best solution.
Networks Regulatory Bodies Commissions:
The regulatory bodies organizations ensured all policies and guidelines drafted
by local bodies are implement in comply with international standards at any
levels of network architectures. It is agreed by the regulatory bodies and
policies makes of telecommunications and internet architectures that are
mandatory for any network devices should carried a federal communication
commission (FCC) trade mark logo and every vendor most comply with FCC
standards and guidelines for productions of networks devices across the world.
The FCC is government body in united states of America focuses on the
communications devices regulations such as radio, satellite, and spectrum
management and office of communications (OfCom) in United Kingdom for
spectrums management and minimizing frequency interference within United
Kingdom and a member of spectrum allocations for cognitive radio wireless and
other related approved organizations from different countries across the world.
The national information technology development agency and national
communication commission are compliances with international policies for
network set-up management in additional to the internal policies for best
practice. These are categorized as governing bodies form and own by
governments in information communication technology field charge with the
responsibilities of policies and implementations. (NCC, NITDA, FCC and
OfCom)

Networks set-up Guidelines and Policies

The technical guidelines are focuses on bandwidth requirements, physical

infrastructures and frequencies management for local and international internet
services providers and systems specifications for easy interoperability. It
describes guideline and arrangements for commercial and technical operations
on how and where services providers connects their equipments and allow users
to communicate with other from different services provides. The
interconnections of physical facilities to set-up networks and communicate with
different other networks, it could be a horizontal telecommunication links
between different communications companies and vertical links for internet
services providers (ISPs) and customers through telecommunications
companies. The objectives of technical guidelines to ensure all ISPs and
customers are implementing according to the following principles.

Inter-Operability
Network physical components devices where designed from different vendors
in compliance with international standards for interconnections and
compatibility of systems specification to communicate with each other to
achieve predictable results in telecommunications. Interoperability is a system
which serves as a gateway for transmissions to shared resources between sender
and receiver.
Efficiency and Effective
The regulatory body is to ensure the compatibility and efficiency of various
vendor network device and efficiencies of services providers in delivering the
required bandwidth agreed amongst their customer’s subscriber. Information
related to bandwidth physical components and architectures, business plains,
interconnections and quality standards.
Services Measuring and Monitoring
The regulatory bodies is responsible for monitored and detect any inefficiency,
discriminations and exploitations of end users services agreement with internet
services providers and devices vendors in operations. It’s mandatory for ever
ISPs to update and monitor the operations and capacity of their facilities deploy
for interconnections to provide services to their esteem client due to increased
of demand regularly.
Network Components Set-up
All services providers shall be responsible in constructions, installations,
maintenance of equipments within a premises locate for a reliable services to
their respect customers in delivering the services and any upgrade,
modifications and substitutions that may arise shall be agree between services
providers and customers in other to avoid any downtime or inconveniencies.
Equipment’s Safeguard
Each services provides shall be responsible for taking necessary steps and
actions to protections and maintenance of it physical infrastructures for any
likelihood threats likes natural disaster and human interference and disruptions
for safety of communications network resources in various locations. We’re if
the agreement of contract between ISPs and end user to provides all the
necessaries security in terms of the physical felicities by the subscribers within
the premises install the network infrastructures is acceptable.
Equipment’s Interface
All equipments develop for interconnections for each party between services
providers and receiving part (clients) most understand the technical interface of
each other and interoperability in network systems. It is mandatory for both
parties to seek the approval of commissions purposely for equipments capacities
and services agreements to certify the standards and quality of network devices.
Nigeria Bandwidth Policies
The guidelines is strictly applied to licenses internet services providers and any
other internet protocols telecommunications services established under the
commissions 2003 act in compliance with general consumers code of practices.
All services providers based in Nigeria and outside shall compliance with
customer’s code regulations 2006 in respect to subscriptions policies.
 In order to ensure good quality of services (QoS) and standards for
bandwidth subscriptions between ISPs and consumers, ever ISPs should
attached consumers code regulations guidelines for practices and
applicable to ISPs shall be governed by general commission regulations.
 In view of the consumers code regulations subscriptions for internet
access services all ISPs should disclosed the following information about
bandwidth requirements and detailed specifications for consumers.
 ISPs should provide full details of bandwidth capacities and categories to
consumers before conclude to subscriptions. It can be a dedicated or
shared bandwidth and bit transfer rate.
 IPSs should provides a good communication channels and policies in
respect to any change of equipments and facilities upgrades that may
results to down time for at least six months notices.
 IPSs should give their esteem subscribers a subscriptions fees notice for
re-renewal a maximum of six months before disconnections of services.
 IPSs should maintain records of their client’s information for commercial
and reseller’s services.

