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Brief Contents
Preface | xix
1 Applying Psychology to Teaching | 1
PART I Developmental Characteristics and Theories | 25
2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development | 25

3 Age-Level Characteristics | 75
PART II Student Differences and Diversity | 115
4 Understanding Student Differences | 115

5 Addressing Cultural and Socioeconomic Diversity | 150
6 Accommodating Student Variability | 191
PART III Learning and Thinking | 237
7 Behavioral Learning Theory: Operant Conditioning | 237

8 Information-Processing Theory | 262
9 Social Cognitive Theory | 294
10 Constructivist Learning Theory, Problem Solving, and Transfer | 343
PART IV Creating a Positive Environment for Learning

and Teaching | 383
11 Motivation and Perceptions of Self | 383

12 Classroom Management | 421
13 Approaches to Instruction | 458
PART V Assessing Students’ Capabilities | 503

14 Assessment of Classroom Learning | 503
15 Understanding Standardized Assessment | 543
16 Learning from Teaching | 578
References | 594
Glossary | 628
Author Index | 635
Subject Index | 647
iii
Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents
Preface | xix
CHAPTER 1 Applying Psychology to Teaching | 1
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 2 1-5b The Argument for Teaching as a Science 14
1-5c The Teacher as Artistic Scholar: Combining the Art and
1-1 What Is Educational Psychology? 2 Science of Teaching 14
1-2 How Will Learning About Educational • TAKE A STAND!

Psychology Help You Be a Better Teacher? 3 Don’t Let Them Take Away Your Artist’s Brushes 15
1-2a Teaching Is a Complex Enterprise 3
1-2b Research That Informs Teachers 4 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 1–1
1-2c Coursework and Competence 5 Teaching as a Profession: What Defines Effective
Teaching? 16
1-3 The Nature and Values of Science 7
1-3a Limitations of Nonscientific Reasoning 7
1-6 Teaching as Inquiry: A Process to Help You
1-3b Strengths of Scientific Observation 8 Grow from Novice to Expert 16
1-6a Asking Useful Questions 16
1-4 Complicating Factors in the Study of Behavior
1-6b Gathering Data 17
and Thought Processes 9 16-c Reflection 17
1-4a The Limited Focus of Research 9 1-6d Taking Action 18
1-4b The Complexity of Teaching and Learning 9
1-4c Selection and Interpretation of Data 10
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 1–2
Expanding the Definition of Literacy: Meaningful Ways
1-4d New Findings Mean Revised Ideas 10
to Use Technology 21
1-5 Good Teaching Is Partly an Art and
Partly a Science 11 Summary 23
1-5a The Argument for Teaching as an Art 12 Resources for Further Investigation 24
PA R T I Developmental Characteristics and Theories 25
CHAPTER 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development | 25
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 26 Identity Versus Role Confusion (Twelve to Eighteen Years; Middle
Through High School) 30
Intimacy Versus Isolation (Young Adulthood) 30
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS
Generativity Versus Stagnation (Middle Age) 30
What Students Know and How Students Know 27
Integrity Versus Despair (Old Age) 30
2-1c Helping Students Develop a Sense of Industry 30
2-1 Erikson: Psychosocial Development 28
• TAKE A STAND!
2-1a Basic Principles of Erikson’s Theory 28
Promote Industry; Stamp Out Inferiority 31
Epigenetic Principle 28
Psychosocial Crisis 28 2-1d Helping Students Formulate an Identity 31
2-1b Stages of Psychosocial Development 29 Taking a Psychosocial Moratorium 32
Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth to One Year) 29 2-1e Adolescent Identity Statuses 32
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (Two to Three Years; Cultural, Ethnic, and Gender Factors in Identity Status 34
Preschool) 29 2-1f Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory 35
Initiative Versus Guilt (Four to Five Years; Preschool to
Kindergarten) 29 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
Industry Versus Inferiority (Six to Eleven Years; Elementary to Applying Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Middle School) 29 Development 36
vi CONTENTS
2-2 Piaget: Cognitive Development 38 2-4 Using Technology to Promote Cognitive

2-2a Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory 38 Development 56
Organization 38 2-4a Technology Applied to Piaget 56
Schemes 38 2-4b Technology Applied to Vygotsky 57
Adaptation 38
Relationships Among Organization, Adaptation, and • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 2–2
Schemes 38 Middle School Reading Instruction: Integrating
Equilibration, Disequilibrium, and Learning 39 Technology 58
Constructing Knowledge 40
2-2b Stages of Cognitive Development 40 2-5 Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan: Moral
Sensorimotor Stage (Infants and Toddlers) 41 Development 58
Preoperational Stage (Preschool and Primary Grades) 41
2-5a Piaget’s Analysis of the Moral Judgment
Concrete Operational Stage (Elementary to Early Middle
of the Child 58
School) 42
Age Changes in Interpretation of Rules 59
Formal Operational Stage (Middle School, High School,
Moral Realism Versus Moral Relativism 59
and Beyond) 43
2-5b Kohlberg’s Description of Moral Development 60
2-2c The Role of Social Interaction and Instruction
Kohlberg’s Use of Moral Dilemmas 60
in Cognitive Development 45
Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Reasoning 61
How Social Interaction Affects Cognitive Development 45
Criticisms and Evaluations of Kohlberg’s Theory 62
How Instruction Affects Cognitive Development 45
2-5c The Caring Orientation to Moral Development
2-2d Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory 46
and Education 63
Underestimating Children’s Capabilities 46
Gilligan’s View of Identity and Moral Development 63
Overestimating Adolescents’ Capabilities 46
Noddings’s Care Theory 64
Vague Explanations for Cognitive Growth 47
2-5d Does Moral Thinking Lead to Moral Behavior? 64
Cultural Differences 47
The Hartshorne and May Studies 64
2-5e Character Development as an Educational Goal 65
• SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
Applying Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
• IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE
Development 48
TEACHER’S STORY
Same Story, Different Characters 66
2-3 Vygotsky: Cognitive Development 50
Research on Character Education Programs 67
2-3a How One’s Culture Affects Cognitive Development 51
The Importance of Psychological Tools 51 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
2-3b How Social Interaction Affects Cognitive Encouraging Moral Development 69
Development 52
2-3c How Instruction Affects Cognitive Development 53 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
Instruction and the Zone of Proximal Development 54 What Students Know and How Students Know 71
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 2–1 Summary 72

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Increasing
Cognition in an Elementary Literacy Lesson 55 Resources for Further Investigation 73
CHAPTER 3 Age-Level Characteristics | 75
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 76 3-1d Cognitive Characteristics: Preschool and

Kindergarten 81
Looking Through Lenses 76 3-2 Primary Grades (1, 2, and 3; Six, Seven,
and Eight Years) 84
3-1 Preschool and Kindergarten (Three, Four, and 3-2a Physical Characteristics: Primary
Five Years) 77 Grades 84
3-1a Physical Characteristics: Preschool and Kindergarten 77 3-2b Social Characteristics: Primary Grades 85
3-1b Social Characteristics: Preschool and Kindergarten 78 3-2c Emotional Characteristics: Primary
3-1c Emotional Characteristics: Preschool and Grades 86
Kindergarten 80 3-2d Cognitive Characteristics: Primary Grades 87
CONTENTS vii
3-3 Elementary School (Grades 4 and 5; Nine 3-5a Physical Characteristics: High School 101
and Ten Years) 88 3-5b Social Characteristics: High School 103
3-5c Emotional Characteristics: High School 104
3-3a Physical Characteristics: Elementary Grades 88
3-3b Social Characteristics: Elementary Grades 90 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 3–2
3-3c Emotional Characteristics: Elementary Grades 90 Social and Emotional Development: Understanding
3-3d Cognitive Characteristics: Elementary Grades 92 Adolescents 106
3-4 Middle School (Grades 6, 7, and 8; Eleven, 3-5d Cognitive Characteristics: High School 106
Twelve, and Thirteen Years) 93 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE

3-4a Physical Characteristics: Middle School 93 TEACHER’S STORY
3-4b Social Characteristics: Middle School 95 Helping High School Seniors with Low Grades
Succeed 107
Social and Emotional Development: The Influence of 3-6 Selecting Technologies for Different
Peer Groups 96
Age Levels 108
3-4c Emotional Characteristics: Middle School 97
3-6a Using Technology to Reduce Egocentrism and Develop
3-4d Cognitive Characteristics: Middle School 98
Interpersonal Reasoning 108
3-6b Effect of Technology on Cognitive Development 109
• TAKE A STAND!
Meeting the Intellectual Needs of Middle School
• CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
Students 100
Looking Through Lenses 110
3-5 High School (Grades 9, 10, 11, and 12;

Summary 111
Fourteen, Fifteen, Sixteen, and Seventeen
Years) 101 Resources for Further Investigation 112
PA R T I I Student Differences and Diversity 115
CHAPTER 4 Understanding Student Differences | 115
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 116 4-2b Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory 127
4-2c Using Technology to Develop Intelligence 128
Groupthink 117 4-3 Learning Styles 130
4-3a Reflectivity and Impulsivity 131
4-1 The Nature and Measurement of 4-3b Field Dependence and Field Independence 132
Intelligence 117 4-3c Mental Self-Government Styles 132
4-1a What Is Intelligence? 117
4-1b The Origin of Intelligence Testing 118 TEACHER’S STORY
4-1c What Traditional Intelligence Tests Measure 119 Individualizing Classroom Instruction to Fit Different
4-1d Limitations of Intelligence Tests 120 Learning Styles 133
4-1e Contemporary Views of Intelligence 121
4-3d Research on Learning Styles 134
David Wechsler’s Global Capacity View 121
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic View: The Theory of Successful 4-3e Using Awareness of Learning Styles to Guide
Intelligence 121 Instruction 135
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory 124 4-3f Using Technology to Accommodate
Learning Styles 136
Multiple Intelligences: Elementary School 4-4 Gender Differences and Gender Bias 136
Instruction 126
4-4a Gender Differences on Tests of Cognition and
Achievement 137
4-2 Using the New Views of Intelligence 4-4b Gender Differences in School Performance 138
to Guide Instruction 126 4-4c Gender Bias 139
4-2a Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Successful 4-4d How Gender Bias Affects Students 140
Intelligence 127 Course Selection 140
viii CONTENTS
Career Choice 140 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

Class Participation 141 Addressing Student Differences 144
• TAKE A STAND! • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS

Eliminate Gender Bias 142 Groupthink 147
4-4e Working Toward Gender Equity in the Classroom 142
4-4f Gender Differences and Technology: Overcoming Summary 147
the Digital Divide 143
Resources for Further Investigation 149
Gender Equity in the Classroom: Girls and Science 143
CHAPTER 5 Addressing Cultural and Socioeconomic Diversity | 150
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 151 5-3d Instructional Goals and Methods 173
Instructional Goals 173
Placing Value 152 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 5–2
Culturally Responsive Teaching:
A Multicultural Lesson for Elementary Students 173
5-1 The Rise of Multiculturalism 152
Instructional Methods 174
5-1a From Melting Pot to Cultural Pluralism 152
Peer Tutoring 174
5-1b The Changing Face of the United States 153
Cooperative Learning 174
Mastery Learning 175
Taking Account of Your Students’ Cultural 5-3e A Rationale for Multicultural Education 176
Differences 154 5-3f Bridging the Cultural and SES Gap with Technology 177
5-2 Ethnicity and Social Class 156 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

