INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word <Anatome= meaning to cut up. Anatomy is
the study of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other.

Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for <study of nature=. Physiology is the
study of how the body and its part work or function. Anatomy and physiology are studied together to
give students a full appreciation and understanding of human body.

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed discussion of topics on
different human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure.
Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the following learning
units. Three groups of terms are introduced here: • Directional Terms • Planes of the Body • Body
Cavities

DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the
body.

Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the superior
extremity).

Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).
Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg). Posterior or
dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).

Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the
foot).

Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the
foot).

Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the
femur joins with the pelvic bone).

Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is
located at the distal end of the forearm).

PLANES OF THE BODY

Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its
parts into right and left sides.

Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and
lower parts.Superior and inferior parts.

Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into
right and left halves

HUMAN BODY CAVITIES.

The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera. The two
main body cavities are: the larger ventral (anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity.

The ventral body cavity (anterior) constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity. ▪
The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and
the sternum anteriorly. It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the portion of
tissues and organs that separates the left and right lung). ▪ Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the
diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into superior abdominal and inferior pelvic
cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. ➢ Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine,
liver, spleen and gallbladder.

➢ The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the reproductive organs. The
dorsal body cavity (posterior) constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the vertebral cavity
containing the spinal cord.

ORGANS OF THE BODY AND THEIR ANATOMY

1. Skin • The skin is the largest organ in the human body.

2. Kidneys • Main excretory organ. • The kidneys are located under the rib cage in the lower back 3.
Heart • The heart is another vital organ. In an average lifetime, the heart beats more than 2.5 million
times.

4. Brain • The brain stores information, allows you to think and learn and controls vital daily functions
(such as digestion, heart rate and breathing).

5. Liver • The liver is in the upper abdomen, slightly to the left.

6. Pancreas • The pancreas is located behind the stomach.

7. Stomach • The stomach receives food from the esophagus and sends it into the small intestine.

8. Small intestine The job of the small intestine is to digest food. The small intestine is five meters long.
9. Large intestine • The large intestine is located in the abdomen and is 1.5 meters in length.

10. Lungs • The lungs are located in the chest and are protected by the rib cage.

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS.

SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY.

The human body is made up of different systems which work together to sustain life. The systems of the
human body include:

i. Integumentary System.

ii. Skeletal System.

iii. Muscular system.

iv. Circulatory System

v. Respiratory System.

vi. Nervous System.

vii. Circulatory System.

viii. Reproductive System.

ix. Digestive System.

x. Endocrine System.

xi. Urinary System.

These systems are all made up of different organs and generally perform different functions in the
human body. ie

❖ Integumentary (skin) • Organs; skin and associated structures Functions; - Provides sensory
information. - Regulates body temperature. - Protects deeper tissues from injury.

❖ Muscular • Organs; muscle tissue

Functions; - Generates heat that maintains body temperature. - Provides support and protection for
other tissues. - Provides movement.

❖ Skeletal • Organs; bones, joints and cartilages Functions; - Provide support and protection for other
tissues. - Stores calcium and other minerals. - Forms blood cells
❖ Nervous • Organs; brain, spinal cord, and nerves Functions; - Coordinates activities of other systems. -
Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions. - Directs immediate responses to
stimuli.

❖ Circulatory • Organs; heart and blood vessels Functions; - distributes oxygen, nutrients, and
hormones throughout the body while removing wastes from the cells.

❖ Respiratory • Organs; Functions; - delivers air to the alveoli for gaseous exchange. - Provides oxygen
to the bloodstream. - Removes carbon IV oxide from the bloodstream. -

❖ Endocrine. includes the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, and thymus glands,
pancreas, ovaries, and testes, along with other organs that secrete hormones. - Directs long term
changes in the activities of other organ systems. - Adjusts metabolic activities and energy use by the
body. -

❖ Urinary. consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra - removes wastes from the blood and
helps to maintain water and electrolyte balance.

❖ Reproductive. Produces gametes (sex cells) which ensure continuity of species.

❖ Digestive. • Organs; mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines Functions; - Processes and digests
food. - Absorbs water and nutrients.

HUMAN BODY STRUCTURE.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY

Chemically, the human body consists mainly of water and of organic compounds i.e., lipids, proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Water is found in the extracellular fluids of the body (the blood
plasma, the lymph, and the interstitial fluid) and within the cells themselves.