ISPs VSAT Bandwidth Subscriptions fee Charge

All spectrums fees charged by international and local Internet Service Providers
(ISPs) are based on bandwidth types and agreements between two parties in
comply with Nigerian communication commission and national information
technology development agency policies.
Table 3 shows bandwidth categories approve by the commission for VSAT
internet connectivity terminal.
S/ Workstations Amount Per Annum
N

1 1-20 Workstations N500.000.00

2 21-100 Workstations N1,000.000.00

3 101-300 Workstations N2,500.000.00

4 301-500 Workstations 5,000.000.00

 5 501-1000 Workstations 10,000.000.00

VSAT Technical Parameters

A very-small-aperture terminal (VSAT) is a two-way satellite ground station
with a dish antenna that is smaller than 3.8 meters. The majority of VSAT
antennas range from 75 cm to 1.2 m. Bit rates, in most cases, range from 4
kbit/s up to 16 Mbit/s. The VSAT installations requirements and guidelines for
networks operations most comply with international Telecommunication Union
(ITU) policies. The networks operating bandwidth is categories into two digital
and analog bands.

Digital Bandwidth Vsat

Maximum bandwidth outbound downlink density per carrier is 12/14GHz with

+10dBW/4KHz and antennas power densities input 14dBW/4KHz.

Analog Bandwidth Vsat

The maximum outbound downlink power density is +17/dBW/4 KHz per

carrier and network operations range between 12/14GHz and 4/6GHz. The
antenna input power densities is 8.0dBW/4KHz.

Network Management

A computer network system is collections of various electronic communications

devices within a particular building and extends to region or continents.
Network components consist of a personals computers, routers, switches,
modulator, cables, sensors devices, and cloud. There are several topologies of
connecting systems to communicate with each other and shared resources
through a specified transmission line. Managing network components is a
responsibilities of networks managers to monitor the status and health of ever
transmissions devices connections speeds and fixed any problem that may occur
as a results of malfunctions of devices and systems to ensured all the necessary
settings of monitoring tools are functioning based on the specified
configurations settings approved by manufactures standards.
Monitoring tools both hardware and software is configuring to notify
administrator for any illegal attempt to temper network resources internally by
employee or an external hackers it could be an alarm or graphical interface
symbols and observations. The network management principles integrate some
of the basic elements of network security and disaster recovery plains purposely
for network resources and information safety in an organization, below is
highlight the basic tasks of network manager for best practice.

Network devices failure

Any networks transmissions devices such as network interface cards or switches

of host may develop a problem that may results to down time and fails to
transmit from networks entity. Network manager is responsible of monitoring
and evaluating traffic controls from central backbone. Whenever the helps of
networks manager is needed to rectified a faulty device he will be call over
phone.

Client Monitoring

The network manager may access LANs segments workstations remotely

(through server applications monitoring tools) to check the status and operations
of host for any down before any complains or report by the users.

Network traffic monitoring

With supports of various network management tools installed and configure and
competency of network administrators to monitor transmissions packet data rate
and amount of traffic flows from source to destinations of LANs segment host
communications. Network manager determines the levels performance of
bandwidth is overloaded or not does it required to be upgraded or newer
equipments need to be replaced for effective and efficient transmission speeds.

Editing routing information tables

Basically frequent changes of multiple LANs segments routers IP address is

lead to results of IP conflicts. At all coast network manager most troubleshoot
and find out the solution of the problem either by calling colleagues to help out
of problem or by him before the network goes down.

Services level agreements performance

A network manager shall always be monitor and analysis the levels bandwidth
performance and consumptions and speeds requirements based on agreement
between his organization and services providers. Monitoring an outage latency
and availability of connections and measuring the actual performance.

ISO Network Management Guides

As mentions early in networks standardization the international organization for

standardization (ISO) has lay down flexible guidelines that helps networks
engineers to manage networks for best practice in the world. There are five
elements of network management.

