Lecture notes for PHY107, Fundamental Physics

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

December 14, 2023

Contents
1 Week 1: Fundamentals and Motion in 1-dimension 5
1.1 The scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Physics, Symmetry and numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Time and representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4 Motion in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.5 Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.6 Speed, velocity and vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.7 Instantaneous velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2 Week 2: Calculus and Acceleration 57

2.1 The limiting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.2 Calculus, derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.3 Derivatives rules, stationary points and Taylor series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.4 Integration and exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.6 Constant acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.7 Acceleration due to gravity, inclined planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

1
3 Week 3: Momentum 104
3.1 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.2 Inertial standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.3 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.4 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.5 Inputs and Outputs to a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.6 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.7 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4 Week 4: Energy 143

4.1 Collisions classifications and relative speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.2 Kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.3 Elastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.4 Inelastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.5 Internal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.6 Closed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.7 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.8 Explosive separations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

5 Week 5: Interactions 189

5.1 Effects of Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.2 Interaction and Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.3 Potential and source Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.4 Nondissipative interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.5 Potential energy near Earth’s surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.6 Energy dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.7 Dissipative interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.8 Interaction range and Fundamental interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

6 Week 6: Public holiday 241

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7 Week 7: Force 241
7.1 Momentum and Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.2 Equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.3 The reciprocity of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.4 Identifying forces and Translational equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.5 Free-body diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.6 Springs and tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.7 Force of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.8 Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.9 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.10 System of two (and many) interacting objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

8 Week 8: Work 293

8.1 Force displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
8.2 Positive and Negative Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.3 Energy diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.4 Choice of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.5 Work done on a single particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.6 Work done on a many particle system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.7 Variable and distributed forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.8 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

9 Week 9: Midterm exam 346

9.1 Good and Bad solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

10 Week 10: Motion in a plane 356

10.1 Straight is a relative term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
10.2 Vectors in a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
10.3 Decomposition of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.4 Friction, and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
10.5 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
10.6 Projectile motion in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

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 10.7 Collisions and Momentum in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
10.8 Work as the product of two vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
10.9 Coefficients of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

11 Week 11: Motion in a circle 414

11.1 Circular motion at constant speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.2 Forces and Circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
11.3 Rotational Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
11.4 Rotational Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
11.5 Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
11.6 Rotational inertia of extended objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

12 Week 12: Torque 464

12.1 Torque and Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
12.2 Free rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
12.3 Extended free-body diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
12.4 Conservation of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
12.5 Rolling motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
12.6 Torque and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
12.7 The vectorial nature of rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
12.8 The vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

13 Week 13: Gravity 516

13.1 Universal Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
13.2 Gravitational Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
13.3 Gravitational Potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
13.4 Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
13.5 Principle of Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
13.6 Gravity and angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
13.7 Celestial mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
13.8 Gravitational force exerted by a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

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14 Week 14: Periodic Motion 573
14.1 Periodic motion and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
14.2 Simple harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
14.3 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
14.4 Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
14.5 Simple harmonic motion and springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
14.6 Fourier’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
14.7 Restoring torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
14.8 Damped oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

15 Week 15: Waves in One dimension 620

15.1 Representing waves graphically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
15.2 Wave propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
15.3 Superposition of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
15.4 Wave functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
15.5 Boundary effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
15.6 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
15.7 Wave Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
15.8 Energy transport in waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
15.9 The wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672

5
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course
Code: PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 1
 Syllabus
Week
1. Scientific method and Motion in one dimension
2. Acceleration and Introduction to Calculus
3. Momentum*
4. Energy
5. Interactions*
6. Oct. 9 adjusted holiday, no classes
7. Force
8. Work (maybe more calculus)*
9. EXAM I (content from WK1 to WK8).
10. Motion in a 2D plane
11. Motion in a circle*
12. Torque
13. Gravity*
14. Periodic Motion
15. Waves in one dimension*
16. Special topic (Principle of Relativity)
17. Exam II (questions: 2x WK16, 1x WK15, 1x WK14)
18. Jan. 1 National Holiday (no classes)

* denotes week with homework 2

 Course Grading, evaluation criteria
• 10% Attendance, 10/13=0.769% per lecture attended.
– Part 1: Tell me or my teaching assistant your student number at the start of the lecture
– Part 2: Scan attendance QR codes during breaks and enter details.
– Inform me prior to lecture if you cannot attend due to illness/other matters

• 10% Participation in Discussion

– 1-3% for asking me questions about lectures/homework, pointing out mistakes in
lectures/Homework solutions. Also trying to get more points in marked homeworks
can also result in this (e.g. if you get a solution via a different technique or there was a
mistake in the marking).
– 5% for really good questions about physics! Note, the physics does not have to be
related to the course materials, just discussion of physics with me.

• 15% Exams in WK09 and WK18

– 7.5% for each exam.
– Exam WK09 will be on material from WK01 till WK08.
– Exam WK17 will have questions: 2x WK16, 1x WK15, 1x WK14.

• 65% Homework, handed in via Google classroom.

– Hand-in via Google Classroom (QR code next page)
– Late homeworks capped at 65%, and 0% if handed in after solutions are uploaded
– https://classroom.google.com/c/NjE3NzE3NTUwODUx?cjc=phpcnlw

3
 Google Classroom QR code
https://classroom.google.com/c/NjE3NzE3NTUwODUx?cjc=phpcnlw

4
 Information about the homeworks
They will be set via Google Classroom, and handed in as PDFs via Google Classroom!

Do note that these homeworks are quite a lot of work, and they require thinking!

Up until now a lot of your studies were to just memorize the answers and repeat
the answer, just like a parrot. The homework questions in my course are
designed to end this: you will have to explain your reasoning.

Now: why are you able to use some equation from the lecture slides?

Because the question says everything is in a vacuum (no air), so I

can ignore air resistance. Therefore, I can use equation XX from the
slides as it also ignores air resistance... (one example)

I also do not want you to have a lot of pressure from your exams! But there is a
constant workload from the homeworks; each homework is worth 10.8% of your
final grade, whereas the exams are 7.5% each.

Last year, 12 out of 50 students failed. 10 of them didn’t complete one or more homeworks!
Only 1 person passed with without completing 1 homework (obtained 61%).

11 students didn’t complete one or more homeworks, 10 of them failed!

Course is designed such that you do all the work, and you should pass.
5
 The Scientific Method

• A process of discovering objective truth behind

physical reality.
– Objective truth 客觀性: Milk tea falls to the ground.
– Subjective truth 主觀性: Taro milk tea with coconut jelly is the
best 香芋奶茶加椰果最好喝!

→ We need a common framework to determine what

is an objective truth and everything else.

6
 The Scientific Method
How scientists discover laws about Nature:
1.Make observations
2.Induce a hypothesis
3.Create a prediction based on the hypothesis
4.Test the prediction.

The goal is to find the

most fundamental laws that
govern the universe and to
formulate these laws in
the most simple and
precise way possible.

7
 The Scientific Method
Everyday example
Observation: Phone does not switch on

Hypothesis: Phone battery has no energy

Test: Charge the phone

Outcome: 1. Phone turns on 2. Phone does not turn on

Hypothesis is correct Hypothesis is wrong

= =>
New theory Refine hypothesis
and test again
8
 The Scientific Method
The iterative process of developing
models in physics is shown here:

The model is very important

because its predictions must
not be ambiguous!

Ambiguity is not science!!!

歧義不是科學!!!

Must communicate with clarity.

Languages are inherently

ambiguous, so we use maths to
communicate our ideas.
1+1=2
3 × 5 = 15, 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 𝑐2 9
 Physics
bridges
Physics fundamentally uses mathematics to describe
the physical world.

This is why you will learn a lot of maths in university.

Calculus is relevant to this course, but calculus
underpins every modern type of technology.