Promoting Multicultural Understanding
5-2a The Effect of Ethnicity on Learning 156 and Classroom Achievement 179
Verbal Communication Patterns 156
Nonverbal Communication 156 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE
Time Orientation 157 TEACHER’S STORY
Social Values 157 Leveling the Background Knowledge
Instructional Formats and Learning Processes 157 Playing Field 182
Integrating Internet Research: High School 5-4 Bilingual Education 183
Social Studies 158 5-4a Goals and Approaches 183
Transition Programs 183
5-2b The Effect of Social Class on Learning 159
Maintenance Programs 183
Dropout Rates and Achievement Levels 159
Two-Way Bilingual Programs 184
Health and Living Conditions 161
Family and Community Experiences 162 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 5–3
Students’ Motivation, Beliefs, and Attitudes 163 Bilingual Education: An Elementary Two-Way
Classroom Environment 164 Immersion Program 185
5-2c The Effect of Ethnicity and Social Class on Teachers’
Expectations 165 • TAKE A STAND!
Research on the Effects of Teachers’ Expectancies 165 Bilingual Education: Plus les choses changent,
Factors That Help Create Expectancies 166 plus elles restent les mémes 186

5-5 Technology and Bilingual Education 187
Promoting Classroom Achievement for All Students 167
5-3 Multicultural Education Programs 170
Placing Value 187
5-3a Assumptions and Goals 170
5-3b Basic Approaches 171 Summary 188
Four Approaches 171
5-3c Characteristics of Effective Multicultural Teachers 172 Resources for Further Investigation 189
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 6 Accommodating Student Variability | 191
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 192 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

Instructing Students with Intellectual Disability 209
In Service of Learning 192 6-5 Students with Learning Disabilities 211
6-5a Characteristics of Students with Learning
6-1 Historical Developments 193 Disabilities 212
6-1a The Growth of Public Education and Age-Graded 6-5b Identifying Students with Learning Disabilities 212
Classrooms 193 6-5c Problems with Basic Psychological Processes 213
6-1b Ability-Grouped Classrooms 193 6-5d Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 214
6-1c Special Education 194
6-2 Ability Grouping 194 TEACHER’S STORY
6-2a Types of Ability Groups 195 The Inclusive Classroom: Making the Pieces Fit 215
Between-Class Ability Grouping 195
Regrouping 195 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
Joplin Plan 195 Instructing Students with Learning Disabilities
Within-Class Ability Grouping 196
and ADHD 216
6-2b Assumptions Underlying Ability Grouping 196
6-6 Students with Emotional Disturbance 218
6-2c Evaluations of Ability Grouping 196
6-6a Estimates of Emotional Disturbance 218
• TAKE A STAND! 6-6b Definitions of Emotional Disturbance 219
Ability Grouping and Tracking: A Practice That Fails to 6-6c Characteristics of Students with an Emotional
Deliver What It Promises 198 Disturbance 219
6-2d To Group or Not to Group? 198
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 6–1 Instructing Students with Emotional Disturbance 220
Inclusion: Grouping Strategies for Inclusive
Classrooms 199 6-7 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 222
6-7a Identification of Gifted and Talented Students 223
6-3 The Individuals with Disabilities 6-7b Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Students 224
Education Act (IDEA) 199 6-7c Instructional Options 225
Accelerated Instruction 225
6-3a Major Provisions of IDEA 200
Gifted and Talented Classes and Schools 226
A Free and Appropriate Public Education 200
Enrichment and Differentiated Instruction 226
Preplacement Evaluation 200
Individualized Education Program 201 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 6–3
Least Restrictive Environment 201 Academic Diversity: Differentiated Instruction 227
6-3b The Policy of Inclusion 202
The Debate About Inclusion 202 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
Response to Intervention 203 Instructing Gifted and Talented Students 227
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 6–2 6-8 Using Technology to Assist Exceptional

Foundations: Aligning Instruction with Federal
Students 229
Legislation 204
6-8a Technology for Students with Hearing Impairments 229
6-3c What IDEA Means to Regular Classroom Teachers 204 6-8b Technology for Students with Visual Impairments 230
6-3d Disabling Conditions Included Under IDEA 204 6-8c Technology for Students with Orthopedic
6-3e Regular Classroom Teacher’s Responsibilities Impairments 230
Under IDEA 205 6-8d Technology for Students with Speech or Language
Referral 205
Impairments 230
Assessment 205
6-8e Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities 231
Preparation of the IEP 206
6-8f Technology for Gifted and Talented Students 231
Implementation and Evaluation of the IEP 206
Section 504: A Broader View of Disabling Conditions 207 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
In Service of Learning 232
6-4 Students with Intellectual Disability 208
6-4a Definition of Intellectual Disability 208 Summary 233
6-4b Characteristics of Children with Intellectual
Disability 208 Resources for Further Investigation 234
x CONTENTS
PA R T I I I Learning and Thinking 237
CHAPTER 7 Behavioral Learning Theory: Operant Conditioning | 237
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 238 7-2b Behavior Modification 249

Shaping 249
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS Token Economies 250
Reward Is in the Eye of the Beholder 238 Contingency Contracting 251
Extinction, Time-Out, and Response Cost 251
7-1 Operant Conditioning 239 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE
7-1a The Basic Idea 239 TEACHER’S STORY
7-1b Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 240 Practicing the Premack Principle 252
Positive Reinforcement 240
Negative Reinforcement 240
Classroom Management: Handling
Punishment 241
a Student with Behavior Problems 253
Time-Out 241
Extinction 242 Punishment 253
Generalization 242
• TAKE A STAND!
Discrimination 243
Positive Reinforcement Versus Punishment as a
Shaping 243
Classroom Management Tool 254
Schedules of Reinforcement 244
Should You Use Behavior Modification? 254
7-2 Educational Applications of Operant • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
Conditioning Principles 245 Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom 255
7-2a Computer-Based Instruction 246
Does Computer-Based Technology Aid Learning? 246 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
Reward Is in the Eye of the Beholder 259
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 7–1 Summary 260
Integrating Technology to Improve Student Learning:
A High School Science Simulation 248 Resources for Further Investigation 261
CHAPTER 8 Information-Processing Theory | 262
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 263 Meaningfulness 271

Visual Imagery Encoding 271
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS 8-2c Long-Term Memory 272
Information and Meaning 263 How Information Is Organized in Long-Term Memory 274
8-2d Why We Forget 275
8-1 The Information-Processing View Inadequate Consolidation 275
of Learning 264 Nonmeaningful Learning 276
Few Opportunities for Retrieval 276
8-2 A Model of Information Processing 265 Interference from Other Material 277
8-2a The Sensory Register and Its Control Processes 266 Lack of Retrieval Cues 277
The Sensory Register 266 8-2e The Development of Children’s Memory Skills 277
The Nature of Recognition 267
The Impact of Attention 267
Using Information-Processing Strategies: A Middle
8-2b Short-Term Memory/Working Memory and Its Control
School Science Lesson 277
Processes 268
Short-Term Memory 268
Rehearsal 269 • TAKE A STAND!
Students Are Learners, Not Just Performers 278
Cooperative Learning in the Elementary Grades:
Jigsaw Model 269
Helping Your Students Become Efficient Information
Organization 270 Processors 279
CONTENTS xi
8-3 Metacognition 283 8-4b Technology Tools for Reading 289

8-4c Technology Tools for Science and Math 289
8-3a The Nature and Importance of Metacognition 283
8-4d Multimedia, Hypermedia, and Virtual Environments 290
8-3b Age Trends in Metacognition 285
Multimedia Tools 290
• IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE Hypermedia Tools 290
TEACHER’S STORY Virtual Environments 290
Memory or Understanding: What’s the Goal? 287 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
Information and Meaning 291
8-4 Technology as an Information-
Processing Tool 288 Summary 292
8-4a Technology Tools for Writing 288 Resources for Further Investigation 293
CHAPTER 9 Social Cognitive Theory | 294
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 295 9-3f Modeling and Self-Regulated Learning 317
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS Modeling: Social Cognitive Theory in a High School
Taking Learning Personally 296 Chemistry Lesson 317
Observation 318
9-1 The Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model 296 Emulation 318
9-2 Self-Control, Self-Regulation, • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE

and Self-Efficacy 298 TEACHER’S STORY
Learning How to Set and Reach Goals 319
9-2a The Role of Self-Efficacy in Self-Regulation 299
Factors That Affect Self-Efficacy 300 Self-Control 320
Types of Behaviors Affected by Self-Efficacy 301 Self-Regulation 320
9-2b The Components of a Self-Regulatory System 302
9-4 Research on Social Cognitive Theory 321
Forethought Phase 302
Performance Phase 304 9-4a Relationships Among Self-Efficacy,
Self-Reflection Phase 305 Epistemological Beliefs, Self-Regulation Processes,
and Achievement 321
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 9–1 9-4b Effects of Modeling on Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation,
Performance Assessment: Student Presentations in a and Achievement 322
High School English Class 306 Improving Students’ Mathematical Problem-Solving Skills 322
Improving Students’ Writing Skills 323
9-3 Helping Students Become Self-Regulated 9-4c Effects of Instruction on Self-Regulated
Learners 305 Learning Skills 325
9-3a What Is Self-Regulated Learning? 306 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
9-3b How Well Prepared Are Students to Be Self-Regulated Applying Social Cognitive Theory in the Classroom 327
Learners? 307
9-3c The Nature of Learning Tactics and Strategies 308 9-5 Using Technology to Promote
9-3d Types of Tactics 309 Self-Regulated Learning 334
Rehearsal 309 9-5a Modeling 334
Mnemonic Devices 309
9-5b Providing Cognitive and Metacognitive Feedback 335
Self- and Peer Questioning 312
9-5c Providing Scaffolded Instruction 336
Note Taking 313
9-5d The Effect of Self-Regulated Learning Skills
Concept Mapping 314
Conclusions Regarding Learning Tactics 314 on Computer-Based Instruction 337
9-3e Supporting Students’ Strategy Use 314 9-5e The Effect of Self-Efficacy on Online Instruction 337
9-5f Conclusions About Computer Technology
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 9–2 and Self-Regulated Learning 338
Metacognition: Helping Students Become Strategic
Learners 314
Taking Learning Personally 339
• TAKE A STAND! Summary 339
Teach Students How to Be Self-Regulated
Learners 316 Resources for Further Investigation 341
xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 10 Constructivist Learning Theory, Problem

Solving, and Transfer | 343
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 344 Step 5: Evaluate the Solution 366
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

What’s the Problem? 345 Teaching Problem-Solving Techniques 367
10-1 Meaningful Learning Within a Constructivist 10-3 Transfer of Learning 371