Network components performance management

Measuring the actual behaviors and performance status of ever workstations,

network components and individual personal devices within network, the
utilizations of various transmissions devices such as routers and radios
transmission links for end to end.

Network Devices fault Management

The main objective of fault management to integrate people and technical

complains to identify possible solutions in the systems. A fault management is
an immediate detection approached and handles any networks devices
components failures such as host, network interface cards, switches and routers
compared with network performance management it requires a longer term to
identify traffic flows of network device and failures to acceptable levels of
performance.

Network components configurations management

A configuration management consists of two methods of handled and managing

networks resources are nontechnical and technical. The configurations
management allows networks administrations to detect any am normal behavior
of network devices components. Ensuring each segments both hardware and
software is on network management monitoring tools and is able to access them
from communication host machine.

The nontechnical management changes involve organization new security

policies review and operations procedures that helps managers to update
logging access records and manage networks information and do not affect the
technology while the technical while technical changes are configurations of
both hardware and software new versions update to monitor networks status and
devices efficiencies and any other changes that may necessary.

Network resources accounting and auditing

There are various techniques and software’s designed purposely to helps

network managers to have a total controls and monitoring activities of network
resources and clients to ensures the allocate access time to access networks
facilities are manage and frequent review of systems status for misuse or any
technical faulty of information technology infrastructures.

Network security Management

The network security policies to ensure all networks resources are secure and
users are accessing information based on specific policies configurations
settings by networks managers. The firewalls are configuring to monitor
incoming and outgoing packets on network through TCP/IP protocols.

Network security strategies

Cooperates organizations and governments agencies in early sixties (1960s) do

not cure about network security systems thousands of systems were connected
through one central hubs processing unit for business transitions. They realize
the importance of network securities as a result of criminal offence that
involved finance a computer programmer in large cooperation by transferring
money from one account to another that drawn the attentions of defense
advance research project agency (DARPA) in conjunctions of four additional
institute effort to designed a network security at university of California at santa
Barbara utab (UCLA) in 1969.

The development of information technology in 1980s gives birth of personal

computer systems that supported local area networks (LANs) lead to combine a
massive network security threats. Indeed ever massage mails file transmitting is
being handle and done by network devices and unmonitored network devices
are the major areas of hackers to concentrations to sources for information in
organizations illegally.

Features of Network security

Network security instruments are importance in information security because it
helps in communication and information sharing through Ethernet protocol and
TCP/IP. Network security is intergradations of hardware and software
components responsibilities are prescribe and control by network managers for
best practice. The operation, procedures, accountability, measures, access
controls and administrative management policies required to provide an
acceptable level of protection for hardware.

Zero-error

Zero-error is known as information integrity that is free zero threat –end.

Whenever information is being destroyed or damages by thirty parts those
results are corrupt, the integrity of such information is loss. A computer writing
programs is run on network to perform hidden operations to destroyed
information such as virus and worms. The easiest ways to detected affected
information by any of these two miscellaneous threats virus and worms by
change the size of the files.

Information Privacy

Information confidentiality is a information certainties for only the authorized

person`s that has a privilege and right to accessed the information.
Confidentiality is total information grantee and privacy that unauthorized
person does not have access to the information and or systems.

Availability

Information should be available to authorized person`s or network interface at

any time is needed. Example of MDX PG lounge is only authorized for past
graduate students and each student is identified by a unique numbers printed on
university Identity cards. This means PG lounge most accepts a valid
identification cards before students have access to lounge and it is always
available.

Disaster recovery plains

Basically any organization weather small or large has a forecast and planning
tools to prevent any feature disaster occurrence towards to accomplishments or
organizations goals and objectives. Information communication technology
disaster recovery plain is a drafted writing document that contains principles,
procedures, guidelines, policies and technical operations for any natural or
human errors disasters that may likelihood.

The operations of business information communication technology (ICT)

infrastructures are the integrations of technical operations personals and
business continuity plain. The business contingencies responses are the major
responsibilities of business continuity plain. There are capable of creating more
acceptable avenues, opportunities and arrangements for both organization and
their esteems customers as a results of any disaster may occurs for best practice.

Why organizations needs ICT Simple Network Management Protocol,

Internet Message Control Protocol for disaster recovery plains

In normal circumstances no one has a control over disaster because it is natural

or employee negligence’s. Having an ICT disaster recovery plain at this new
technology generation is obvious compared with other organizations plains.
Any organization at era without ICT disaster plains they have a very limit
percentage of networks and other components safety and their story is horror.
There are various benefits which organization will gain by implementing full
information communication technology disaster recovery plain likes insurance
policies that covers all security safety for best practices.