Buildings & planes

computers/electronics

10
All pictures are from www.pexels.com
 Symmetry 對稱
Maths is the description of patterns in numbers, whereas physics uses
maths to describe patterns in nature.

Symmetry is very widely used property in

mathematics.
Symmetry definition: An object exhibits
symmetry when certain operations
performed on it do not change its
appearance.

- In physics, the idea of symmetry applies

not only to the shape of objects but also
to physical phenomena.
- If we can alter an experiment in a way
that leaves the results of it unchanged,
then the phenomena tested by the
experiment is said to possess a certain
symmetry.
- Then any physical law that we develop
to describe the phenomena must also
possess this symmetry!

11
 Symmetry in Nature
Salt crystals Flowers

www.pexels.com
Atomic structure of salt crystals
Insects

www.pexels.com
12
 Symmetry question

What symmetry does this

shape exhibit?

13
 Symmetry question

I can rotate the snowflake by 60º or a I can fold the flake in half along any of the
multiple of 60º (120º, 180º, 240º, 300º, and three blue axes and along any of the three
360º) in the plane of the photograph without red axes in the figure above. The flake
changing its appearance (above figure). It therefore has reflection symmetry about all
therefore has rotational symmetry. six of these axes.

14
 Units of measurement
Since we are going to use maths to describe
the world, we need to assign numbers to the
world and have a common definition.

The International System of Units (SI) defines

the standard units that I will be using.
[David B. Newell; Eite Tiesinga, eds. (2019). The International System
of Units (SI)(PDF) (NIST Special publication 330, 2019 ed.).
Gaithersburg, MD: NIST..]

Symbol Name Quantity

s second time 時間
m metre length 長度
kg kilogram mass 質量
A ampere electric current 電流
K kelvin thermodynamic temperature 絕對溫度
mol mole amount of substance 物質量
cd candela luminous intensity 發光強度

15
 Units of measurement
Prefixes used in the SI unit definitions.
For example, 1kilometer = 1×103 meters.

Note the difference between m and M, for Laser from China costs 641NTD that is 100 times more powerful
example 1MW = 106 watts but 1mW = 10-3 than a laser used to shoot down missiles (Wiki: Iron beam from
watts. Israel https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Beam)

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 16
 Representation of Numbers
Significant digits: The number of digits that are
known well (the numbers after the 1st non-zero term).

0.0053 has 2 significant digits

0.302 has 3 significant digits
340000 has 6 significant digits
2.25 has 3 significant digits

Errors
20 could be 20.4 or 19.5,
hence we know 20 with an accuracy
of +/-0.5. In other words, 0.5 is
the error of our measurement.
Decimal Scientific
notation notation
Scientific notation: Non-zero numbers are 3 3×100
written as 𝑎 × 10𝑏 where 𝑎 is a non-zero 5000 5×103
real number and 𝑏 is an integer 6331.098 6.331098×103
−530600 −5.306×105
0.00642 6.42×10-3 17
 Physical quantities
The mole (abbreviated mol) is the SI base unit that measures the quantity of a given
substance.
The mole is defined as the number of atoms in 12×10–3 kg of the most common form of
carbon, carbon-12.
– This number is called the Avogadro number NA, and the currently accepted experimental
value of NA is 6.0221413×1023.

An important concept used in physics is density:

– Density measures how much of some substance there is
in a given volume.

The number of objects per unit volume is called number

density (n). If there are N objects in volume V, then:
𝑛 ≡𝑁
𝑉

Mass density 𝜌 is the amount of mass m per unit volume:

𝜌 ≡𝑚
𝑉

Can also be surface density, ie. number of transistors

on a CPU chip.

18
 How many transistors in a CPU?
How many transistors can you fit in a A = 1.2×1.2mm area when the transistors are of
side length s = (i) 130nm (ii) 32nm (iii) 7nm size? What is their corresponding surface
densities?
Note, these correspond to the transistor sizes from 2002, 2010 and 2019.

Total Area Area of each

Number of Total Area
transistor =
Transistors Area of 1 transistor

A s X =
𝐴
=
1.2mm × 1.2mm
1.2mm

𝑠 2(130nm)2
s 8.52 × 107 for 𝑠 = 130nm
1.2mm
= 1.41 × 109 for 𝑠 = 32nm
2.94 × 1010 for 𝑠 = 7nm
Surface density is just number of transistors divided by
total area, or inverse of area of 1 transistor.
Surface 1 5.92 × 1013 m−2 for 𝑠 = 130nm
= = 9.67 × 1014 m−2 for 𝑠 = 32nm
Density Area of 1 transistor
2.04 × 1016 m−2 for 𝑠 = 7nm
19
Scale of the universe

20
 Time 時間
Really difficult to define with certainty,
beyond than just the location of the sun
and the moon on the horizon.

Some events happen than can not be

reversed, ie. cannot flow back in time.
For example: farting next to your wife ⇒
injury & death.
Image from www.pexels.com

Time only flows forward. An idea used in

thermodynamics (entropy).

Principle of causality 因果關係: Whenever an event A causes

event B, all observers see event A happen first.

This is a relationship between different events.

For example: tree grows → apple grows → apple falls on ground.

21
Time of the universe

22
 Representations
An essential first step in solving a problem is to
make some visual representation of the available
information.
Then create the mathematical representation of
the problem, and finally solve.

The drawing must help you understand the

problem, and organize the information in a more
meaningful way.

You must choose the correct level representation

of the problem.

good enough for

google maps.

Detailed calculation Will object (cow)

of cow area fit in somewhere
23
 Representations, example of
usefulness
Make a seating plan where Husband-A does not like Wife-
B or Husband-C, Wife-C does not like Husband-D and Make the seating plan
Wife-D wants to sit next to Wife-A. All pairs of Husbands in your head without
and Wives must sit next to each other, ie. Husband-A and drawing anything.
Wife-A must be next to each other.

1) Represent all the 2) Draw the seating plan

constrains
HA ↛ W B W A → HA WA WD
HA ↛ HC W B → HB HA
HD
W C ↛ HD W C → HC
W D → HD HB
HC
WD → WA
WB
WC
Wife D and Wife A
have two people they
must sit next to 24
 Representations and data presentation
Extracting useful information from the problem/question: 1 2
One end of a spring is attached to a horizontal rod so that the spring
hangs vertically, and a ruler is hung vertically alongside the spring. The
stretching properties of the spring are to be measured by attaching eight
identical beads to the spring’s free end. With no beads attached, the free
end of the spring is at a ruler reading of 23.4 mm. With one bead

3
attached, the end of the spring drops to 25.2 mm. When the second,
third, and fourth beads are attached one at a time, the end drops to ruler
readings of 26.5 mm, 29.1 mm, and 30.8 mm, respectively. Adding the
fifth and sixth beads together moves the spring end to 34.3 mm, and
adding the last two beads moves the end to 38.2 mm.

Table Graph
Sketch

25
 Chapter 2:
Motion in One Dimension

Chapter Goal: To develop the description of motion in one dimension

from both graphical and mathematical perspectives. Physicists call this
topic kinematics 運動學.

26
 Kinematics 運動學
• The branch of physics that deals with the
quantitative representation of motion is
called kinematics.

• Kinematics provides a mathematical

description of motions. It does not
however, consider the cause and effect of
the motion. This is done at a later stage
of this course.

You will learn to

• Visualize the motion of objects in one dimension in several situations using
the “frame sequence 幀數序列” diagram and by using motion graphs.
• Correlate the information about motion contained in “frame sequence”
diagrams and motion graphs.
• Understand how a reference axis allows for the precise determination of
physical information about motion.

27
Note, 幀校驗序列 is NOT what I am talking about!
 From reality to model
To analyze the motion of an object, we need to
keep track of the object’s position at different
instants:
– If the position does not change the object is at
rest.
– If the position changes the object is moving.

Let us analyze the motion of a man walking by

studying the film clip shown in the figure.

As a first step we need to establish:

A reference axis—an imaginary straight line along
the ground.