The human body is about 60 percent water by weight.

Lipids chiefly fats, phospholipids, and steroids are major structural components of the human body. Fats
provide an energy reserve for the body, and fat pads also serve as insulation and shock absorbers.
Phospholipids and the steroid compound cholesterol are major components of the membrane that
surrounds each cell.

Proteins also serve as a major structural component of the body. Like lipids, proteins are an important
constituent of the cell membrane. In addition, such extracellular materials as hair and nails are
composed of protein. So also is collagen, the fibrous, elastic material that makes up much of the body’s
skin, bones, tendons, and ligaments. Proteins also perform numerous functional roles in the body.
Particularly important are cellular proteins called enzymes, which catalyze the chemical reactions
necessary for life.
Carbohydrates are present in the human body largely as fuels, either as simple sugars circulating
through the bloodstream or as glycogen, a storage compound found in the liver and the muscles. Small
amounts of carbohydrates also occur in cell membranes, but, in contrast to plants and many
invertebrate animals, humans have little structural carbohydrate in their bodies. Nucleic acids make up
the genetic materials of the body. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the body’s hereditary master
code, the instructions according to which each cell operates. It is DNA, passed from parents to offspring,
that dictates the inherited characteristics of each individual human. Ribonucleic acid (RNA), of which
there are several types, helps carry out the instructions encoded in the DNA.

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY.

The human body has different structural levels of organization that make up the complete organism.
Each of these levels incorporates the structures. Cells=>Tissue=>Organs=>System=>Organism (Human
Being)

1. Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells.
Some of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction.

2. Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of
the body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue. ▪
Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body
cavities. ▪ Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part
of skin, bone and tendons. ▪ Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This
constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. ▪ Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and
nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve impulses. Nervous tissues also initiate
and transmit electric signals.

3. Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform
specific function. For example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues.

4. System: Is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example: Respiratory
system contains several organs.

5. Organism (living being): The highest level of organization is the organism. This is a complete living
entity capable of independent existence. All complex organisms, including human beings, are composed
of several body systems that work together to sustain life.

SKELETAL SYSTEM.

Definition of terms.
Bones- living tissue that makes up the body's skeleton.

Joints- an articulation between two bones in the body and are broadly classified by the tissue which
connects the bones.

The three main types of joints are: synovial, cartilaginous and fibrous.

Ligaments- elastic bands of tissue that connect bones to each other and provide stability and strength to
the joint.

Cartilages- smooth elastic tissue, rubber

A tendon is a cord of strong, flexible tissue, similar to a rope. Tendons connect your muscles to your
bones. •

Types of skeletons.

There are two types of skeletons in the human body namely;

i. Axial Skeleton.

ii. Appendicular Skeleton.

• The axial skeleton forms the vertical axis of the body and it includes the bones of the head, vertebral
column, ribs and breastbone/sternum.

• The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones and includes the free appendages and their
attachments to the axial skeleton. The free appendages are the upper and lower extremities, or limbs,
and their attachments.

BONES FORMING THE SKELETON.

The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones. 80 bones of the axial skeleton forming
the vertical axis of the body and 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and shapes. All bones have surface markings and
characteristics that make a specific bone unique. There are holes, depressions, smooth facets, lines,
projections and other markings. These usually represent passageways for vessels and nerves, points of
articulation with other bones or points of attachment for tendons and ligaments.

The four principal types of bones are long, short, flat and irregular

. i. Long Bones Bones that are longer than they are wide are called long bones. Long bones include bones
of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
 ii. Short Bones Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions
approximately equal. They consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin layer of compact
bone. Short bones include the bones of the wrist and ankle.

iii. Flat Bones Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. Most of the bones of the cranium are
flat bones.

iv. Irregular Bones Bones that are not in any of the above three categories are classified as irregular
bones. They are primarily spongy bone that is covered with a thin layer of compact bone. The vertebrae
and some of the bones in the skull are irregular bones.

• THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON

i. It gives the body its shape

, ii. Provide support and protection for other tissues.

iii. Stores minerals eg calcium and phosphorous.

iv. Forms blood cells.

v. allows movement

vi. provides protection for internal organs.

READING ASSIGNMENT:THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN SKELETON

MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant function is
contractibility.

Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly
all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction. Exceptions to this are the action of cilia,
the flagellum on sperm cells, and amoeboid movement of some white blood cells.

The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements such as
walking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that result in various facial
expressions, eye movements, and respiration. In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills
some other important functions in the body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production.

Posture, such as sitting and standing, is maintained as a result of muscle contraction. The skeletal
muscles are continually making fine adjustments that hold the body in stationary positions. The tendons
of many muscles extend over joints and in this way contribute to joint stability. This is particularly
evident in the knee and shoulder joints, where muscle tendons are a major factor in stabilizing the joint.
Heat production, to maintain body temperature, is an important by-product of muscle metabolism.
Nearly 85 percent of the heat produced in the body is the result of muscle contraction. Structure of
Skeletal Muscle A whole skeletal muscle is considered an organ of the muscular system. Each organ or
muscle consists of skeletal muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue, and blood or vascular tissue.
Skeletal muscles vary considerably in size, shape, and arrangement of fibers. They range from extremely
tiny strands such as the stapedium muscle of the middle ear to large masses such as the muscles of the
thigh. Some skeletal muscles are broad in shape and some narrow. In some muscles the fibers are
parallel to the long axis of the muscle; in some they converge to a narrow attachment; and in some they
are oblique.

Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal muscle may be made
up of hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled together and wrapped in a connective
tissue covering. Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called the epimysium. Fascia,
connective tissue outside the epimysium, surrounds and separates the muscles. Portions of the
epimysium project inward to divide the muscle into compartments. Each compartment contains a
bundle of muscle fibers. Each bundle of muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of
connective tissue called the perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each individual muscle cell, called a
muscle fiber, is surrounded by connective tissue called the endomysium. Skeletal muscle cells (fibers),
like other body cells, are soft and fragile. The connective tissue covering furnish support and protection
for the delicate cells and allow them to withstand the forces of contraction. The coverings also provide
pathways for the passage of blood vessels and nerves. Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of
blood vessels and nerves. This is directly related to the primary function of skeletal muscle, contraction.
Before a skeletal muscle fiber can contract, it has to receive an impulse from a nerve cell. Generally, an
artery and at least one vein accompany each nerve that penetrates the epimysium of a skeletal muscle.
Branches of the nerve and blood vessels follow the connective tissue components of the muscle of a
nerve cell and with one or more minute blood vessels called capillaries.

There are three types of muscle: skeletal (striated), smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements. The peripheral portion of the
central nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal muscles. Thus, these muscles are under conscious, or
voluntary, control. The basic unit is the muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated
(having transverse streaks) and each acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers.

Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood vessels, the
gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and uterus, is under control of the autonomic nervous system. Smooth
muscle cannot be controlled consciously and thus acts involuntarily. The non-striated (smooth) muscle
cell is spindle-shaped and has one central nucleus. Smooth muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the autonomic nervous system.
The cardiac muscle cell has one central nucleus, like smooth muscle, but it also is striated, like skeletal
muscle. The cardiac muscle cell is rectangular in shape. The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary,
strong, and rhythmical.

Muscle Groups

There are more than 600 muscles in the body, which together account for about 40 percent of a
person's weight. Most skeletal muscles have names that describe some feature of the muscle. Often
several criteria are combined into one name. Associating the muscle's characteristics with its name will
help you learn and remember them.

The following are some terms relating to muscle features that are used in naming muscles.

• Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus (long); minimus (small); brevis (short).

• Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a rhombus with equal and parallel sides); latissimus (wide);
teres (round); trapezius (like a trapezoid, a four-sided figure with two sides parallel). • Direction of
fibers: rectus (straight); transverse (across); oblique (diagonally); orbicularis (circular).

• Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock or rump); brachii (arm); supra- (above); infra- (below);
sub- (under or beneath); lateralis (lateral).

• Number of origins: biceps (two heads); triceps (three heads); quadriceps (four heads).

Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoideus (origin on the sternum and clavicle, insertion on the
mastoid process); brachioradialis (origin on the brachium or arm, insertion on the radius).

• Action: abductor (to abduct a structure); adductor (to adduct a structure); flexor (to flex a structure);
extensor (to extend a structure); levator (to lift or elevate a structure); masseter (a chewer).