Framework 346 10-3a The Nature and Significance of Transfer
10-1a Jerome Bruner and Discovery Learning: An Early of Learning 371
Constructivist Perspective 346 The Theory of Identical Elements 371
10-1b Constructivism Today 347 Positive, Negative, and Zero Transfer 372
Common Claims That Frame Constructivism 347 Specific and General Transfer 372
Near and Far Transfer 373
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 10–1 10-3b Contemporary Views of Specific/Near and General/Far
Elementary School Language Arts: Inquiry Transfer 374
Learning 347 Low-Road Transfer 374
Three Variations on a Constructivist Theme 349 High-Road Transfer 374
Conditions That Foster Constructivist Learning 351
• TAKE A STAND!
10-1c Putting Constructivism in Perspective 354
If You Want Transfer, Then Teach for Transfer 375
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 10–2 Teaching for Low-Road and High-Road Transfer 375
Middle School Science Instruction: Inquiry
Learning 354 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE
TEACHER’S STORY
• SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING Solving the Problem of “Who” and Who Owns It 376
Using a Constructivist Approach to Meaningful
Learning 355 10-4 Technology Tools for Knowledge Construction
and Problem Solving 377
10-2 The Nature of Problem Solving 360 10-4a Computer-Supported Intentional Learning
10-2a Three Common Types of Problems 360 Environments (Knowledge Forum) 377
10-2b Helping Students Become Good Problem Solvers 361 10-4b Quest Atlantis: Gaming and Consequential
Step 1: Realize That a Problem Exists 361 Engagement 378
Step 2: Understand the Nature of the Problem 362
Step 3: Compile Relevant Information 363 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
Step 4: Formulate and Carry Out a Solution 363 What’s the Problem? 380
Constructivist Teaching in Action: Summary 380
A High School Classroom Debate 363
Resources for Further Investigation 382
PA R T I V Creating a Positive Environment for Learning

and Teaching 383
CHAPTER 11 Motivation and Perceptions of Self | 383
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 384 11-1a The Effect of Reinforcement 386
11-1b Limitations of the Behavioral View 386
Teaching . . . Learning . . . Motivation 385 11-2 The Social Cognitive View of Motivation 388
11-2a Power of Persuasive Models 388
11-1 The Behavioral View of Motivation 386 11-2b The Importance of Self-Efficacy 388
CONTENTS xiii
Choice of Learning Goal 388 11-5 The Role of Self-Perceptions

Outcome Expectations 390 in Motivation 410
Attributions 390
11-5a The Role of Academic Self-Concept in Motivation
11-3 Other Cognitive Views of Motivation 390 and Learning 411
11-3a Cognitive Development and the Need for Conceptual
• TAKE A STAND!
Organization 390
Increase Motivation by Maintaining High
11-3b The Need for Achievement 391
Self-Worth 412
11-3c Explanations of Success and Failure:
Attribution Theory 391 11-5b Motivation and Identity 412
11-3d Beliefs About the Nature of Cognitive Ability 392
Changes in Beliefs About Ability 393
TEACHER’S STORY
Types of Beliefs About Ability 393
The Dreaded Mile 413
11-3e The Effect of Interest on Intrinsic Motivation 395
Factors That Influence Personal Interest 395
Factors That Influence Situational Interest 396
Satisfying Deficiency Needs and Strengthening
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 11–1 Self-Perceptions 414
Motivating Adolescent Learners: Curriculum
Based on Real Life 396 11-6 Motivating Students with Technology 416
Flow and Engagement 397 11-6a Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation 416
11-3f Limitations of Cognitive Views 397 11-6b Using Technology to Increase Motivation
Cognitive Development 397 to Learn 416
Need for Achievement 398
Attribution Theory and Beliefs About Ability 398 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 11–2
Integrating Internet Research: High School Social
• SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING Studies 417
Motivating Students to Learn 398
Teaching . . . Learning . . . Motivation 418
11-4 The Humanistic View of Motivation 406
11-4a Maslow’s Theory of Growth Motivation 406 Summary 418
11-4b Implications of Maslow’s Theory 408
11-4c Limitations of Maslow’s Theory 409 Resources for Further Investigation 420
CHAPTER 12 Classroom Management | 421
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 422 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 12–2

Secondary Classroom Management: Basic
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS Strategies 430
Managing Classrooms and Leading Learning 423
12-2d Technology Tools
for Classroom Management 430
12-1 Authoritarian, Permissive, and Authoritative
New Classroom Roles for Teachers 431
Approaches to Classroom Management 423
12-2 Preventing Problems: Techniques Techniques of Classroom Management 431
of Classroom Management 425
12-2a Kounin’s Observations on Group Management 425 12-3 Techniques for Dealing with Behavior
12-2b Contemporary Studies of Classroom Problems 434
Management 428 12-3a Influence Techniques 435
Planned Ignoring 435
Signals 435
Elementary Classroom Management:
Basic Strategies 428 Proximity and Touch Control 435
Interest Boosting 435
12-2c Managing the Middle, Junior High, and High School Humor 436
Classroom 429 Helping over Hurdles 436
xiv CONTENTS
Program Restructuring 436 How Schools Can Address Bullying 447

Antiseptic Bouncing 437 12-4c Analyzing Reasons for Violence 447
Physical Restraint 437 Biological Factors 447
Direct Appeals 437 Gender-Related Cultural Influences 448
Criticism and Encouragement 437 Academic Skills and Performance 448
Defining Limits 438 Interpersonal Reasoning and Problem-Solving Skills 448
Postsituational Follow-Up 438 Psychosocial Factors 449
Marginal Use of Interpretation 438 School Environment 449
12-3b I-Messages 439
12-5 Reducing School Violence, Bullying,
• SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING and Misbehavior 450
Handling Problem Behavior 439
12-5a Classroom Interventions 450
12-5b Schoolwide Programs to Reduce Violence and Improve
Classroom Management: Best Practices 443 Discipline 451
Unified Discipline 451
• IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE • TAKE A STAND!

TEACHER’S STORY Show Zero Tolerance for Zero Tolerance Policies 452
Managing the Classroom for Optimal Teaching and
Learning 444 12-5c Using Technology to Keep Students in School 454
12-4 Violence in American Schools 445 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS

Managing Classrooms and Leading Learning 455
12-4a How Safe Are Our Schools? 445
12-4b The Problem of Bullying 446
What Is Bullying? 446 Summary 456
Characteristics of Bullies 447
How Bullying Affects Its Victims 447 Resources for Further Investigation 457
CHAPTER 13 Approaches to Instruction | 458
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 459 13-3b The Components of Direct Instruction 468
Orientation 469
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS Presentation 469
Who Plans for Whom? 460 Structured, Guided, and Independent Practice 469
13-3c Getting the Most Out of Practice 470
13-1 Devising and Using Objectives 461 13-3d Effectiveness of Direct Instruction 470
13-3e Using Technology to Support Behavioral Approaches
13-1a Contrasting Objectives with Educational Goals 461
to Instruction 471
13-1b Taxonomies of Objectives 461
Taxonomy for the Cognitive Domain 462 13-4 The Cognitive Approach to Teaching:
Taxonomy for the Affective Domain 463
Facilitating Meaningful and Self-Regulated
Taxonomy for the Psychomotor Domain 463
Why Use Taxonomies? 464
Learning 471
13-4a The Nature and Elements of an Information-
13-2 Ways to State and use Objectives 464 Processing/Social Cognitive Approach 471
13-2a Mager’s Recommendations for Use of Specific Communicate Clear Goals and Objectives 472
Objectives 464 Use Attention-Getting Devices 472
Emphasize Organization and Meaningfulness 473
13-2b Gronlund’s Recommendations for Use of General
Present Information in Learnable Amounts and Over Realistic
Objectives 465
Time Periods 473
13-2c Aligning Assessment with Objectives and
Facilitate Encoding of Information into Long-Term Memory 475
Instruction 466
13-4b The Nature and Elements of a Constructivist
13-2d Evaluations of the Effectiveness of Objectives 467
Approach 475
Provide Scaffolded Instruction Within the Zone of Proximal
13-3 The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct
Development 476
Instruction 468 Provide Opportunities for Learning by Discovery 476
13-3a The Nature of Direct Instruction 468 Foster Multiple Viewpoints 477
CONTENTS xv
Emphasize Relevant Problems and Tasks 477 Equal Opportunities for Success 490
Encourage Students to Become More Autonomous Learners 478 Team Competition 491
13-4c The Challenges of Being a Constructivist Teacher 478 13-6c Does Cooperative Learning Work? 491
13-4d Using Technology to Support Cognitive Approaches Effect on Motivation 491
to Instruction 480 Effect on Achievement 492
Helping Students Process Information 480 Effect on Social Interaction 492
Discovery and Exploratory Environments 480
Guided Learning 481 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE
Problem- and Project-Based Learning 481 TEACHER’S STORY
Situated Learning 482 Helping Students Develop and Share Ideas 493
13-6d Why Does Cooperative Learning Work? 493
13-5 The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Motivational Effect 493
Student-Centered Instruction 483 Cognitive-Developmental Effect 494
13-5a Pioneers of the Humanistic Approach 483 Cognitive Elaboration Effect 494
13-5b Teaching from a Humanistic Orientation 484 13-6e Teachers’ Use of Cooperative Learning 494
13-5c Does Research Support the Humanistic
Approach? 485 Cooperative Learning: High School History Lesson 494
• TAKE A STAND!
The Perennial Relevance of Humanistic Theory 487 13-7 Using Technology to Support Learning
Through Instruction 497
13-6 The Social Approach to Teaching: Teaching 13-7a Supporting Thinking and Sharing 497
Students How to Learn from • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 13–2
Each Other 488 Using Blogs to Enhance Student Learning: An
13-6a Types of Classroom Reward Structures 488 Interdisciplinary High School Unit 497
Competitive Structures 488
13-7b Personalization and Diversification 498
Individualistic Structures 489
Cooperative Structures 489 • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS
13-6b Elements of Cooperative Learning 490 Who Plans for Whom? 499
Group Heterogeneity 490
Group Goals/Positive Interdependence 490
Promotive Interaction 490 Summary 500
Individual Accountability 490
Interpersonal Skills 490 Resources for Further Investigation 501
PA R T V Assessing Students’ Capabilities 503
CHAPTER 14 Assessment of Classroom Learning | 503
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 504 14-2a Written Tests 510

Selected-Response Tests 511
• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS Short-Answer Tests 511
Start at the Finish Line 504 Essay Tests 512
14-2b Performance Assessments 513
14-1 The Role of Assessment in Teaching 505 What Are Performance Assessments? 513
14-1a What Is Assessment? 506 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 14–1

Measurement 506 Portfolio Assessment: Elementary Classroom 514
Evaluation 506
Types of Performance Assessments 514
14-1b Why Should We Assess Students’ Learning? 507 Characteristics of Performance Assessments 515
Summative Assessment (Assessment of Learning) 507
Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning) 507 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 14–2
Performance Assessment: Student Presentations in a
14-2 Ways to Measure Student Learning 510 High School English Class 518
xvi CONTENTS
• TAKE A STAND! 14-3c Assessment Practices to Avoid 526

Practice Assessment for Learning 519
14-4 Technology for Classroom Assessment 530
Some Concerns About Performance Assessment 519
14-4a Electronic Gradebooks and Grading Programs 530
• IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE 14-4b Technology-Based Performance Assessment 531
TEACHER’S STORY 14-4c Digital Portfolios 532
Assessment of, for, and as Learning 520 What Is a Digital Portfolio? 532
The Components and Contents of Digital Portfolios 532
14-3 Ways to Evaluate Student Learning 521 Rubrics for Digital Portfolios and Presentations 532
Performance and Portfolio Assessment Problems 533
14-3a Norm-Referenced Grading 521
The Nature of Norm-Referenced Grading 521 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING
Strengths and Weaknesses of Norm-Referenced Grading 522 Effective Assessment Techniques 533
14-3b Criterion-Referenced Grading 523
The Nature of Criterion-Referenced Grading 523
• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 14–3 Start at the Finish Line 539
Assessment in the Middle Grades: Measurement of
Student Learning 524 Summary 540
Strengths and Weaknesses of Criterion-Referenced Grading 524
A Mastery Approach 525 Resources for Further Investigation 541
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Standardized Assessment | 543
• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 544 15-2 Using Standardized Tests for Accountability
Purposes: High-Stakes Testing 557
The Right Test? 544 15-2a The Push for Accountability in Education 557