An origin—an arbitrarily chosen reference point,

the (0,0) point, along our reference axis. We
choose the left edge of the frame in the figure.

Now using a ruler you can determine the position

of the man in each frame measure from the origin.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 28
 From reality to model

We can turn our measurements

from the ruler into a table

Your measurements are your

observations of this physical
reality.

This is you assigning numbers to

your observations.

幀率 = 3 frames/sec 29
 From reality to model
• The same information can be shown graphically:
– The man’s position relative to the origin is plotted along the vertical axis.
– The horizontal axis represents the frame numbers.

It is incredibly important to be
able to read a graph, and
know what it is telling you.

What is the horizontal and

vertical axis?
Then what is the data doing
and how does that relate to
physical reality?

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 30
 From reality to model
The current axis do not represent reality.
“Distance on ruler” and “frame number” are not
something that mean anything to anyone else.

We need to relate them back to things that have

meaning to others. This is the SI system units,
ie. need to convert to meters and seconds.

This is done with calibration 校準.

How can you calibrate “frame number” to time in

seconds and “distance from left edge” to length
in meters?
We can put markers on the ground and a clock in the
camera’s field of view.
OR

Use the height of the man to calculate the real world

positions and the frame rate of the camera (幀率).

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 31
 Calibration 校準
1. Put markers on the ground and a clock in
the camera’s field of view.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Use the height of the man to calculate the

real world positions and the frame rate (幀
率) of the camera .

1.8m
camera frame rate = 3 frames/second
man’s height = 1.8meters 1.8m 1.8m 1.8m

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 32
 Calibration 校準
We can now update our table values and
thus update the axis values on our graph.

The figure shows the resulting calibrated data

in graphical form referred to as a position-
versus-time graph.
– The vertical axis is position (x).
– The horizontal axis is time (t).
– The choice of origin is arbitrary.
rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 33
 Different points of Origin 原點
Original origin point Modified origin point

The origin point is our (0,0) point on the graph. It can be arbitrarily chosen and it
does not affect the relative positions of data points as seen in the figures above.

Usually the (0,0) point is chosen to be the most convenient mathematically or to

show the data in a nice way.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 34
 Displacement 位移
The arrow pointing from the initial position of an
object to its final position represents a physical
quantity called the displacement of the object.

Displacement does not depend on the choice of

reference axis or origin.

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥final − 𝑥initial

• The x component of an object’s displacement is the change in its x

coordinate.
• The value of the x component of the displacement is obtained by
subtracting the initial x coordinate from the final x coordinate and is
independent of the choice of origin:
– The x component of displacement is measured along some
specific x axis.
– The x component of displacement can be negative or positive.
rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 35
 Distance traveled Distance
traveled

The distance traveled is the distance

covered by a moving object along the path
of its motion, and distance traveled is always
positive.
𝑥initial
Real life example from Google maps

Displacement can be thought of the as the

path taken by a bird.
Distance traveled is the total length of the
path traveled by a human (without climbing

𝛥𝑥
walls etc, etc...).
𝑥final

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 36
 Representing motion
• A complete representation of the
motion of the man should allow us to
determine his positions between
frames.
• This can be achieved by interpolating
插值 data points in the position-
versus-time graph, as seen in the
figure.

Here is the relation between the

graph and video clip of man walking

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 37
 What are these motions?
An object moving away
from the origin at
constant speed for one-
third of the time, then
continuing in the same
direction at a slower
constant. Finally, the
object turns backwards at
faster speed.

An object moving away from

the origin at constant speed

An object moving toward

the origin, then pausing
halfway between its
starting point and the
origin, then continuing
(more slowly) toward the
origin

An object at rest a certain

distance from the origin rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 38
 Graphical representation
A position-versus-time graph representing the motion of an Use the graph to obtain the object’s
object. The curve, which shows the position of the object at position at t = 0.5, 0.75 and 1.1 s.
any instant between t = 0 and t = 1.2 s, can be represented
by the mathematical function x(t) = a + bt + ct2, where a = 0.50 1. Draw vertical lines at require t values.
m, b = +2.0 m/s, and c = -2.0 m/s2.
2. Draw horizontal lines where vertical
lines intersect 交點 the x(t) curve.

3. Read the values on the scale.

1.0

Use the equation in order to object’s

position at the same t values.
0.88
Substituting t = 0.5 s into the function, I find for
the position at t = 0.5 s: x(t=0.5 s) = 0.5 m +
(+2.0 m/s)(0.5 s) + (-2.0m/s2)(0.5 s)2 = +1.0 m.
0.25
x(t=0.75 s) = 0.875 m,
x(t=1.1 s) = 0.28 m.

Notice the 2nd solution for x=0.875 m. It arises from the quadratic formula
−𝑏± 𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 =
2𝑎
39
 Reality check
In physics, we often need to do a reality check and see if our solution makes sense.
In other words, is our mathematical solution something that can exist in reality?

× ×
Which two of these graphs can not exist in reality?

🗸 🗸
The two graphs with × are not possible in reality. They require the object to be at two or three places at
the same time. You can be at the same location at different times, for example you are in your bed
when you wake up in the morning, then in the evening you go to sleep in your bed.

HINT 提示
Principle of causality 因果關係: Whenever an event A causes event B, all
observers see event A happen first.
Relationship between different events.
40
For example: tree grows → apple grows → apple falls on ground.
 Average Speed 速率 and Velocity 速度
- The next step in describing the motion of the man is to
determine the average speed of the motion.
- The rate at which the x-versus-t curve rises with increasing
time is called the slope/gradient 斜率 of the curve.
- Notice slower speed flatter slope/gradient.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 41
 Average Speed 速率 and Velocity 速度
An objects average speed is the distance
traveled divided by the time interval required to
travel that distance.
Curve 1 shows that the man travels a total
distance of 2.4 m in 6.0 s:
Average speed = (2.4 m)/(6.0 s) = 0.4 m/s.

Curve 2 shows that the man travels a total

distance of 5.2 m in 6.0 s:
Average speed = (5.2 m)/(6.0 s) = 0.87 m/s.

However, curve 1 was not the path taken by the

man thus this is wrong. His average speed was
0.87 m/s.
Curve 1
Walk slowly forward from
Speed does not have a direction, but you can beginning to end.
see that in curve 2 the man was walking
backwards. We can see this from Δx=-0.58
which is a negative number. Curve 2
Walk quickly forward, pause, then
Whereas velocity does have a direction. As a backtrack slowly to the end.
result speed is always greater than or equal to
zero 𝑠 ≥ 0, but velocity can be negative. This
indicates that we are doing backwards. 42
 Vectors 向量 and Scalars 標量
Scalars: Physical Quantities that are completely specified by a
number, which can be positive or negative, and a unit of Math notation
measure. 𝑎 scalar
- Examples: Temperature, volume
- Scalars follow ordinary arithmetic laws (add, subtract, etc).
𝑏 vector
Vectors: Physical quantities that are completely specified by a
magnitude and a direction in space.

The magnitude of a vector tells us how much there is of that 𝑏 = 𝑏, magnitude

vector (or the size of the vector):
- Magnitude is always positive. of a vector

To specify vectors mathematically we introduce unit vectors:

- Unit vectors have a magnitude of 1.
- A unit vector pointing in the positive x direction is denoted by î, with a
definition of

Examples

43
 Vectors 向量 and Scalars 標量
Here, bx is a scalar called the x component of the vector 𝑏. bx is
negative if the vector points in the negative x direction.

For vectors in 1-D, the magnitude of the vector 𝑏 is equal to the

absolute value of bx.

Example use of a unit vector in the earlier frame

44
 Position and displacement vectors
Displacement can be represented graphically by an arrow
that points from an object’s initial to final position.
- We denote displacement by Δx, where Δ means “the
change in.” and Δ is the Greek letter “delta”.

The x component of displacement is Δrx = Δx and

Δx = xf – xi,
where xi and xf are initial and final positions.