SNMP: What is it?

A standardized protocol called SNMP is used to manage and keep an eye on
network devices like servers, routers, switches, and printers. Network managers
can use it to: Track the status and performance of devices set up the device's
settings. Get notifications and alerts (traps)
Gather information for reporting and analysis.

Important Elements:
Software that operates on a network management station and is in charge of
requesting and receiving data from SNMP agents is called SNMP Manager.
Software that operates on managed devices and is in charge of gathering and
transmitting data to the SNMP manager is known as an SNMP agent.

The Management Information Base (MIB) is an object-based database that

specifies the syntax and structure of managed data. The three most secure
SNMP versions are SNMPv1, SNMPv2c, and SNMPv3.
Network Examination Using SNMP:
Performance monitoring includes tracking error rates, interface traffic, CPU and
memory consumption.

Fault Management: Finding and fixing problems with networks. Device

configuration backups and restores are handled by configuration management.
Security management: keeping an eye on encryption, authentication, and access
control.

 SNMP Network Analysis Tools:

Nagios: All-inclusive monitoring software.
Cacti: Monitoring and charting networks.
SNMPWalk: A command-line utility for MIB object queries.
 Network protocol analyser
 Wireshark.
Solar Winds Suite for network administration and observation
 Advantages:
Enhanced Network Dependability
Early Problem Identification
Effective Problem-Solving
Improved Security Compliance and Assistance with Audits
Problems and Restrictions:
Complexity. Difficult to learn. Safety Risks include data alteration and
unauthorized access.

Scalability. Sturdy management solutions are necessary for large networks.

Interoperability: MIBs and implementations unique to each vendor.

In order to begin SNMP network analysis, you will require:

Become familiar with the fundamentals of SNMP.

Select a tool for SNMP administration.

Set up SNMP agents on devices under management.

Specify the monitoring parameters and MIB objects.

Central processing unit (CPU) and application programming interface (API) are
related terms that were not previously discussed.

Nagios: Network Service Monitoring Tool for Nagios Administration

Cacti: All-Inclusive Advanced Internet Configuration Tool the Simple Network
Management Protocol is known by the acronyms SNMPv1, SNMPv2c, and
SNMPv3.
Object Identifier, or OID, is a tool used to identify MIB objects.
Network Management System, or NMS
Remote Monitoring Operations Here are some more pertinent terms as well:

Agent: A network device that has SNMP installed on it

Manager: Software for overseeing and controlling network devices
Traps: Agent alerts that managers get
Polling: Managers asking agents for information
GET: Get the value of a MIB object
SET: Modify the value of a MIB object
WALK: Get several.

ICMP: What is it
In IP networks, the ICMP protocol is used for error reporting and diagnostic
purposes. It enables devices to communicate with other devices on the network
by sending error messages and operational data.

ICMP Message Categories:

Check for network connectivity using the echo request/reply (ping) method.
Notifications when a destination becomes unreachable.

Redirect: Provide hosts with alternate routes.

Expiration Time: Indicate the Time-To-Live (TTL) expiration.
Reporting faults in IP packet headers is a parameter problem.

ICMP Analytical Methods:

Ping Analysis: Check latency and connectivity. Map network pathways using
traceroute analysis. Analyser ICMP Error Messages to find network problems.
Stop ICMP flood assaults by using ICMP rate limiting.

ICMP Analysis Tools:

Ping: An echo request command-line utility.
Traceroute: Pathfinder utility accessible via a command line.
Network protocol analyzer: Wireshark.
Tool for command-line packet capture: Tcpdump.
Nmap: Network investigation and scanning. T

Advantages of the ICMP Analysis

Verification of Network Connectivity
Path Finding and Issue Resolution
Error Identification and Assessment
Surveillance of Security
Network Enhancement

Problems and Restrictions:

ICMP Rate Limiting: Could conceal problems.

ICMP communications are blocked by firewall blocking.
Spoofing: It is possible to spoof ICMP messages.
Flood Attacks: ICMP overloads networks.
Top Techniques:

Keep an eye on ICMP traffic: Look for irregularities.

Set up rate restriction to stop flooding.