15-1 Standardized Tests 545 Teacher Accountability: A Student Teacher’s
15-1a Nature of Standardized Tests 545 Perspective 558
15-1b Uses of Standardized Tests 545 15-2b No Child Left Behind (NCLB) 558
15-1c Criteria for Evaluating Standardized Tests 547 Requirements of NCLB 558
Reliability 547 Problems with Implementing NCLB 559
Validity 547 15-2c Research on the Effects of NCLB 560
Effect on Achievement 560
Effect on Motivation 561
Assessment in the Elementary Grades: Formal and
Informal Literacy Assessment 548 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE
Normed Excellence 549 TEACHER’S STORY
Examinee Appropriateness 549 Standardized Tests: Using Assessment of Learning for
15-1d Types of Standardized Tests 549 Learning 561
Achievement Tests 550 Effect on Teachers and Teaching 562
Aptitude Tests 550 Effect on the Curriculum 563
Norm-Referenced Tests 551 Effect on the Dropout Rate 564
Criterion-Referenced Tests 551 Effect on State Standards and Test Quality 564
15-1e Interpreting Standardized Test Scores 552 Use of Supplemental Education Services 565
Grade Equivalent Scores 552 15-2d Recent Test-Based Reform Efforts 565
Percentile Ranks 552 Modifications to NCLB: ESEA Flexibility 565
Standard Scores 552 Race to the Top 566
Stanine Scores 554 Common Core State Standards 566
Local and National Norms 555
15-2e Recommendations for Improving High-Stakes
15-1f Misconceptions About the Nature and Use
Testing 567
of Standardized Tests 555
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should infer, they conceived white people lived, like humming birds,
upon suction.
On leaving the rajah’s place, my guides took me again to the
bazaar, where it appears to be a custom to take strangers: this I
attribute to their Mahometan prejudices, of not being desirous of
receiving Christians under their roofs. Here mats were placed, so
that I might be seated, and gazed at, like a curious animal, by a
large crowd of natives of all classes and orders, who, from the
eagerness they evinced, and the crowds which assembled around us
upon these occasions, seemed to regard Europeans as curiosities.
However, instead of waiting to be gazed at, I amused myself by
wandering over the bazaar, which was plentifully supplied with
sugar-canes, plantains, rice, cucumbers, dried fish, sere, (the leaf of
the piper betel,) the Areka nut, or Pinong, cut up ready for
mastication, and a quantity of live stock, as small bullocks, ducks,
fowls, &c. &c.
From the bazaar I walked down by the banks of the river, upon
the raised paths which intersected the numerous marshes, which
now, during the dry season, abounded in luxuriant grass and other
herbaceous plants, affording fine feeding for the numerous bullocks
(of the small hunch-backed Bengal breed) and buffaloes, which
roamed about. During the rainy season the whole of this flat is
planted with rice, which, together with the scattered picturesque
habitations, and groups of palms and other trees, form, by their
combination, a very pleasing landscape. Upon the banks of the river
was the Acrostic humaureum, or “Ongpi” of the natives, as well as
the “Ba, jurugu,” or Acanthus ilicifolius, covered with a profusion of
blue flowers; and brilliant butterflies and other insects flew about the
rich vegetation, which was so profusely strewed about. Surrounding
a hut near the river was the “Sekar,” a species of Pandanus, the
younger leaves of which several women were engaged in collecting:
they are bleached by soaking in water, and afterwards exposing
them to the heat of the sun. Being thus prepared, they manufacture
them into various kinds of coarse mats.
The Thespesia populnea, profusely covered with its large yellow
flowers, and called “Onseran” by the natives, was very common
about their habitations, forming usually a portion of the fence
around their gardens. A leafless species of the Euphorbiaceæ family,
which they named “Bugar,” was also growing plentifully in the
hedges: they did not use it medicinally, but said, if the juice was
taken internally, it would produce violent pain and excessive
vomiting. Having arrived at a fisherman’s station, we crossed over a
creek in one of the large fishing boats, in which the seine was very
large, and manufactured from the fibres of the trunk of a palm,
(which I shall hereafter have occasion to mention,) this fibrous
material is known by the common name of “black coir;” it is strong,
elastic, and very durable.
A number of natives were fishing upon the banks of the river with
their peculiar hand-nets, called “Gniap:” this net is of a similar
appearance, but of course smaller, to that used in the “Sarambeau
fishing rafts,” at Manilla, of which there is a very correct figure in the
Voyage of La Perouse, 8vo. Engl. ed. vol. ii. p. 322. On examining
the contents of the baskets, which were rudely formed from the
spathe of the Areka palm, they were found to contain only a few
small fish, prawns, and biongs, or crabs. On their success, my native
attendants informed me, the fishermen depend for their daily meal.
During the rice and betel nut harvest, they earn their subsistence by
cutting and threshing the former, and gathering and shelling the
latter; but when the season for those productions has passed, they
depend upon the fish caught with the hand-net, as a subsistence for
themselves and families.
I stood by one of them to see “a haul:” after a short time had
elapsed, the heavy net was raised, and contained only a solitary fish
and a few crabs. The nets were baited with crabs’ claws, tied about
different parts. On a marsh near this spot a flock of two kinds of
crane was feeding; one species small and white, and named “Ecuar,”
the other much larger, of a greyish colour, and named “Ngnar,
ngnar,” by the natives.
Fruit was at this season scarce, a few guavas, plantains, and
“jack,” was all that could be procured; but during the season,
mangoosteens, a variety of plantains and bananas, oranges, pine-
apples, mangoes, and other tropical fruits, could be procured in
abundance. Having ranged about the Pedir Rajah’s district, near the
sea coast, I returned on board in the evening with the collection I
had made.
Among the natives that occasionally came on board with the cargo
boats, as well as those seen on shore, consisting of different races of
Hindoostan, Malays, &c. there were several with the African features
and hair; none of whom, however, were well-formed or handsome
men, but still seemed to possess great muscular power. They were
of that African race designated the “Black Arabs,” who are shipped
as seamen on board vessels at Bushire and other places in the
Persian Gulf. When I was looking at this variety of the human race,
one of the rajah’s followers said he was the property of the rajah,
and he would sell him to me, if I wanted him. As I did not require a
specimen of that kind, I declined this very obliging offer. The land
and sea breezes were for some days very regular, and at others
extremely irregular, varying also in their degree of strength. The
range of the thermometer, during the short period I remained on this
coast, was from 79° to 88°.[150]
Early one morning, a party was formed, to endeavour to obtain a
view of the country further inland. On landing at the village of Pedir,
we were met by the old trading minister, who accompanied us. The
houses of the natives were constructed of bamboo, raised, like all
the Malay residences, upon strong posts, a short distance from the
ground, and the ascent to the rooms above, was by bamboo ladders.
The habitations are covered with a thatch, formed from the leaves of
different kinds of palms; and the dwellings are cool. This quality, so
desirable in sultry climates, is given to them by gardens surrounding
the habitations, filled with trees, imparting a refreshing verdure; and
from the blossoms delightful odours were exhaled. Among the more
elevated kinds, were the graceful and majestic cocoa-nut, and the
straight Areka palm, (Areka catechu,) surmounted by its tuft of dark-
green foliage, and its long pendent clusters of orange-coloured fruit,
of an oval form.
The Artocarpus incisa, or Jack-tree, the broad-leaved plantain, the
mango, orange, lime, and occasionally, but rarely, the bread-fruit
trees, (A. integrifolia,) ornamented the garden. That most elegant as
well as largest of the gramineous plants, the bamboo, (“Triang” of
the natives,) was abundant, as fences about many of the dwellings,
(as well as the Erythrina corollodendron, or Mangkudu of the
natives; the Jatropha curcas, or “Bánawa” of the natives,[151]) and
in distinct clumps; the Piper betel trailed up some of the trees, and
the Abrus precatorius, (Anasagar of the natives,) with its pods,
containing small, but beautiful crimson seeds, hung in festoons from
the bushes in the jungle, and a Diosma, called Un grupuum by the
natives, was abundant and fragrant; the Manihot (Jatropha manihot)
was also seen; and although I was informed the root was prepared
and eaten, the shrub did not seem to be extensively planted. The
Carambola-trees (Averrhoa carambola) were numerous, and called
Boslemang. A quantity of the fruit was observed laid upon a raised
bamboo platform, spread out to dry in the sun, and the natives
appeared fond of eating them in a raw state, as well as using them
in many of their curries, and other dishes.
About some of the native habitations, that large and elegant palm,
the Borossus gomutus of Loureiro, the Saguerus pinnatus of the
Batavian Transactions, and the Cleophora of Gœrtner, was planted: it
is the “Anau” of the Sumatrans; was called at this place “Eju” and
“Doh” by the Javanese: it is valued on account of excellent toddy
being extracted from it; but more especially for the black fibres
collected from the trunk, about the bases of the petioles of the
fronds; which fibrous substance resembles somewhat in its
appearance, as well as elasticity, horsehair; and it is highly esteemed
for the manufacture of rope used for their seines, vessels, &c.; the
very thick fibres, the natives say, the Moormen resident here use as
pens, and call them “Puré Eju:” it is probably the same tree from
which the fibres, called Cabo-negro by the Spaniards, are procured
at Manilla, and from which they also manufacture rope.
We continued our ramble over a fine plain, terminated in the
distance by palms: bamboos, the broad-leaved plantain, and other
elegant trees were seen, ornamenting some lonely habitation, the
roof just appearing above the dense foliage. This plain at one season
of the year is covered with rice-fields; but was now dried up: the
stubble of the former harvest remained, and the whole was covered
by an abundance of herbage, affording feeding for herds of cattle. A
number of various species of Grylli were hopping about the fields,
and were caught by the native boys for my entomological collection:
they called them, in the language of the country, “Daruar,” and these
insects are eaten by the natives.
CHAPTER XXI.
Country about Pedir—“White Lions”—The rajah’s habits—A decision—
Ornaments for the ear—Female curiosity—The rajah’s horses—War
between the rajah of Acheen and the rajah of Trumong—A native’s
account of the quarrel—Purchase of betel-nut—The Areka-nut—Trade
in that article—Anecdote—A Chittagong brig—Dried fish—Beautiful
appearance of the Golden Mountain—Assemblage of the mountains—
Tornados—The fire king and his demons—Yamora—Burial-ground—
Large tree—Small crabs—Game called Mein Achu—Leprosy—Party of
natives—The Viverra musanga—Applications for medicine—Rajah of
Putu—His retinue—Object of his visit.
The country about Pedir, as far as I had an opportunity of seeing