The distance between initial and final points is:

d ≡ ǀx1 – x2ǀ (one dimension)

We can just multiply by our unit vector to obtain the change

in position as a 1D-vector. Properties of adding and
Δxî = (xf – xi)î = Δrxî = Δ𝑟. subtracting vectors, graphical aid.

Consequently our position vector is defined as

𝑟 ≡ xî = rxî (one dimension).

Similarly for our final and initial positions rf and ri

∆𝑟 = 𝑟f − 𝑟i (one dimension).

45
 Velocity as a vector
velocity vs time
From the discussion in slides 37 and 38, the
x component of average velocity is
change between final
∆𝑥 𝑥f − 𝑥i
𝑣𝑥,av ≡ = and initial positions
∆𝑡 𝑡f − 𝑡i change between final
and initial time readings

Then vector velocity is simply

∆𝑟
𝑣𝑥,av ≡ 𝑣𝑥,av î=
∆𝑡
Note that ∆𝑡 is always positive since time
position vs time
can only flow forward.

Constant velocity
If an object moves at a constant velocity, then
the position-versus-time graph is a straight line.
Because the slope of a straight line is a constant
𝑣𝑥,av = 𝑣𝑥
Area under the velocity-vs-time graph tells us
the position.
46
 Non-constant (changing) velocity
Consider a ball falling The figure shows the successive position of a ball falling
at 0.0300 s intervals, so ∆𝑡=0.03 s in our measurements
and we have a ruler to measure its position.
We want to be able to find the velocity as the ball passes
any position in its motion, that is the instantaneous
velocity.
Let us start by first finding the average velocity between
positions 2 and 9, given by equation:
𝑥9 − 𝑥2
𝑣 𝑥,29 =
𝑡9 − 𝑡2
What happens if I start to
measure between smaller
and time intervals?

By reducing the time

interval Δt you can get
closer to the velocity at
position 2.

47
Instantaneous velocity
Letting Δt approach zero, we obtain the x component
of the velocity at instant t:

∆𝑥
𝑣 𝑥, ≡ lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The right side of the equation is the definition for the

derivative, so
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥, ≡
𝑑𝑡
Or in words, the instantaneous velocity of an object is the
time-derivative of its position vector.

48
Symbols and their meaning

49
50
51
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course
Code: PHY102F
Week 02

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 1
 Course Grading, evaluation criteria
• 10% Attendance, 10/13=0.769% per lecture attended.
– Part 1: Tell me or my teaching assistant your student number at the start of the lecture
– Part 2: Scan attendance QR codes during breaks and enter details.
– Inform me prior to lecture if you cannot attend due to illness/other matters

• 10% Participation in Discussion

– 1-3% for asking me questions about lectures/homework, pointing out mistakes in
lectures/Homework solutions. Also trying to get more points in marked homeworks
can also result in this (e.g. if you get a solution via a different technique or there was a
mistake in the marking).
– 5% for really good questions about physics! Note, the physics does not have to be
related to the course materials, just discussion of physics with me.

• 15% Exams in WK09 and WK18

– 7.5% for each exam.
– Exam WK09 will be on material from WK01 till WK08.
– Exam WK17 will have questions: 2x WK16, 1x WK15, 1x WK14.

• 65% Homework, handed in via Google classroom.

– Hand-in via Google Classroom (QR code next page)
– Late homeworks capped at 65%, and 0% if handed in after solutions are uploaded
– https://classroom.google.com/c/NjE3NzE3NTUwODUx?cjc=phpcnlw

2
 Google Classroom QR code
https://classroom.google.com/c/NjE3NzE3NTUwODUx?cjc=phpcnlw

3
 Course grading, Participation in Discussion
10% of your grade is determined by discussion in class.
you can get 1-3% added to your score for asking 1 normal question. ie. if you just ask me for help
with a homework question, I will add 1-3% to your grade. Max 5% in one attempt.
You can also get points for pointing out mistakes in the lectures/solutions.
Just discussing physics with me will also give you points.

Why is it important to have discussion in classroom? Or, why

do you need to learn to ask me questions?
蔣中正
Asking critical questions is essential to have an innovative
society, and this is some the older Taiwan generation do not
have thus preventing Taiwan from having an innovative
society like the USA or UK.

Example: TSMC makes 80% of the critical components in an

iPhone however they get ~20% the value of an iPhone for
each sale. Apple get’s ~70% (the rest is on shipping and
minor packaging).

Apple designs the CPU and tells TSMC to make it, just makes
it without question. The reason is that the old Taiwan
generation is very loyal and obedient because they grew up
under Chiang Kai-Shek

4
 Course grading, Participation in Discussion
Chiang Kai-shek created a society where loyalty and You guys live in a different society! You can ask
obedience was prioritized over competence (he had to questions and make jokes about the president.
else the R.O.C would have fallen to the Japanese, so I
If you ask me the wrong question, the worst that
am not criticizing him).
can happen is “prof Rayko ignores you”.
But this meant the older Taiwanese generation never But in reality, prof Rayko will try to tell you why
question their superiors: asking the wrong question this is the wrong question and teach you how to
during the Chiang Kai-shek era could result in you going ask the correct question.
to prison.
Asking questions to others allows for a better more
This prevents innovation as follows: All decisions are efficient propagation of knowledge (from the
made by the top-leader (CEO in a company) and no one bottom back to the top).
can question the decision.
But do it in a respectful manner!
Example: Taiwan’s HTC, CEO makes a stupid decision and no
one can stop him (fired the people that questioned him)

5
 Course grading, Participation in Discussion
Last year many students were too scared to speak to me due to Taiwanese culture;
maybe you will offend me by saying something slightly wrong.

However, I am Bulgarian and Eastern European culture is

very direct, so it is very difficult for you to insult me. I have
very thick skin.

Example: 20 year old Rayko goes back to Bulgaria to visit

his grandmother.

Rayko’s grandmother
at the airport Rayko! You are losing your hair
and you’ve lost soo much weight
you look like stick figure. No girl
will ever marry you!!! Thanks for the info, but I
tried changing my shampoo
Oh how much I have missed you and hair is still falling out :/
*starts crying*

Learning to discuss physics/complex thoughts is very important!

Quick Recap from last Week

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 7
 Non-constant (changing) velocity
Consider a ball falling The figure shows the successive position of a ball falling
at 0.0300 s intervals, so ∆𝑡=0.03 s in our measurements
and we have a ruler to measure its position.
We want to be able to find the velocity as the ball passes
any position in its motion, that is the instantaneous
velocity.
Let us start by first finding the average velocity between
positions 2 and 9, given by equation:
𝑥9 − 𝑥2
𝑣 𝑥,29 =
𝑡9 − 𝑡2
What happens if I start to
measure between smaller
and time intervals?

By reducing the time

interval Δt you can get
closer to the velocity at
position 2.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 8
Instantaneous velocity
Letting Δt approach zero, we obtain the x component
of the velocity at instant t:

∆𝑥
𝑣 𝑥 ≡ lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The right side of the equation is the definition for the

derivative, so
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 ≡
𝑑𝑡
Or in words, the instantaneous velocity of an object is the
time-derivative of its position vector.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 9
 Instantaneous velocity from Position
Suppose the x coordinate of the position of an object moving along the x axis varies in time
according to the expression x(t) = ct3, where c is a constant. Derive an expression for the x
component of the instantaneous velocity as a function of time.