Employ authentication Verify ICMP transmissions.

Examine the ICMP logs: Determine trends.

SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL (SMTP)

A method for sending email messages across servers is called the Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP). It functions at the TCP/IP protocol stack's
application layer and is a crucial part of email transmission. Email messages can
be sent and received using the SMTP protocol. We will cover every topic
pertaining to SMTP in this essay.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol:

An application layer protocol is SMTP. When sending email, the client

establishes a TCP connection with the SMTP server and sends the message
across it. The SMTP server is in a listening state at all times. The SMTP process
opens a connection through port 25 as soon as it starts listening for a TCP
connection from any client. Instantaneously upon establishing a successful TCP
connection, the client process sends the message.
 Figure SMTP

The SMTP Protocol

Two types of SMTP models exist:

Method from End to End

How to Store and Forward Data

When communicating between companies, the end-to-end approach is utilized,

whereas within an organization, the store and forward method is employed. In
order to send mail to a destination, an SMTP client must make direct contact
with the host SMTP information. The email will remain private on the SMTP
server until it is effectively transferred to the recipient's SMTP account.

Since the session is started by the client SMTP, let's refer to it as Let's call the
server SMTP the receiver-SMTP as it is the server SMTP that answers to the
session request. The session will begin with the client-SMTP and end with the
receiver-SMTP responding to the request.

SMTP System Model

The user interacts with the user agent (UA) in the SMTP model, such as
Microsoft Outlook, Netscape, Mozilla, and so on. Using TCP, and Message
Transfer Agent (MTA) is used to exchange mail. The system administrator is in
charge of setting up a local MTA, so the person sending the mail doesn't have to
deal with it. In order to plan for repeat mail delivery in the event that the
recipient is unavailable, the MTA keeps a small mail queue. The user agents can
then get the information when the MTA delivers the mail to the mailboxes.

Figure SMTP model

The SMTP Mail User Agent (MUA) is a computer program that facilitates
sending and receiving mail. It is in charge of composing emails to be forwarded
to the mail transfer agent (MTA).

A computer program known as the Mail Submission Agent (MSA) receives

mail from a Mail User Agent (MUA) and communicates with the Mail Transfer
Agent (MTA) to facilitate the transfer of the mail.

Agent for Mail Transfer (MTA): With the aid of SMTP, this software facilitates
the transport of mail across systems.

Local Delivery Agents, often known as mail delivery agents (MDAs), are
essentially systems that assist with the delivery of mail to the local system.

How Does SMTP Operate

Sender-receiver communication: The message is prepared by the sender's

user agent and sent to the MTA. Mail must be transferred across the network to
the recipient's MTA by the MTA. A system needs a client MTA in order to send
mail, and a server MTA in order to receive mail.
Sending Emails: A sequence of request and answer messages are sent back and
forth between the client and the server to send email. There is a header and a
body to the message that is transmitted. The mail header is terminated with a
null line, and everything that follows is regarded as the message's body, which
is made up of ASCII characters. The body of the message includes the data that
the receipt actually reads.

Getting Emails: At specific intervals, the server-side user agent monitors the
inboxes. In the event that information is obtained, the user is notified about the
mail. A list of emails with a brief description of each email in the mailbox
appears when the user tries to view the mail. Users can read the contents of any
email by choosing it and viewing it on the terminal.

Figure workflow of SMTP

An SMTP envelope:

Objective

Email transport between servers is guided by information contained in the

SMTP envelope.

It is not visible to the email recipient and is separate from the email text and
headers.

What's inside the SMTP envelope

The sender address indicates the location of the email.

 The recipient address is where the email is supposed to be delivered.

Routing Information: Assists servers in figuring out the email delivery

path.

Likeness to Ordinary Mail

Consider the SMTP envelope to be analogous to the real mail envelope's

address.

The SMTP envelope instructs email servers where to send emails, much
like an envelope directs postal delivery.

What are SMTP Commands?

S.No. Keywor Command form Description Usage

It provides the
identification
1. HELO HELO<SP><domain><CRLF> of the sender Mandatory
i.e. the host
name.

It specifies the
MAIL<SP>FROM : <reverse-
2. MAIL originator of Mandatory
path><CRLF>
the mail.

It specifies the
RCPT<SP>TO : <forward-
3. RCPT recipient of Mandatory
path><CRLF>
mail.