it, was very picturesque, abounding in a luxuriant, natural
vegetation, as well as in a state of cultivation. The native habitations
are almost hidden by cocoa-nut, plantain, areka, eju, jack, and other
trees; fragrant odours were exhaled from the multitude of flowers
which strewed the surface of the ground; and a variety of profuse
vegetation was spread over the face of nature. The soil is rich, and
the numerous vegetables (among which the purple and white yams
are abundant) planted in the gardens of the natives, are most
prolific.[152] The habitations, as I have before noticed, are raised
upon posts, which I should suppose, in these marshy situations, are
intended to guard against the miasmata which must rise from the
surface of the ground after the rains, and to the influence of which
the inhabitants would be much exposed, if their dwellings were not
placed on an elevated site. The plain is beautiful, and the back-
ground of the landscape is terminated by mountains, varying in
elevation, and extending in a direction principally from east to west;
[153] sometimes covered by fleecy clouds, and at others, glowing in
the varying and beautiful tints of a setting sun, which cast its
expiring rays, undimmed by a cloud, over the towering masses.
After walking in the vicinity of the village,—for our guides evinced
no desire of taking us further inland,—we were desired to enter a
house to rest ourselves: by an invitation to enter, is only meant
being seated in the verandah; for we did not, or rather were not
permitted to, intrude ourselves into any other parts of the dwelling.
At this place cocoa-nut water was again offered as a refreshment.
We requested to be taken further in the interior of the country; but,
although a refusal was never given, yet we found we were invariably
taken, by other paths, back to the place from whence we came. We
became at last, from this and other circumstances, convinced that
our Moor friends were fearful of exposing themselves to the krisses
of the “Hill people,” from whom they appear to have conquered
some portion of the country, establishing themselves as traders.
We returned after a short ramble, and were conducted into the
bazaar, and seated with a semicircle of the natives before us, all
staring quietly and decorously at the “white lions.” From this place
we adjourned to the fort, near the rajah’s residence, where we
waited for the appearance of his highness, who had not yet risen
from his couch. The old minister gave us some account of the rajah’s
habits; one of which was, that he lies in bed until three p.m., except
when there is any particular business, such as the arrival of a ship,
to induce him to rise earlier; and he does not retire to rest until
three a.m., after smoking a pipe of opium. The old gentleman must
have been guilty of an exaggeration, when he stated that the rajah
would smoke a ball of opium in four days. His highness is only
eighteen years of age, and has not at present the appearance of an
opium smoker: it must have been the quantity consumed by the
rajah and his numerous followers that was meant, the whole of
which was placed to the rajah’s account. Pipes of opium were
offered to us to regale ourselves, but of course were refused.[154]
After some delay, the rajah came to visit us, having just risen from
his couch, unwashed, and attired in unclean garments. He shook
hands, in the European manner, with the party; and then, having but
little to say, from want of some other employment, he amused
himself with my insect boxes, and the insects placed in them
transfixed by pins: this led to an explanation of my professional
pursuits, and its collateral branches; but as the subject was rather
beyond his comprehension, he became attracted from it to a cloth
cap worn by one of the party, about which there was much
discussion, the result of which was, that the rajah and his followers
came to the important decision, that it would make a very good
pocket or case for containing betel-nut, and the accompanying
articles required to be used with it. Being heartily tired, we were
happy to escape from the royal presence; and the boat being ready,
we returned on board.
All the women had the lobes of the ears enormously distended,
from wearing, when very young, round pieces of wood, polished and
ornamented, or rolls of leaves in them: the richer classes wear large
ornaments of gold and silver: the old women have the lobes hanging
down to a great length, but without ornament; that they formerly
had placed them in the lobes was evident by the distended orifices,
which, having lost their elasticity, prevented their retention as
before. The poorer classes are content with neatly polished and
ornamented round pieces of wood, or a roll of the plantain or some
other kind of leaf, as a substitute for those of gold and silver worn
by the higher and richer classes. The lower class of females were
usually attired in cotton cloth sarongs, and the cabaya, passing over
the head, of a black colour, or other dark patterns. As we passed
their dwellings, they came forth, with the usual feminine curiosity, to
view the strangers: indeed, we appeared to be as much objects of
curiosity among them, as I had before been when landing upon
many of the unfrequented islands of the Polynesian Archipelago; and
the natives, that arrived in the boats with Areka-nut, from the
villages on the coast, seemed to regard us as wonders, and
surrounded the entrance of the poop-cuddy at meal-times, as if to
satisfy themselves how such animals fed.
We had an offer of some of the rajah’s horses to ride about the
village: at first it was thought that some dun cows, with horns cut
off close to the head, and a preternatural erection of the ears, were
the animals offered; but it appears they were real ponies: if we had
ridden them, however, it must have been without any saddle or
bridle, for there were no articles of that description to be procured at
Pedir.
The barque at present at anchor in Pedir roads, under the
Acheenese flag, was captured from the rajah of Trumong, on the
west coast of Sumatra, by the man-of-war grab belonging to the
rajah of Acheen: the cause of it was this:—the Trumong rajah is
tributary to the king, or rajah, of Acheen: he had not paid tribute for
three years; and on its being demanded, the Trumong rajah
returned for answer, that he intended paying it with iron balls; war
was therefore declared against this rebellious rajah, and the barque
was captured by the following stratagem: the commander of his
Acheenese majesty’s grab fell in with the barque at sea, assured her
commander that all differences had been adjusted between the two
rajahs, and requested him to come on board. The captain of the
barque unsuspectingly accepted the invitation, taking presents with
him. On stepping upon the deck of the grab, himself, crew, and
presents were detained, and a boat, with a number of men well
armed, sent on board the barque; and having secured the guns,
hauled down the Trumong rajah’s colours, and hoisted those of his
Acheenese majesty, the vessels will sail, in company, for Acheen in a
few days.
A Madras native, who spoke a little English, amused us with his
version of the affair. “I belong, and barque belong, to the rajah of
Trumong. Acheen rajah and my rajah make war; Trumong rajah
plenty dollars, and go buy ships at Pulo Penang, to fight rajah
Acheen. Acheen rajah very poor, one day buy ship, in a month want
sell, because very poor—Acheen rajah no good, no pay Lascars—
Trumong rajah, my king, pay well, plenty dollars. My barque got
seven guns and twelve Lascar men. The grab send a boat and ask
‘whose barque this?’ My captain say, ‘rajah Trumong’s;’ then grab’s
men take prisoners, and say, ‘barque belong now to Acheen rajah;’
so he pull down colours—our colours before white and black—now
Acheen colours red and white.”
The quantity of betel-nut agreed for (three thousand peculs) was
sent on board; and a further agreement entered into for three
thousand peculs more, to be delivered in a few days after. Opium, at
nine hundred dollars the chest, was taken in part payment: this was
a high price, but netted to the sellers a profit of only ninety-five Java
rupees, or forty-seven dollars; from the large quantity in the market
at this place, it was with the greatest difficulty it could be disposed
of even at that price: the dollars to be given in addition must have
been the principal inducement, for opium had been purchased from
the Penang brig, “Calder Bux,” at seven hundred and seventy dollars
the chest; but we afterwards found only one dollar the pecul, or
rather laxar, had been paid by that vessel, which will account for
their giving in barter a higher price for the opium.
On the second agreement being made, the rajah and suite came
on board to ratify it, which, after some disputes and discussions with
all parties, was effected by the supercargo of the ship.
The principal article of exportation from this coast is Areka-nut,
and a small quantity of rice; the latter, however, appeared of an
inferior quality, and one-and-a-half dollar a pecul was demanded as
the lowest price; the vessel would be required to furnish bags for the
rice, as there are none manufactured on the coast, and a delay of
the vessel would be also required to procure it. Areka-nut must,
therefore, be regarded as the principal article of trade, as it is to be
purchased cheap, and of a quality as excellent as in any part of the
Eastern islands, or Cochin China.
The Areka palm is the Areka catechu of botanists; it is a palm of
elegant growth, rising with a very erect and small stem to the height
of forty or even sixty feet, the summit terminating in a tuft of dark-
green foliage; the circumference of the trunk is seldom more than
one-and-a-half to two feet, when of early growth of dark-green, and
when old of a dark-grey colour; the circles formed by the clasping
petioles of the fronds being very visible upon it: the tree bears fruit
only once during the year, at which period the tree, with its long
bunches of orange oval-shaped fruit, pendent from the upper part of
the trunk, contrasted by the dark-green foliage, has a beautiful
appearance. The Areka-nut, when planted, takes three years to
arrive at a sufficient size to produce fruit; the wood of this palm is
used at this place for a variety of purposes.
The fruit grows in long pendulous clusters, each about the size of
a small hen’s egg; the external covering is thick, fibrous, covered by
an orange-coloured epidermis; and on the thick fibrous husk being
cleared away, the nut is discovered surrounded by its own immediate
epidermis, which often proves difficult of removal. The nut is conical,
but varies in some, having an elevated apex and small base, and
others a large base and very slightly elevated apex. One nut is the
natural produce of each fruit, although sometimes double or triple
nuts are found, anomalies often met with in the vegetable kingdom.
[155]
Many of the common drinking and baling utensils in the boats are
made from the spathe of the Areka palm; and I have frequently seen
a vessel for holding water made from it, which was not dissimilar to
those made by the Australian natives from the bark of the Eucalypti
trees; they use the flower spathe also for nailing upon the bottoms
of their boats. May, June, and July, are the months for collecting the
nuts. They had loaded nine ships this season; but forty vessels, of all
sizes, have been freighted in one season, for Pinang, &c., from
whence it is exported to China, Madras, and other parts of
continental India.
The nuts vary in size; their quality, however, does not at all
depend upon this property, but upon their internal appearance when
cut, intimating the quantity of astringent matter contained in them.
If the white, or medullary portion, which intersects the red or
astringent part be small, has assumed a bluish tinge, and the
astringent part is very red, the nut is considered of good quality; but
when the medullary portion is in large quantity, the nut is considered
more mature, and not possessing so much astringency, is not
esteemed so valuable.
The quantity of nut produced on this coast is stated to be eighty
thousand peculs. When there is no immediate demand for this
article, it is not shelled, but preserved in the husk, as it is considered
not to be so liable to be destroyed by the worm in that state; but
although this is the opinion of the natives on the coast, yet I have
seen nuts destroyed totally by the worm while in the husk, in the
space of two months. The produce of the first month, or month-and-
a-half, amounting usually to forty thousand peculs, the natives
informed us is exported; and the second gathering, amounting to
about the same quantity, is consumed in the country. The nuts were
brought on board the ship in large boats, (originally built and
employed as fishing vessels, except when required for this
employment, they are from three to four tons burthen each, and are
to be purchased for twenty or twenty-five dollars,) in bulk, and
Manilla mat-bags, and are taken on board the ships in bulk. The
quantity of Areka-nut imported by the Chinese, amounts to forty-five
or forty-eight thousand peculs annually, exclusive of that brought
from Cochin China, the amount of which is not known; in 1832, from
a failure of the usual supply of nuts from Cochin China, forty-eight
thousand peculs, imported from other places, sold so high as four
dollars and three-quarters the pecul; the price it usually fetches in
the China market is from two to three and three-quarter dollars the
pecul. The principal consumption of the nut as a masticatory (in
conjunction with the leaf called betel, produced from a vine, the
Piper betel) is in the provinces of Quang, ton, (Canton, of
Europeans,) Quang, si, and Che, keang, and may be seen, exposed
for sale, on little stalls about the suburbs of Canton, with the other
additional articles used in the preparation; it is also used as a
mordant for coarse dyes. The Areka-nuts brought from Cochin China
are considered by the Chinese the best imported. This may, however,
arise from prejudice in favour of the production of a country so
nearly allied to them, to that introduced by foreigners. In the central
provinces of Hoo, kwang, and Kang, si, the nut is, after being
bruised and pounded, mixed with the green food of horses as a
preventive against a diarrhœa, to which that kind of food sometimes
subjects them. It was likewise mentioned to me by a Chinese, that it
is used as a domestic medicine in the north of China, small pieces
being boiled; the decoction is administered in various visceral
affections.
A cargo of this article generates so much heat as to raise the
thermometer in the hold forty degrees above that on the deck; and
from this circumstance, and the quantity of steam generated, the
crew are prevented from sleeping between decks.
The Areka-nut is commonly known by the very prevailing Malay
name of Pinang, or Pinong, but in the Acheenese language it is
called Pénu, and the tree Ba, penu; Ba, signifying tree, is usually
prefixed to the specific name, as Un, signifying plant, is prefixed to
the name of a plant.
The ripe Areka-nut is called also Pénu, massa, and the green
Pénu, mudr; the Gambir, used with the Betel, Gambé; the Betel-leaf,
Ránu; the Chunam, Gapu; the tobacco, Bákun.
The rajah of Pedir claims ten per cent. as a duty levied in kind
upon all the Areka-nut disposed of to ships arriving in his territory;
and, besides this, his subjects are obliged to dispose of the nuts to
the ship, at the price he or his ministers have agreed upon with the
supercargo.[156]
The red colour, produced by chewing the Betel-leaf, in combination
with the Areka-nut, lime, &c., is not produced by them when used
separately. The mastication of the “Betel” is considered very
wholesome by those who are in the habit of using it: it may be so,
but the black appearance it gives to the teeth, although it is said to
be an excellent preserver of them, together with the brick-red lips
and mouth, give any thing but an agreeable appearance.[157] Its use
certainly does not impart additional beauty to the native females,
who habituate themselves to an equal extent to those of the
opposite sex.[158]
There was an old native of Madras, a Moorman, forming one of
the rajah’s attendants on board, whose duty it was to visit ships, and
report their arrival to his highness, and also to attend the ship daily
to see the cargo taken on board; this individual had one of his hands
rendered useless by a blow from a Klawang, or Malay sword. Besides
the scar resulting from this wound, there was an unreduced
dislocation of the carpal extremity of the ulna, and a fracture of the
radius, which, being disunited, an artificial joint had been formed:
the cause of this personal injury, he said, proceeded from an attack
made upon a vessel he was in, by one belonging to the rajah of
Acheen, in which several people were killed. This individual, being on
board one morning, although professing in external appearances the
Mahometan creed, expressed a desire of having a tumbler of the
stimulating beverage denominated “grog,” if it could be administered
without its being seen; proving that his religious scruples were not
so strong in private as his veneration for public opinion, or a fear of
losing caste. A stiff glass of grog was, therefore, prepared for him,
which the old withered disciple of Mahometanism regarded with
glittering eyes. There was also on board another Mussulman, whose
duty it was to take account of the cargo as it came to the ship, and
report the quantity to the rajah; the sinner was about to raise the
glass to his mouth, exclaiming, “What would the other man say if he
was to see me now?” when the old saying was verified, of “there is
many a slip between the cup and the lip;” for the scribe was, at the
same instant, seen descending, and there was only time to conceal
the glass before he was close to him. The old fellow stroked his
whiskers, and began seriously to talk about opium; and as the white
turbaned man saw him clear out from below, the long-sought
enjoyment was obliged to be postponed.
A Chittagong brig, commanded by a black Portuguese, anchored in
the roads, on the 10th of July, from the Maldive islands, bound to
Penang, with a cargo of dried fish and some tortoiseshell, which had
been procured in exchange for rice; his object was to dispose of his
cargo in exchange for dollars and Betel-nut at this place. The dried
fish was the Bonito cut into small pieces. The Maldive natives
prepare it in the following manner:—A long slice is cut from each
side of the fish, and these again are divided into two parts, so that
each fish is divided into four pieces; it is then boiled for a short time
in salt water, after which it is smoked and placed in the sun to dry; it
then becomes extremely hard, and resembles, when broken, a piece
of wood, having a reddish appearance at the fractured parts: after it
has been soaked, it is used for curries and other native dishes.
The “Golden Mountain” is a very conspicuous and beautiful object
from the anchorage; but it ought to be mentioned, that, from this
position, two mountains are seen to the westward, one towering to
a peak, and densely wooded, the other, anterior to it, is a lofty
rounded hill: the first is the one known to Europeans as the “Golden
Mountain;” the second, or rounded mountain, is not named in the
charts, but it may be called the “Pedir Mountain.” The “Golden
Mountain” is called by the natives Yamori, and the other Yamora; the
first the natives designate as the father, the second the mother
(probably of all the little mountains about them).
The natives state, that once every year the mountains come
together, occasioning rain, thunder, lightning, earthquakes, and
violent storms; the Urong Salle, or Fire King, then sits upon the
mountain, surrounded by hideous demons, enjoying the noise and
uproar occasioned by the conflict of the elements; the winds blow in
violent tornados; the thunder is so loud as to occasion the earth to
tremble under the feet of the terrified inhabitants: the rain causes
tremendous mountain torrents, inundating habitations and
plantations, carrying all before them in their impetuous course, and
spreading devastation around. In the midst of this dreadful conflict
of the elements, the mountains meet with a horrible crash. As the
forked lightning plays around them, the Urong Salle, or Fire King,
surrounded by his satellites, laughs and sports in the scene; the
mountains remain united for a minute, when they again separate,
regaining their former position. No person dare ascend the hill at any
time, for there sits the Fire King and his demons, and should any
mortal cast his eyes upon him, that instant he would be struck with
blindness.
Yamora is stated to be distant, inland from Pedir, two days’
journey travelling on foot, and Yamori is the same distance from the
other mountain; not, however, as the crow flies, but it would take
that period of time to reach it, from the winding and difficulties of
the road. From this account there is every reason to suppose that
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are occasionally felt upon this
coast. As far as we could ascertain, there was no appearance of a
burning volcano existing in either of the mountains just mentioned;
they were both densely clothed with vegetation, more especially the
“Golden Mountain.”
Near the banks of the river, a short distance up, is an uninclosed
native burial-ground; the graves had a stone or piece of wood
placed both at the head and foot: there were several trees of
Hibiscus tiliaceus, Tamarindus Indica, and a very large one, called
Ba, Glumpong by the natives, (Sterculia fœtida, Linn.) which was
described by them as being poisonous, producing violent vomiting
and pains in the head, if the fruit be eaten. I subsequently saw it,
planted about the fences in the village. There were two of these
fine, lofty, and spreading trees in the burial-ground, and I procured
specimens both of the flowers and fruit: the former grew in clusters
upon erect spikes, with the corolla of a dark red, mixed with
yellowish green. They have a handsome appearance, but diffuse so
fœtid a smell around, as soon to fill a room with the exceedingly
disagreeable effluvia. The fruit is kidney-shaped; the trees were sixty
or seventy feet in height, and from eight to ten feet in
circumference.
A piece of sandal wood, of good quality, was brought off to the
ship by one of the natives; he stated that large quantities of it could
be procured, as the tree grew abundantly in the mountains. He gave
it the usual Indian appellation of Chandana.[159]
In some brackish pools I collected several small living species of
the Cerethium; and about the banks a great number of a small crab,
remarkable from one of the claws being greatly disproportioned to
the size of the other parts of the animal, and entirely different in
colour. When I first beheld them, I mistook them for small crabs
running away with the claws of larger ones. They are difficult to
catch, from the exceeding rapidity of their motions, and escape, on
the slightest movement or noise being made, into their
subterraneous dwellings in the sand. The body and feet of the
animal are bluish black, with a few white marks across, and the
large claw is of a light or occasional darker red colour. The natives
call them Biong, po. They are seen in great numbers about the
pools, but are not eaten by the natives. I procured several
specimens, which I preserved in spirits. On being placed in strong
rum, they survived for the space of full three minutes; and if more
than one was placed in the same bottle, they would fight and pull
the claws off each other in their death agonies.
Near the village, several boys were playing a game with Areka-
nuts, called Mein-achu, in some degree resembling our game at
marbles. Four nuts were piled up in form of a pyramid, twelve such
forming a row; a nut was then fillipped off with some degree of
force against the heaps, from a distance of about three yards. If the
thrower succeeds in destroying one of the pyramids, he renews his
throw at the others, always at the distance where his nut remained,
until he misses, when the next player takes his turn: the game thus
continuing until all the pyramids are thrown down.
I was much surprised a few days since, while passing a house in
the vicinity of the village, to see apparently a European lad, of about
six years of age; and on examining him closer, found his skin of a
white colour, thinly scattered over with small light-brown patches.
On passing the same house again, I made inquiry on the subject,
and then had an opportunity of seeing two others, who were
females,—one about sixteen or eighteen years of age, the other an
infant just able to run about. They were described to us as children
of native Malay parents, of the usual colour of their race; but we did
not see them, as they had gone a short distance into the country.
The children were named Ceté, Theté, and Cebreté. They had a
plump appearance; flaxen hair, light-blue eyes; and the boy and
young woman were slightly covered with scattered small brown
patches; but the infant had not a blemish on its integument. The
natives could give no reason for this variety; they looked upon it as
curious, but did not seem, as far as I could ascertain, to regard it as
a disease. They have the flat nose of the Malay, but otherwise would
be considered the offspring of European parents, the skin being in
some degree freckled. It ought certainly to be regarded as a variety
of, if not actually the disease called, leprosy.[160]
I met several natives going into the interior; they were all well
armed with krisses, klawangs or Malay swords, spears, and
blunderbusses or musquets; the country in the interior being
described as in a very unsettled state. Some of the spears were
about six feet long, resembling walking-staves, covered above by a
wooden sheath, similar to the other part of the weapon, and
ornamented with rims of silver; the upper part, or sheath, being
taken off, displays the head of the spear.
I purchased a specimen of the Viverra musanga, similar to one I
had before procured at Java, for half a rupee; although very wild
with strangers, it was exceedingly domesticated with its master,
following him like a cat, as he walked along the path: they called
him, on this coast, as at Java, “Mussang.”
This specimen was very little larger than one I had before
procured; but they attain, I was informed, the size of our domestic
cat, living, in the wild state, upon the summits of the trees, eating
fruit, and catching birds as their food. The animal is very fond of
sugar-cane, plantain, rice, and the flesh of fowls, and will also kill
and eat those troublesome insects, the cock-roaches. It, however,
became so very savage on board, that I was obliged at last to
destroy it.
I was frequently applied to by the natives, when sick, to
administer medicines to them. There were several suffering from
different kinds of tumours; one, near the nose, I offered to remove;
but although the person promised to come on board for the
purpose, I afterwards heard he was afraid, and altered his mind.
Among many patients was a little girl, belonging to a Moorman,
suffering from Diarrhœa mucosa: her body had been rubbed entirely
over with a mixture of turmeric, sandal-wood, and oil, as a remedy
for the disease. The yellow appearance—the usual indication of
sickness—was not the result, as may have been expected, of some
disease, but merely a daubing over the body of the above-
mentioned composition,—this being the remedy for all diseases. The
common Hindoo application of cow-dung and turmeric is frequent for
external wounds or bruises, and considered a very efficacious
remedy. Cutaneous diseases were very numerous, and the native
applications proved very inefficacious in removing them.
I had an opportunity of seeing another rajah—the rajah of Putu (a
village and district not far distant, on the sea coast). He was ill-
looking in person, and carried with him the appearance of being
addicted to opium-smoking. He was attired in a sarong of a
handsome pattern, the borders of which were woven with gold
threads. These sarongs are the manufacture of the country, and are
sold at high prices. The rajah was tall and young, and was attended
by a numerous retinue, attired in red cloth jackets ornamented with
gold lace, and handsome sarongs: others could only wear a cotton
baju, or jacket. They were armed with spears, klawangs, krisses,
and old rusty blunderbusses. The object of his visit to this place, was
to pay his respects to the old queen (grandmother of the present
rajah) of Acheen, who was residing at Pedir, and was about to
embark in a few days in the Acheenese grab for Acheen, and was
described as being an excellent old lady.
NOTE.
(See page 13, vol. i.)
A method has since been mentioned to me, by which the colours
of the flowers of plants are well preserved. The process was this:—
The paper being first heated before the fire, or in an oven, the plant
recently gathered is placed between the hot sheets, and pressed. It
is requisite, however, that the paper, in the same heated state, be
renewed at intervals, on account of the expressed juices from the
stalks and leaves fermenting, which might otherwise injure the
plants.
There is also a method of preserving plants in flower, by which
their natural form, as well as colours, can be preserved. It consists in
placing the plant in a jar, and pouring fine sand upon it, until the
whole plant is covered: it is then to be placed, still kept in the jar,
into an oven; after which, being taken out, and the sand removed,
the plant is found preserved both in its form and colour.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Madeira signifies, in the Portuguese language, “woody;”
and the island was so named from the very wooded appearance it
had on its discovery.
[2] In summer, Horsburgh states that the north-east winds
prevail, and a south-west current sets through the channel,
between Madeira and the Desertas. The current along the south
side of Madeira and the Desertas mostly sets to the leeward in
strong gales; but at the conclusion of a gale, it sometimes
changes suddenly, and sets contrary to the wind.
[3] They are called “Guinea Ships” by the old navigators, from
their floating like a vessel on the water, and from having very
probably been first seen in great numbers about the coast and
gulf of Guinea.
[4] Mr. John Fuge, of Plymouth, informed me that he captured
a specimen of the Physalia pelagica, in the Catwater, (Plymouth
Sound,) a few years since, in the month of August; it was floating
upon the surface of the water, and living when caught; he placed
it in a glass globe of sea water, and preserved it for three weeks.
The only motion he observed in the animal, was an occasional
contraction and elongation of the beaked end of the bladder
portion of the animal, and the tentaculæ were also drawn up and
thrust forward.
[5] Physalis tuberculosa, P. megalista, P. elongata, and P.
pelagica, are the species given by Lamarck. (Sur les Animaux
sans Vertèbres, tom. ii. p. 478.)
[6] On the 5th of April, 1834, in latitude 29° 17′ north, and
longitude 42° 57′ west, temperature of the atmosphere 68° to
72°, I caught in my towing net a very fine specimen of Physalis
pelagica, adorned with the usual beautiful tints, but not so vivid
as I have usually seen them. The specimen was the largest I had
before witnessed. During the month of April, 1834, I observed
specimens of this mollusca as far north as latitude 38° 32′ north,
and longitude 34° 30′ west. The lowest range of the thermometer
being 58°, and highest 72°. In March, 1831, I had seen them as
far north as the latitude of the Azores or Western Islands. Often
when we had very strong westerly winds, with a heavy sea
running at the time, I saw them; yet not, to use a nautical
expression, “furling sail” and sinking; this was sufficient to prove
the absurdity of the opinion that they collapse and sink during
stormy breezes. I have frequently seen them capsized by a wave,
but almost instantly after regain their natural position.
[7] “Praya” signifies, in the Portuguese language, “a beach or
shore.”
[8] “The largest tree in the world is the Adansonia or Baobab
tree, the trunk of which has been found with a diameter of thirty
feet; but its height is not in proportion. It is emollient and
mucilaginous in all its parts. The leaves dried and reduced to
powder constitute Lalo, a favourite article with the Africans, which
they mix daily with their food, for the purpose of diminishing the
excessive perspiration to which they are subject in those climates;
and even Europeans find it serviceable in cases of diarrhœa,
fevers, and other maladies. The fruit is, perhaps, the most useful
part of the tree. Its pulp is slightly acid and agreeable, and
frequently eaten; while the juice is expressed from it, mixed with
sugar, and constitutes a drink which is valued as a specific in
putrid and pestilential fevers.”—Hooker’s Bot. Mag. 2792.
“The dried pulp is mixed with water, and administered in Egypt
in dysentery. It is chiefly composed of a gum, like gum senegal, a
sugary matter, starch, and an acid, which appears to be malic.”—
Delile Cent. 12. Quoted in Lindley’s Int. to the Nat. Syst. of
Botany.
[9] (In June, 1831.) “Canary orchilla fetches in the London
market from 270l. to 290l. per ton, while that which is brought
from Madeira fetches only 140l., and Barbary not more than from
30l. to 45l. The total quantity imported in 1829, amounted to
1,813 cwt. or 90½ tons.”—“Archil is generally sold in the form of
cakes, but sometimes in that of moist pulp.”—M’Culloch’s Dict. of
Commerce.
[10] At the time of our arrival a Portuguese brig was lying in
the bay, having a cargo of this weed on board, which was
estimated at a low calculation to be worth 30,000l.
[11] “The dyer’s lichen was first exported from the islands of
the Archipelago to Venice, Genoa, France, and England, for the
use of the dyers. Towards the commencement of the last century
it was discovered in the Canary Islands, and was soon placed
among the regalia of the Spanish crown. This excited the
attention of the Portuguese, who collected it without restriction in
the Cape de Verd Islands, Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Azores.
In the year 1730, the Jesuits asked of King John V. the privilege
of collecting the Hervinha secca; but the crown took the
advantage into its own hands, and farmed the right of collecting
it. At a later period the lichen was ceded to the mercantile
company of Gram Pará and Maranhâo; and, lastly, in the year
1790, the government again took this branch of commerce under
its own care, because it had declined considerably under the bad
management of the company. At present the exportation is small;
but more considerable, however, from the Cape de Verd Isles.”
(See I. Da Silva Feijó, in the Memorias Economicas da Acad. de
Lisboa, vol. v. 1815, p. 143.)—Spix and Martius Travels in Brazil,
vol. i. p. 125.
[12] Abel’s Voyage to, and journey into the interior of, China.
4to. p. 6.
[13] Captain Basil Hall. See Fragments of Voyages and Travels.
[14] It would be interesting, but at the same time difficult, to
ascertain where one particular species commences and another
terminates, and the extent of their range. In the summer season
they are found off the Cape of Good Hope, Port Jackson, and
even on the banks of Newfoundland; and I have good authority
for asserting that in the month of August, in even more than one
year, they have been seen in Plymouth Sound.
[15] My journal remarks the atmosphere to have been very
chilly during the day, but much milder in the evening; the range
of the thermometer during the day being from 49° to 56°.
[16] How will this accord with the geographical distribution of
the mollusca by Péron and Leseur? After studying the Holothuria
Medusæ, and other congeners of delicate and changeable forms,
they came to the conclusion that each kind has its place of
residence determined by the temperature necessary to support its
existence. Thus, for example, they found the abode of Pyrosoma
atlanticum to be confined to one particular region of the Atlantic
Ocean.—Voy. aux Terres Aust. tom. 1, p. 492, quoted in Lyell’s
Principles of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 111, 112.
[17] Albicores, bonitos, and dolphins, often follow the ship for
several days in succession; we had occasion to note an albicore
that was marked on the back by some sharp instrument, leaving
a large sear by which it could readily be recognized. It was first
seen in 3° north latitude, and following the ship to latitude 11°
south, a distance of eight hundred and forty miles.
[18] This petrel is said to be found from 24° to 60° south
latitude.
[19] Respecting the name given to this bird, it has been
observed, that the first Portuguese navigator called them, the
boobies, and other sea-birds, alcatros or alcatras. Dampier
applied this name to an actual kind; Grew changed it to albitross,
and Edwards into albatross. The French name these birds mouton
du cap. There are a number of species enumerated; but it will
require frequent and cautious observation previous to the
determination of a new one, as they vary so much in plumage
from sex and age.
[20] The condor is supposed by some to be the “Roc” of the
Arabian Nights.
[21] The other species I have seldom known to measure more
than eight feet across the expanded wings.
[22] This bird is evidently aided by its long wings as well as tail
in directing its flight: they are never seen to soar to any great
height, and are often observed to change their course, by turning
the wings and body in a lateral direction, and oftentimes, when
raising themselves, would bend the last joint of the wings
downwards.
[23] Cuvier enumerates five species; but at the same time
says, “On a observé divers albatrosses plus ou moins bruns ou
noirâtres, mais on n’a pu encore constater jusqu’à quel point ils
forment des variétés ou des espèces distinctes.”—Regne Animal,
tom. i. p. 555.
[24] The building was originally erected as a theatre, at a very
great expense, and after its completion the governor, at that time
General Darling, refused to grant a licence for dramatic
performances, in consequence of which it was fitted up as a
spacious hotel. On the present Governor, General Burke, granting
permission for theatrical entertainments, a portion of the building
has reverted to the original purpose for which the whole had
been erected.
[25] “It is at least certain that on this microscopic character of
the equal existence of cutaneous glands on both surfaces of the
leaf, depends that want of lustre which is so remarkable in the
forests of New Holland.”—Sketch of the Botany of the Vicinity of
Swan River, by R. Brown, Esq. F.R.S., published in the Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society of London, vol. i. 1830, 1831.
[26] The dried cones of the Banksia are used by the aborigines
for retaining fire, as they will keep ignited for a considerable
length of time.
[27] The analysis of the chemical properties of this gum is
mentioned in Decandolle’s Organographie Végétale, tom i.
[28] I remarked that the wood of a species of Banksia, (I
believe dentata,) which was used for firewood, was of a beautiful
red colour, and when split in a longitudinal direction displayed a
curious interlaced appearance; it had an astringent taste when
chewed, staining the saliva of a dark reddish colour, and I think it
would be worth trying if a dye would be furnished by it.
[29] The Kennedia is called the “woodbine” by some of the
shepherds in the colony, who use a decoction of its leaves as a
lotion for scabby sheep, and they declare it is a cure for that
disease; but their declarations of the curative properties of the
plant is not borne out by the experience of others, who have
found it quite useless as a remedy for that disease.
[30] Among the Psittaceæ tribe is the Psittacus Novæ
Hollandiæ, curious as being one of the parrot tribe, seen and
mentioned by Captain Cook, but is a very rare species in the
present known parts of the colony,—(it is, more correctly, a
species of cockatoo, and which, I believe, Mr. Vigors has; or
intends, to place in a new genus,)—and has not been seen even
in those portions of the colony visited by Cook. The specimen in
the collection, is one among a few of this species that was seen
at Wellington Valley a few years since, during a prevailing
drought, and since that period they have not been seen in that or
any other known part of the colony. I heard at Yas Plains, that it
was not uncommon at some seasons of the year to observe birds,
before unknown to the colonists, appear, and soon after again
disappear, and are, perhaps, never seen again until years after,
and often not at all.
[31] It would also be desirable to have the cases made in such
a manner, as to be opened if required, and a closer inspection of
the specimens obtained, which is often requisite for scientific
examinations. To George Macleay, Esq. the museum is indebted
for many valuable species of birds, which he had collected during
his arduous journey in the exploration of the course of the
Murrumbidge river, in the expedition under Captain Sturt.
[32] Captain Cook observes, “Of this plant, there are two sorts;
the leaves of both resemble those of flags, but the flowers are
smaller, and their clusters more numerous: in one kind, they are
yellow; and in the other, a deep red.” This plant is also indigenous
to Norfolk Island, which, in its vegetation, partakes more of New
Zealand than the Australian continent. Captain Cook observes,
that at Norfolk Island, “we observed many trees and plants,
common at New Zealand, and, in particular, the flax plant, which
is rather more luxuriant here than in any part of the country.”
[33] Captain George Harris, R. N., C. B., and member for
Grimsby, in the present parliament, has recently been
manufacturing rope and cables of the phormium tenax, or New
Zealand flax; and instead of tar, substitutes a solution of gum, or
some such substance, (principally, we suspect, the caoutchouc or
Indian rubber,) by which, it is contended, the rope is rendered
stronger, more pliant, and less liable to part in short bends, turns,
or clinches, and being stronger, smaller ropes than those now in
use will answer for ships’ rigging; the consumption of hemp, of
course, diminishes in proportion—we say hemp, because the
solution will also impart to the hemp the qualities we have
named. If, however, a substitute is to be found for hemp and tar,
we are rendered independent of the Russian trade in these
articles;—a most desirable object, should the state of Europe at
any time involve us in a difference with that nation. The bogs and
rough ground of Ireland, all our African possessions and West
Indian islands, and New South Wales, are particularly adapted to
the culture of the phormium tenax. Captain Harris was here on
Monday, and superintended the making of a 14½ inch cable,
which is to be tried on his Majesty’s ship Rainbow. A trial is also
to be made of the relative strength of the phormium tenax and
hemp in this yard, in a few days, for which a piece of 14½ inch
cable has been expressly manufactured. The price of hemp per
ton is £38; that of the phormium tenax £28. Of the experiments
that have been made at Woolwich, by order of the Admiralty, the
following are the results:—
T. cwt. lbs.
A 4½ inch rope of the old sort broke at a strain 3 8 40
of
4 inch phormium, with the solution 5 10 0
4 inch bolt rope, Italian yarns, present sort 4 15 0
4 inch ditto, with the same yarns, with the 6 8 56
preserving solution
4 inch common rope 5 7 56
4 inch hempen rope, with coal or mineral tar 3 7 56
4 inch phormium, with the solution 5 16 70
The strongest proof is thus given of its strength. Its power,