1. Think of the ways to solve this problem. 3. Verify the answer

𝑑𝑥
One is to use calculus, ie 𝑣 𝑥 ≡ . The second method is to find the Method 1 and method 2
𝑑𝑡
velocity over Δt and then just let ∆𝑡 → 0. Doing it over both methods give the same answer. We
must be correct!
is very important because then we can verify if our solution is
correct.
Checking your answers is
essential in the real-world!
2. Solve
Method 1: from the calculus equation 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑑 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑑 𝑐𝑡3 = 3𝑐𝑡2.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Imagine if the engineer
Method 2: Find 𝑣𝑥 in terms of Δt and let ∆𝑡 → 0. said “I didn’t check if my
We know the initial and final positions are 𝑥i = 𝑐𝑡3i and 𝑥f = solutions were correct,
𝑐(𝑡i + Δ𝑡)3. but the bridge is safe”
𝑥 f−𝑥 i 𝑐(𝑡 i+Δ𝑡) 3−𝑐𝑡 3i
Therefore the average velocity is just 𝑣𝑥,av = ∆𝑥 = = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑡 3i+3𝑡 2i𝛥𝑡+3𝑡 i(Δ𝑡) 2+(Δ𝑡) 3 −𝑡 3i
𝑐 .
∆𝑡
To get the instantaneous we just need to let ∆𝑡 → 0 hence we get
that 𝑣𝑥 = lim 𝑣𝑥,av = lim 𝑐(3𝑡2i + 3𝑡i Δ𝑡 + (Δ𝑡) 2)=3𝑐𝑡2 .
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡→0

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 10
 The limiting process
Consider again the expression x(t) = ct3, where c=+0.12m/s3. Get the average
velocity as ∆𝑡 → 0 at t=1 s.
Start by letting 𝑡i=1 s and 𝑡f =2 s then Δ𝑡 = 𝑡f − 𝑡i = 2 s − 1 s = 1 s.
Then, we need to evaluate ∆𝑥
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥f − 𝑥i = (+ 0.12 m/s 3 ) × (2 s)3 − (1 s)3 = + 0.84 m 𝑣𝑥,av = = 0.84 m/s
∆𝑡
Similarly for 𝑡i=1 s and 𝑡f =1.1 s then Δ𝑡 = 0.1 s.
Then, we need to evaluate ∆𝑥
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥f − 𝑥i = (+ 0.12 m/s 3 ) × (1.1 s) 3 − (1 s)3 = + 0.03972 m 𝑣𝑥,av = = 0.3972 m/s
∆𝑡

From the calculus on the

previous slide we get
𝑑
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑡2
𝑑𝑡
= 3(+ 0.12 m/s 3 ) × (1 s)2

= 0.36 m/s

11
 Some problem
Find the instantaneous velocity of this function

The solution will involve calculus, so if you have not studied

calculus the rest of this course will be a problem.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 12
 Calculus 微積分
Continuous function 𝑓(𝑥)
example

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined and continuous at all

x if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) for all x.
𝑥→𝑎

If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is not defined at x0, then it is

not continuous.

sin (𝑥)
For example:𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
This function is not defined at 𝑥 = 0

𝑥2−1 𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑓 𝑥 = is also not defined at 𝑥 = 1 = = (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 (𝑥 − 1)
but can we find the limit lim 𝑓(𝑥)?
𝑥2−1
𝑥→1
Therefore lim →2
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 13
 Derivative 導數
Graphical examples

These are some examples

of how f(t) and below is its
derivative with respect to t.

Discontinuous at t=0
This one has
asymptotes 漸近線

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 14
 Derivative of trigonometric functions
𝑑sin (𝑡)
What is ?
𝑑𝑡

Observe the gradient at

t={0, π/2, π, 3π/2, 2π}.

You can see that it is

{+ve, 0, -ve, 0, +ve}

𝑑 sin (𝑡)
= cos (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 15
 Derivative of trigonometric functions
𝑑cos (𝑡)
What is ?
𝑑𝑡

Observe the gradient at

t={0, π/2, π, 3π/2, 2π}.

You can see that it is

{0, -ve, 0, +ve, 0}

𝑑 cos (𝑡)
= − sin (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Note, this is not a rigorous derivation of how to

obtain this. However, the idea is to give an
intuitive idea of what might be the answer. This
is an important first step, to get an idea of what
might be the solution to a problem.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 16
 Derivatives rules
Derivatives of common functions Derivatives of sums, products, and functions of functions

𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑑 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) 𝑎×𝑓 𝑡 =𝑎
𝑑𝑡 1. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑡3 3𝑎𝑡2 𝑑 𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑔(𝑡)
2. 𝑓 𝑡 +𝑔 𝑡 = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑡𝑛 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑔(𝑡)
3. 𝑓 𝑡 ×𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑡) + 𝑓(𝑡)
cos (𝑡) − sin (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
sin (𝑡) cos (𝑡) 𝑑 𝑑 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑 𝑢
4. 𝑓 𝑢 = (Chain rule)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
tan (𝑡) 1/cos2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑛 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑒𝑎𝑡 5. 𝑓 𝑢 = … 𝑓 𝑢
𝑑𝑡𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ln (𝑎𝑡) 1/𝑡 𝑑
n times uses of
𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 ln (𝑎)
These are the maths rules that you will be expected to use in the future of this
course. You will also learn them more rigorously in your calculus course. 17
 Derivatives examples
𝑑
(𝑡3 + 4𝑡) × (− 6𝑡2 + 𝑡) = (− 6𝑡2 + 𝑡) 𝑑(𝑡 + 4𝑡) + (𝑡3 + 4𝑡) 𝑑(− 6𝑡 + 𝑡)
3 2

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 = (− 6𝑡2 + 𝑡)(3𝑡2 + 4) + (𝑡3 + 4𝑡)(− 12𝑡 + 1)
This is evaluated via rule 3
= − 30𝑡4 + 4𝑡3 − 72𝑡2 + 8𝑡

𝑑 𝑑 sin (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 sin (𝑢) 𝑑(𝑡3 + 𝑎𝑡)

sin (𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡) =
3
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡

Let 𝑢 = 𝑡 3 + 𝑎𝑡 then use = cos (𝑢) 3𝑡2 + 𝑎 = (3𝑡2 + 𝑎) cos (𝑡3 + 𝑎𝑡)
the rule 4 (the chain rule)

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 18
 Stationary points 駐點
A stationary points occurs
when 𝑑𝑦 = 0 or In other
𝑑𝑡
words, the tangent at that
curve is horizontal.

There are two types of

stationary points: Minimum
point and Maximum point.
The minimum point occurs
at the function minimum,
and the same for the
maximum point. Notice the
sign of 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 on either side
of the stationary point.
2𝑦 2𝑦
If 𝑑 > 0 local minimum If 𝑑 < 0 local maximum
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

Example: Find the stationary point of 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 3𝑡 + 4. This means to find where 𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) = 0.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) Therefore 𝑡0 = 1.5, from this we get
= 2𝑡 − 3 2𝑡 − 3 = 0.
𝑑𝑡 that 𝑓 𝑡0 = 1.75
𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑡)
= 2 > 0 so minimum
𝑑𝑡 2

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 19
 Taylor series expansion
This series is used in making (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )1 (1) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 (2)
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 (0)
𝑥0 + 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑓 𝑥0 + …
many approximations about the 1! 2!
real-world. By introducing more ∞
terms, the more accurate the (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 (𝑛) 𝑛𝑓 𝑥
= 𝑓 𝑥0 , where 𝑓(𝑛) 𝑥0 ≡ 𝑑
approximation. 𝑛! 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑥0
How many terms are needed to 𝑛=0
give a good approximation?

Example: Small angle approximation sin 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 for 𝜃 < 5°

(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )1 (1) (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )2 (2) (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )3 (3)

sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃0 + sin 𝜃0 + sin 𝜃0 + sin 𝜃0 + …
1! 2! 3!

(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )1 (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )2 (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )3
= sin 𝜃0 + cos 𝜃0 + (− sin 𝜃0 ) + − cos 𝜃0 +…
1! 2! 3!

𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3
=0 + 1 + −0 + −1 +…
1! 2! 3!

𝜃1 𝜃3 𝜃5
= − + −… ≅𝜃 Note, θ has to be evaluated in radians!
1 6 120

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 20
 Integration 積分
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that integration and
differentiation are inverses of each other, for 𝑓(𝑡) is a continuous function.

𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Indefinite integrals: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥)

If A(x) is an indefinite integral of f(x), then so is A(x) + c, where c is any constant. Thus,
it is customary when evaluating indefinite integrals to add a “constant of integration” c.
𝑏
𝑏
Definite integrals: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑏 − 𝐴(𝑎) ≡𝐴(𝑥) 𝑎
𝑎
Integration gives the area under a curve.
Examples:
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏
(𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
3 2
𝑎
𝑎𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛+1 for 𝑛 ≠ − 1
𝑛+1
21
 Integration by substitution
The reverse to the chain rule for differentiation is called “integration by
substitution”, and can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards".

Example: (𝑥3 + 𝑎)5 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎,

𝑑𝑢
this mean that = 3𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
𝑢5 𝑑𝑢 or in alternative form 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
= (𝑥3 + 𝑎)5 (3𝑥2 )𝑑𝑥
3
1 1 𝑢6 (𝑥3 + 𝑎)6
= (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 =
5
+𝑐 = +𝑐
3 3 6 18

Example: 𝑥 cos (𝑥2 + 𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑎,

𝑑𝑢
this mean that = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 or in alternative form 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
1
= cos (𝑥2 + 𝑎) (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1
= cos (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝑐 = sin 𝑥2 + 𝑎 + 𝑐
2 2 2

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 22
 Integration by parts

𝑑𝑓 𝑡 ×𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑔(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑡) + 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑔(𝑡)
𝑓 𝑡 ×𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

We can rearrange to obtain that

𝑑𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑔(𝑡)
𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 × 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Although the most

common notation is 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
where 𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑡 and 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑡 with the same for 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑡 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 23
 Integration by parts
Example: 𝑥 sin (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 We let 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = sin (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

so therefore 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑣 =∫ sin (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥

Tabular integration by parts

= 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑛 𝑢
= 𝑥(− cos (𝑥) ) − (− cos (𝑥) )𝑑𝑥 𝑛 … 𝑣𝑑𝑥 …𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥𝑛
= − 𝑥 cos (𝑥) + sin (𝑥) + 𝑐 0 𝑥 sin (𝑥)
×+
1
1 1 − cos (𝑥)
×−
1
2 0 − sin (𝑥)

𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 cos (𝑥) + sin (𝑥) + 𝑐

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 24
 Integration by parts
Example: 𝑥3 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑛 𝑢
𝑛 … 𝑣𝑑𝑥 …𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥𝑛

𝑥3 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 𝑥3 𝑒𝑥 − 3𝑥2 𝑒𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑒𝑥 − 6𝑒𝑥 0 𝑥3 × + 𝑒𝑥

1
= (𝑥3 − 3𝑥2 + 6𝑥 − 6)𝑒𝑥 1 3𝑥2 × −
𝑒𝑥
1

2 6𝑥 × + 𝑒𝑥
This tabular integration by parts is used when 1
you need to keep using the original integration 3 6 𝑒𝑥
by parts over and over again until you end up × −
1
you have an integral you can solve without
using integration by parts. 4 0 𝑒𝑥

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 25
List of integrals

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 26
 Exponential function
This is the definition of the ∞
exponential function. 𝑥𝑘 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑒𝑥 = exp 𝑥 ≡ =1+𝑥+ + + +…
𝑘=0
𝑘! 2 6 24

exp (𝑥) is used in programming

∞
𝑑 𝑒𝑥 𝑑 𝑥𝑘 𝑑 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
= = 1+𝑥+ + + +…
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘=0
𝑘! 𝑑𝑥 2 6 24
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
=0+1+2 +3 +4 +…
2 6 24
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
=1+𝑥+ + + +…
2 6 24
= 𝑒𝑥

𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑥 1
= 𝑎𝑒𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑎
27
Logarithms and Exponents

28
 Acceleration 加速度

Chapter Goal: To extend the description of motion in one dimension to

include changes in velocity. This type of motion is called acceleration.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 29
 Acceleration 加速度
𝑑𝑣𝑥
Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎 𝑥î
respect to time. This is the instantaneous acceleration. We also have 𝑑𝑡
the average acceleration, which has a similar definition as the Δ𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑥,i
average velocity. Acceleration is also a vector, so it has a direction. 𝑎𝑥,av ≡ =
Δ𝑡 𝑡f − 𝑡i
Real-life situation Position vs time graph

𝑎𝑥 > 0

𝑎𝑥 < 0

𝑎𝑥 > 0
30
 Acceleration 加速度
The x component of the velocity of a car changes from –10 m/s to –2.0 m/s
in 10 s.

(a) Is the car traveling in the positive or negative x direction?

(b) Does Δ𝑣 point in the positive or negative x direction?
(c) Is the x component of the car’s acceleration positive or negative?
(d) Is the car speeding up or slowing down (change in speed)?

a) 𝑣 f = − 2.0 m/s therefore it is still traveling in the negative direction

b) Δ𝑣 = 𝑣 f − 𝑣 i = (− 2.0 m/s) − (− 10 m/s) = + 8.0 m/s there it is pointing in the

+ve direction.

c) Δ𝑣 = 𝑣f−𝑣i = +8.0 m/s = 0.8 m/s 2 so it is +ve.

𝑡 f−𝑡 i 10 s

d) Speed has no direction, so it is slowing down. Its speed is going from 10 m/s to
2.0 m/s

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 31
 Motion questions
The figure shows a graph of
position as a function of time for
an object moving along a
horizontal surface.
At which of the labeled positions is
the object’s speed constant?

At point E, because the object is

at rest (not moving) thus its
speed is constant (not changing)

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 32
 Motion questions
The figure shows a graph of
position as a function of time for
an object moving along a
horizontal surface.
What is happening at point A?

Car 2 is overtaking car 1.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 33
 Constant acceleration
Δ𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑥,i
The acceleration is defined as 𝑎𝑥 ≡ =
Δ𝑡 𝑡f − 𝑡i
∆𝑥 𝑥f − 𝑥i
Which has a very similar definition as the 𝑣𝑥 ≡ =
velocity.
∆𝑡 𝑡f − 𝑡i

Now let us consider the motion of an object with

constant acceleration and obtain its position:
For motion with constant acceleration, ax,av = ax and thus
the 𝑣𝑥,av (𝑡) curve is a straight line.

We can also re-arrange the 𝑎 𝑥,av definition to obtain

𝑣 𝑥,f = 𝑣 𝑥,i + 𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑡

Next recall that the position of an object is the area under

the velocity curve.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 34
 Constant acceleration
We need to get the area under the velocity curve.

We integrate 𝑣 𝑥.
Integration gives the area under a curve, and you can
approximate the area but calculating the area of many
rectangles of width δt and then summing all the rectangles
up. I can improve the approximation making the width
smaller and smaller. This is a idea behind the Riemann
sum (you will learn about it in Calculus course).

Here we can just calculate the area of the

triangle and the rectangle.

Area of triangle:
1
𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i 𝑡f − 𝑡i = 1 Δ𝑣 𝑥 Δ𝑡 = 1 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2
2 2 2

Area of rectangle:
𝑣 𝑥,i − 0 𝑡f − 𝑡i = 𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡

1
Hence the displacement is 𝑥 f − 𝑥 i = 𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑥 (Δ𝑡) 2
2

1
Final position of the object 𝑥 f = 𝑥 i + 𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑥 (Δ𝑡) 2
2 35
 Constant acceleration
𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
From calculus we know that 𝑣(𝑡) = and that 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Therefore we know that 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑎(𝑡)𝑑𝑡, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Let’s say we have a constant acceleration 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑎, then we get that

𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑡
1
= ( 𝑎𝑡2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐)
2
thus we can see that 𝑏 = 𝑣 𝑥,i and that 𝑐 = 𝑥i from the previous page.