It specifies the
4. DATA DATA<CRLF> beginning of Mandatory
the mail.

It closes the
5. QUIT QUIT<CRLF> TCP Mandatory
connection.

6. RSET RSET<CRLF> It aborts the Highly

current mail recommended
transaction but
the TCP
S.No. Keywor Command form Description Usage

connection
remains open.

It is use to
confirm or Highly
7. VRFY VRFY<SP><string><CRLF>
verify the user recommended
name.

Highly
8. NOOP NOOP<CRLF> No operation
recommended

It reverses the
9. TURN TURN<CRLF> role of sender Seldom used
and receiver.

It specifies the
10. EXPN EXPN<SP><string><CRLF> mailing list to Seldom used
be expanded.

It send some
specific
11. HELP HELP<SP><string><CRLF> Seldom used
documentation
to the system.

SEND<SP>FROM : <reverse- It send mail to

12. SEND Seldom used
path><CRLF> the terminal.

It send mail to
the terminal if
SOML<SP>FROM : <reverse-
13. SOML possible; Seldom used
path><CRLF>
otherwise to
mailbox.

It send mail to
SAML<SP>FROM : <reverse-
14. SAML the terminal Seldom used
path><CRLF>
and mailbox.
Which port is used by SMTP?

Port 587 is frequently used by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for
secure communication over TLS. While port 465 was once supported by many
providers, it is no longer an acknowledged standard. In addition, SMTP relaying
rather than SMTP submission is the primary usage of port 25. Despite not being
an official SMTP port, port 2525 can be a useful substitute.

Difference between SMTP and Extended SMTP

SMTP Extended SMTP

Users were not verified in SMTP as a

In Extended SMTP, authentication of the
result of massive-scale scam emails
sender is done.
being sent.

We cannot attach a Multimedia file in

We can directly attach Multimedia FIle in
SMTP directly without the help of
ESMTP.
MMIE.

We cannot reduce the size of the We can reduce the size of the email in
email in SMTP. Extended SMTP.

The main identification feature for

SMTP clients open transmission with ESMTP clients is to open a transmission
the command HELO. with the command EHLO (Extended
HELLO).

Advantages of SMTP

 If necessary, the users can have a dedicated server.

 It allows for bulk mailing.

 Low cost and wide coverage area.

 Offer choices for email tracking.

 Reliable and prompt email delivery.

Disadvantages of SMTP

 SMTP’s common port can be blocked by several firewalls.

 SMTP security is a bigger problem.

 Its simplicity restricts how useful it can be.

 Just 7-bit ASCII characters can be used.

 If a message is longer than a certain length, SMTP servers may reject the
entire message.

 Delivering your message will typically involve additional back-and-forth

processing between servers, which will delay sending and raise the
likelihood that it won’t be sent.

SMTP vs POP vs IMAP

SMTP POP IMAP
Stands for Internet
Stands for Simple mail transfer Stands for Post
Message Access
protocol Office Protocol.
Protocol.
Used for retrieving Used for retrieving
Used for sending mail.
mail. mail.
it is push protocol. it is pull protocol. it is pull protocol.
It work between sender’s mail It work between
It works between
server to receiver’s mail server receiver and
receiver and receiver’s
and sender and sender’s mail receiver’s mail
mail server.
server. server.
It download all the It store all mail on
It does not store mail on server it mail when it server and download
just send the mail. connected to when it get request to
internet. download.
Works on TCP port Works on TCP port
Works on TCP port number 25.
number 110. number 143.
Connection oriented Connection oriented
Connection oriented protocol.
protocol. protocol.
It has persistence It has persistence TCP
It has persistence TCP connection.
TCP connection. connection.
Stateless protocol. Stateful protocol. Stateful protocol.
It is in band
It is in band protocol. It is in band protocol.
protocol.
SMTP POP IMAP
Used at receiver
Not used at receiver side. Used at receiver side.
side.

The essential component of email communication that ensures dependable

message transmission between email servers is SMTP. Because of its ease of
use, efficiency, and widespread compatibility with a wide range of email
systems, SMTP is still extensively used in spite of its shortcomings, which
include security issues and the potential for spam. Its security problems might
be resolved by improvements like authentication and encryption, which would
make it a suitable option for email delivery in a range of applications.

References

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/simple-mail-transfer-protocol-smtp/