however, to resist wet, and its durability, are yet to be
ascertained.—Hampshire Telegraph.
[34] The following was mentioned to me as the origin of the
name given to this point. Governor Phillip, at an early period of
the colony, formed a pic-nic party to proceed up the Paramatta
river, and a person was sent on before to prepare kangaroo
steaks. They landed at this point, and having regaled themselves,
the gentlemen, following the maxims of John Hunter, laid down
upon the grass, and aided digestion by falling asleep; the ladies
finding themselves deserted began to propose winning gloves,
and therefore kisses were taken, and on their awaking the forfeit
was demanded, and of course not refused. Before leaving the
place the governor wished some name to be bestowed upon the
point, and one of the ladies being requested to do so, in
consequence of the occurrence just mentioned, named it “Kissing
Point.”
[35] This creek, commonly called the Paramatta river, is a creek
or inlet of the sea from Port Jackson; the true river, which is very
small, falls into this creek at Paramatta.
[36] Boyams are the roots of different genera and species of
the Orchideæ family; some are called, by the colonists, “double or
single boyams,” according to the appearance of the roots, and
they all form an article of food among the aboriginal tribes.
[37] The dimensions of the large specimen were as follows:
Feet. Inch.
From the vertex of the head to the tip of the tail 2 3
Breadth across the shoulders 0 3
Length of the tail 0 11½
Breadth of the loins 0 3²⁄₈
Length of the fore-leg to the claws 0 6⅝
hind-leg to do. 0 7⅜
Length of the head to the snout 0 4
Length of the ear 0 2½
The tail is naked underneath from its extremity to within five