This is a simple showcase of how physics gives physical meaning to

mathematics.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 36
Basic types of motion

37
 Collision 碰撞 or not?
You are bicycling at a steady 6.0 m/s when someone suddenly walks
into your path 2.5 m ahead. You immediately apply the brakes, which

Im
po
slow you down at 6.0 m/s2.

rta
n
tp
Do you stop in time to avoid a collision?

ar
ts
?
The problem requires you to calculate the stopping distance with
a deceleration of 6.0 m/s2.

We know that 𝑣𝑥,i = 6 m/s, 𝑣𝑥,f = 0 m/s and 𝑎𝑥 = − 6 m/s2. Δ𝑣 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i
𝑎𝑥 ≡ =
So with definition of acceleration we can calculate the time it Δ𝑡 𝑡f − 𝑡i
takes to stop, ie. Δt.
𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i
Δ𝑡 =
𝑎𝑥
Evaluate if the result makes sense
Then we need to use 𝑥f = 𝑥i + 𝑣𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 with 𝑥i =
2 Because ax = –6.0 m/s2, your speed decreases by
0 m in order to calculate the final distance. 6.0 m/s each 1 s, and so it takes 1 s to come to a
stop from your initial speed of 6.0 m/s. Because
2
𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i 1 𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i 𝑣 2𝑥,f − 𝑣 2𝑥,i your speed is decreasing, you travel less than 6.0
𝑥f = 𝑣 𝑥,i + 𝑎𝑥 = m, but without carrying out the calculation, I can’t
𝑎𝑥 2 𝑎𝑥 2𝑎𝑥 tell whether or not that distance is less than 2.5 m.
All I can really say is that my answer should be
(0 m/s)2 − (6 m/s)2 less than 6.0 m, which it is.
𝑥f = =3m So I crash...
2(− 6 m/s 2 )
38
 Acceleration due to gravity
The magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity is
designated by the letter 𝑔, and it is defined as If we drop an object its position
1
𝑔 ≡ 𝑎free fall . is given by 𝑥 f = 𝑥 i + 𝑔𝑡2f
2
and velocity by 𝑣 f = − 𝑔𝑡 f
Near the Earth’s surface 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s . It’s direction is always
2
downwards and negative if we chose upwards to be positive.

These snapshots of the ball Consequently we can also

falling can then be represented extract velocity.
on a position-vs-time graph.

The figure shows the positions

of a falling ball recorded at
equal time intervals of 0.05 s
rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 39
 Free-fall equations

The figure shows the effect of

air resistance on a falling stone
and a falling feather.

Air resistance means the feather

will reach a maximum speed
and not be able to move any
faster.

However, in a vacuum gravity

affects all objects equally without
the physical characteristics of
object having any affect.

The motion of an object under the influence

of gravity only is called free fall.
rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 40
 Free-fall equations
Throwing a object upwards example:
– An object is thrown upwards with an initial velocity 𝑣𝑥,i =
8.0 m/s. What is the highest point it reaches? How long does
it take for it reach its initial position? Ignore air resistance.

Step 1, Setup the problem.

What information have you been given?

Ball will change its velocity from position

to negative. So can draw 2 diagrams to
demonstration this.
One for upward motion and one for
downwards motion.

highest point
initial position = final position.

Side note: An object that is launched but not

self-propelled is called a projectile.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 41
 Free-fall equations
Throwing a object upwards example: 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s 2
– An object is thrown upwards with an initial velocity 𝑣 𝑥,i = 8.0 m/s. What is the
highest point it reaches? How long does it take for it reach its initial position
when traveling down? Ignore air resistance.

Step 2, Translate to maths, and find all the relevant equations

Where is the highest point? When 𝑣 = 0 m/s
Reach initial position? 𝑥 f = 𝑥 i = 0 m

Step 3, Solve
We know the acceleration is only due to gravity therefore we get
that 𝑥f = 0 + 𝑣𝑥,i 𝑡f + 1 𝑔𝑡2f from eq(1) where we have chosen 𝑡i = 0 s 𝑥f = 𝑥i + 𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 (1)
2 2
for convenience.
From eq(2) we see that 0 = 𝑣𝑥,i + 𝑔𝑡f, which is solved for 𝑡f = 𝑣 𝑥,f = 𝑣 𝑥,i + 𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑡 (2)
− 𝑣𝑥,i /𝑔.
2
−𝑣 𝑥,i −𝑣 𝑥,i
Therefore we get that 𝑥f = 𝑣𝑥,i + 1𝑔 = + 3.27 m. Step 4, Evaluate the result
𝑔 2 𝑔

Does 𝑡f = 0 s make sense as a

From eq(1), 0 = 0 + 𝑣𝑥,i 𝑡f + 1 𝑔𝑡2f
which is then solved for 𝑡f. solution? No, this is when the
2
2𝑣 object was thrown upwards.
𝑡f = − 𝑥,i = 1.63 s or we can also have 𝑡f = 0 s Therefore 𝑡f = 1.63 s
𝑔

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 42
 Inclined planes
Galileo 伽利略 used inclined planes to study motion
of objects that are accelerated due to gravity:
He found that when a ball rolls down an incline
starting at rest, the ratio of the distance traveled to
the square of the amount of time needed to travel
that distance is constant:

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
𝑡 21 𝑡 22 𝑡 23

Setting xi = 0 and ti = 0 in the equation 𝑥f = 𝑥i +

𝑣𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 we can show that this ratio is
2
proportional to ax:
𝑥f 1
= 𝑎𝑥
𝑡 2f 2

This is for a constant angle. Galileo performed this experiment for

different angles.

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 43
 Inclined planes
Galileo observed that for different
angles the ratio 𝑥f /𝑡2f to changed,
with the ratio increasing with
increasing angle.

This allowed him to deduce that ax

along the incline is a constant for
each angle 𝜃.

Further, ax increased with

increasing angle.

Later experiments showed that

𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑔 sin (𝜃)

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw 44
45
 Question example from last year

1 mark for setting up the problem!

1 mark for showing for solving the problem.

Note, you can still get this mark even if the 1st
mark is wrong.

1 mark for correctly evaluating your expression.

You can still get this mark if the 1st and 2nd
There are 3 marks for this question, hence I am
marks are wrong. This is just for typing the
expecting you write at least 3 things!
correct numbers in your calculator.
So if a question is 5 marks, then you will need to write
5 things. 1 mark questions are usually just numerical
answer and that is it... 46
 Question example from last year

So for this question, you can just write the numerical answer to get the points...

47
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course
Code: PHY102G
Week 03

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw

1
 Momentum

Chapter Goal: To begin a theoretical analysis of

motion using the concepts of inertia and momentum.

2
 Friction
The figure shows how the velocity of a wooden
block decreases on three different surfaces.

The slowing down is due to friction—the

resistance to motion that one surface (or object)
encounters when moving over another.

The block slides easily over ice because there is

little friction between the two surfaces.

The lower the friction, the longer it takes for the

block to come to rest.

In reality friction is always there, but we can put

things on a rail to minimize its effects and study
what happens without it.

In the absence of friction, objects moving along a

horizontal track keep moving without slowing
down.
We can study this one a low-friction track (pic above).
3
 Friction
(a) Are the accelerations of the motions shown in the
figure on right constant?

Yes, because each of the 𝑣 𝑥 𝑡 curves is a straight

line (constant slope = constant acceleration).

(b) For which surface is the acceleration largest in

magnitude?

The concrete, because the magnitude of the

acceleration is largest when the magnitude of ∆𝑣 𝑥 for
a given time interval is largest—that is, when the
slope of the line is the steepest.

4
 Inertia 慣性
Newton’s 1st law: Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion
in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed
upon it.
牛頓第一定律表明，假若施加於某物體的外力為零，則該物體的運動速
度不變。速度是向量，速度包括了運動的大小與方向。以方程式表達

To study what happens with these

two carts, we need to discard friction!
Further note, the two carts are
identical (ie. the same).

Measuring the position of the two

carts gives us the x(t) curve shown in
the figure.