inches of the base, and is prehensile.
The colour of the male specimen was greyish; a short fine fur
covers the back, being also continuous of the same colour to
within four inches of the tail; after which the fur becomes longer,
more glossy, and of a black colour; the fur on the abdomen was
of a yellowish white colour; near the feet the fur is short, of a
dirty yellow colour, with brownish patches; the colour is similar
under the chin, throat, and angles of the jaw; the upper part of
the ears is nearly bare; the thumbs of the hind feet have no claw,
but the fore-feet are pentadactyle, and armed with sharp claws;
the four toes of the hind-feet are also armed with claws, the first
dividing into two phalanges, each having a claw. The young
specimen differed from this only in having a yellowish tinge mixed
with the grey over the back, legs, and abdomen; angles of the
jaw and throat of a brownish yellow; the under portion about the
eyes and upper part of the head of a yellowish colour.
[38] The Hobart Town Colonist of Oct. 12, 1832, contains the
following paragraph respecting the capability of the opossum fur
being used in manufactures.
“We have been favoured with the sight of a pair of mittens
spun and knit by Mrs. M’Kenzie, of the Lower Clyde, from the fur
of the opossum. In texture and appearance they very much
resemble the best sort of Angola mittens, but to us they appear
of superior quality. The pair that we saw are now in the
possession of Mr. Gordon, of Forcett, to whom they were
presented by Mr. M’Kenzie.”
[39] Besides the vine, other fruit-tree cuttings blossom and
even bear fruit in a very short period of time. I saw a peach
cutting, in a garden near Sydney, about six inches long, which
had been planted only ten days, and was covered with a
profusion of blossoms.
[40] The box-tree of the colonists (Eucalyptus, sp.) is used in
the colony for the spokes and fellies of wheels, and the “apple-
tree” (Angophora lanceolata) for the naves.
[41] The “turpentine tree” attains the elevation of from sixty to
ninety feet, and a diameter of three feet.
[42] Mount York, according to Oxley, is 3,292 feet above the
level of the sea.
[43] “Pi” signifies “to hit or break,” and “cobera,” “head.”
[44] It has been stated frequently to me, that the females
destroying their offspring allege as a reason, that they are too
much trouble to carry about: however, it is well known, that, as
their children become older, they evince much attachment
towards them.
[45] This is not confined to the Australian natives, for it also
occurs in Polynesia. Spix and Martius also observe, in their Travels
in Brazil, (Eng. Trans. 8vo. vol. ii. p. 241,) “We did not meet with
any deformed persons or cripples among the Indians; for which
reason, some people believe that they put them to death
immediately after their birth.”
[46] “Netbul,” (the net-bag of the aborigines,) is a corrupted
native word; “culy” is one of the native appellations.
[47] Those philanthropic individuals who think to change the
habits of these savage tribes, expecting those who have lived
from the earliest period of their existence on the produce of the
chase, to abandon their wandering life, and settle down to
cultivate the soil—an employment to which they are quite
unaccustomed—can never have reflected how difficult, even in
our boasted civilized state, it is to change habits acquired in early
childhood. “Men,” observes Hartley, in his Essays on Man, (page
190,) “are brought to any thing almost sooner than to change
their habit of life, especially when the change is either
inconvenient or made against the force of natural inclination, or
with the loss of accustomed indulgences. It is,” he continues, “the
most difficult of all things to convert men from vicious habits to
virtuous ones, as every one may judge from what he feels in
himself as well as from what he sees in others.” “It is almost,”
says Paley, after making the above quotation in his Evidences of
Christianity, “like making men over again.”
[48] At New Zealand the placenta is named “fenua,” which
word signifies land. It is applied by the natives to the placenta,
from their supposing it to be the residence of the child: on being
discharged, it is immediately buried with great care, as they have
the superstitious idea that the priests, if offended, would procure
it; and, by praying over it, occasion the death of both mother and
child, by “praying them to death,” to use their own expression.
[49] At New Zealand the women are attended, during labour,
by their husbands; but, if it is a difficult labour, they suppose the
spirits to be angry, and therefore send for the Tohunga, or priest.
On the arrival of the Tohunga, he strides over and breathes on
the woman, and then, retiring to a short distance, sits down and
prays to the spirits; if the labour terminates favourably, it is
looked upon as resulting from the influence of the Tohunga in
averting the anger of the spirits; but should the termination be
fatal, the priest is considered to have incurred the displeasure of
the spirits, and lost his influence.
[50] This animal is called “Goribun” by the Yas natives.
[51] Distance of miles in travelling in the interior of the colony
is nominal, and the time occupied in riding the distance is usually
taken into consideration; some stages seem often to be over and
others under-calculated. “Shepherd’s miles,” it is a saying in the
colony, “are short, those of stockmen long.”
[52] The different trees of the Eucalyptus genus are confused,
and require botanical arrangement: many, termed species, are
merely varieties; and the botanical characters of but few species
are accurately known.
[53] The “wire-grass” is said to indicate good soil, being found
growing in alluvial soil, in clumps, upon flats, swamps, &c.
[54] Sedge-grass is used for thatching, as well as beds for the
sheep during shearing time, after they have been washed.
[55] The “swamp oak” bears much resemblance to the larch. I
know not why this and other species of the casuarina trees have
received the colonial appellation of “oaks,” as forest-oak, swamp-
oak, she oak, &c., as they have not the slightest resemblance to
that tree in external character, unless the name may have been
given from some similarity in the wood.
[56] The granite soil at Bolam is said to injure the teeth of the
sheep, the teeth of young sheep being as much worn down by it
as in other soils is often seen in the old sheep.
[57] In February, 1833, the ship “Prince Regent” arrived at Port
Jackson, from England, with emigrants and a general cargo; she

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1 Applying Psychology to Teaching | 1

PART I Developmental Characteristics and Theories | 25

2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development | 25

PART II Student Differences and Diversity | 115

4 Understanding Student Differences | 115

PART III Learning and Thinking | 237

7 Behavioral Learning Theory: Operant Conditioning | 237

PART IV Creating a Positive Environment for Learning

11 Motivation and Perceptions of Self | 383

PART V Assessing Students’ Capabilities | 503

CHAPTER 1 Applying Psychology to Teaching | 1

1-2 How Will Learning About Educational • TAKE A STAND!

PA R T I Developmental Characteristics and Theories 25

CHAPTER 2 Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development | 25

2-2 Piaget: Cognitive Development 38 2-4 Using Technology to Promote Cognitive

• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 2–1 Summary 72

CHAPTER 3 Age-Level Characteristics | 75

• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 76 3-1d Cognitive Characteristics: Preschool and

Twelve, and Thirteen Years) 93 • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE

3-5 High School (Grades 9, 10, 11, and 12;

PA R T I I Student Differences and Diversity 115

CHAPTER 4 Understanding Student Differences | 115

Career Choice 140 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

• TAKE A STAND! • CHALLENGING ASSUMPTIONS

CHAPTER 5 Addressing Cultural and Socioeconomic Diversity | 150

5-2 Ethnicity and Social Class 156 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

• SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

CHAPTER 6 Accommodating Student Variability | 191

• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 192 • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

• TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 6–2 6-8 Using Technology to Assist Exceptional

PA R T I I I Learning and Thinking 237

CHAPTER 7 Behavioral Learning Theory: Operant Conditioning | 237

• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 238 7-2b Behavior Modiﬁcation 249

CHAPTER 8 Information-Processing Theory | 262

• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 263 Meaningfulness 271

8-3 Metacognition 283 8-4b Technology Tools for Reading 289

CHAPTER 9 Social Cognitive Theory | 294

9-2 Self-Control, Self-Regulation, • IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE

CHAPTER 10 Constructivist Learning Theory, Problem

• REVEALING ASSUMPTIONS • SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

10-1 Meaningful Learning Within a Constructivist 10-3 Transfer of Learning 371

PA R T I V Creating a Positive Environment for Learning

CHAPTER 11 Motivation and Perceptions of Self | 383

Choice of Learning Goal 388 11-5 The Role of Self-Perceptions

CHAPTER 12 Classroom Management | 421

• GUIDE TO READING AND STUDYING 422 • TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE 12–2

Program Restructuring 436 How Schools Can Address Bullying 447

• IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY: ONE • TAKE A STAND!