The collision causes Cart 1 to move

to the right and Cart 2 to come to a
full stop.

Inertia is the idea that an object resits any changes to velocity.

5
 Inertia 慣性
We can see that the velocities interchanged during the
Velocities of the carts
collision.
What will happen if cart 1 is moving?
This is the result of our 2nd experiment

We repeat the experiment, with cart 2 moving a

bit faster. What we discover is that, no matter We observe that
what the initial velocity of cart 2 is, the collision 𝑣i,2 = 𝑣f,1 and 𝑣 i,1 = 𝑣f,2
always interchanges the two velocities.
6
 Inertia 慣性
What happens if smash one cart into two carts? The figure shows a standard cart moving towards
a double cart at rest.

The moving cart reverses direction after the

collision.
The change in velocity of the double cart is
half that of the standard cart.

Results of a standard cart moving toward a

half cart at rest.

Our results

The change in velocity of the half cart is

twice that of the standard cart.
7
 Inertia 慣性
Consider this collision between a
standard cart and some unknown cart.

What can you say about the ratio

between the changes of the velocities?
∆𝑣𝑢,𝑥
∆𝑣𝑠,𝑥

We can conclude that

∆𝑣𝑢,𝑥 1
≈
∆𝑣𝑠,𝑥 3

We can conclude that the unknown cart’s inertia is three

times that of the standard cart.
This implies some object resist changing their velocity
more than others.
8
 Inertia 慣性
In our earlier experiments we observed
that bigger objects had more inertia, ie.
their velocity changed less.

metal ball ping pong ball

vs.

Conclusion: The inertia of an object

is determined entirely by the type of
material of which the object is made
and by the amount of that material
contained in the object. More
concretely, by its mass.

9
 Inertia 慣性
Does cart A or B have the greatest inertia?

B. Don’t be fooled by the bigger velocity change for S on the left; you must first consider each
graph separately.
The left graph tells you that A has less inertia than S because the magnitude of the velocity
change for A is larger than that for S.
The right graph tells you that B has greater inertia than S because the magnitude of the
velocity change for B is smaller than that for S.
Hence B must have greater inertia than A.
10
 Inertia 慣性
Which cart, A, B or S have the greatest inertia?

S has the greatest inertia because the magnitude of the velocity change for S is smaller
than that for either A or B, so cart S must have greater inertia.

The ratio of the magnitudes of the velocity changes is about the same in both graphs,
however, indicating that A and B have about the same inertias.
11
 Inertia 慣性
Figure shows the 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 curves for a collision between two identical
carts moving not on a low-friction track but rather on a rough surface,
so that friction affects their motion. Are the changes in the velocity of
the carts caused by the collision still equal in magnitude?
Step 1: Setup the problem
It is very tempting to just say the carts exchange their velocities,
however friction affects the velocities of both carts. So there is no
“initial” and “final” velocities to read. I need to extrapolate the curves if
there was no collision and compare.

Step 2: Translate to maths There is no equations I can use, but I can use a ruler to extrapolate the
velocity values and then compare with and without a collision.
Step 3: Solve
From the first part of the 𝑣 𝑥 𝑡 curve for cart 1, I observe that the curve lies in line with the second part
of the 𝑣 𝑥 𝑡 curve for cart 2. Reading off the value of the curve at 𝑡 = 80 ms gives a value of +0.15 m/s
for cart 1 and +0.60 m/s for cart 2. Now I know the velocities without a collision.
However, the carts do collide and their velocities at 𝑡 = 80 ms are interchanged. The magnitudes of
the changes in velocity caused by the collision are thus 0.45 m/s and 0.45 m/s. These velocity changes
are equal in magnitude.
Step 4: Evaluate
Extrapolation of the velocity curves shows that the collision interchanges the
velocities of the two carts, just as in a collision between identical carts in the
absence of friction. The interchanging means that the changes in velocity must be
12
of equal magnitude, as I found numerically.
 Inertial standard
The inertia of an object is represented by the symbol m, and
it’s related to its mass.

Earlier we observed these

So we can base our definition on 𝑚𝑢 ∆𝑣

the ratios of their interias based ≡− 𝑠 𝑥
on their weights, with 𝑚 𝑠 ≡ 1 kg
𝑚𝑠 ∆𝑣𝑢 𝑥

The minus sign comes the velocities interchanging their From 1889 till 2019, 1 kg was defined
velocities. Consider 𝑚 𝑢 = 1 kg, then we know that 𝑚 𝑢 /
by a platinum-iridium cylinder. But it lost
50 μg over these 130 years, hence the
𝑚𝑠 = 1 but if ∆𝑣𝑠 𝑥 > 0 then ∆𝑣𝑠 𝑥 < 0. Hence we would redefinition. Currently it is based on the

end up with 1 = − 1 which is just wrong...

Plank constant.

Note, mass is a scalar quantity meaning it does not depend

on the orientation of any axis in space.

Note on the book: it calls inertia instead of mass to emphasize the

point that an object’s mass is its tendency to resist a change in its
13
motion (velocity). I found this strange and will call it mass.
 Inertial standard
Given that we changed the definition of 1 kg, in other words the
definition by which we measure inertia.
a) Would the inertia of our unknown object as measured against the
new standard be different from that object’s inertia measured
against the old standard?
b) Would the outcome of a collision between two arbitrary objects be
different?

a) No, our object’s inertia would still be the same, we could however
be assigning a new number to it if our definitions are slightly
different.
b) No, the objects don’t care if we assign a different number to them.
Numbers only exist in our minds. Think of centimeters and inches,
釐米 vs. 寸.

14
 Inertial standard
A small stone is put on the top of a cart of inertia 1 kg to form a combination of unknown inertia
mu. A second standard cart of inertia 1 kg is then launched with an initial velocity given by 𝑣 𝑠 𝑥,i =
+0.46 m/s toward the combined cart that is initially at rest. After the collision, the x component of
the velocity of the cart with the stone is 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,f=+0.38 m/s and that of the standard cart is 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f =
–0.08 m/s.
What is the inertia of the stone?

Step 1, step up the problem

stone

Initial 1 kg 1 kg

collision

stone

Final 1 kg 1 kg

15
 Inertial standard
A small stone is put on the top of a cart of inertia 1 kg to form a combination of unknown inertia
mu. A second standard cart of inertia 1 kg is then launched with an initial velocity given by 𝑣 𝑠 𝑥,i =
+0.46 m/s toward the combined cart that is initially at rest. After the collision, the x component of
the velocity of the cart with the stone is 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,f=+0.38 m/s and that of the standard cart is 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f =
–0.08 m/s.
What is the inertia of the stone?

Step 2, translate to maths

𝑚𝑢 ∆𝑣 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i = +0.46 m/s 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,i =0 m/s 𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚stone
≡− 𝑠 𝑥
𝑚𝑠 ∆𝑣𝑢 𝑥 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,f =+0.38 m/s 𝑚𝑠 = 1 kg
𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f = –0.08 m/s
We need to find 𝑚 stone.

Step 3, solve Step 4, Evaluate

The standard cart went backwards after the
𝑚𝑢 ∆𝑣𝑠 𝑥 (𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i ) collision, so the standard cart + stone must be
≡− =− heavier than a standard cart. Thus 𝑚 stone > 0
𝑚𝑠 ∆𝑣𝑢 𝑥 (𝑣𝑢 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,𝑖 )
hence my answer makes sense as far as I can
tell.
(𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i )
𝑚stone = − 𝑚𝑠 1+ = 0.42 kg
(𝑣𝑢 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,𝑖 )
16
 Inertial standard
• Which has greater inertia: 1 kg of feathers
毛 or 1 kg of iron 鐵?

– Feathers
– Lead
– Neither, they are both zero.
– Neither, they both are the same.

17
 Momentum 動量
Our definition of inertia leads to another important
physical quantity: momentum. For this we re- 𝑚𝑢 ∆𝑣𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑚𝑠 ∆𝑣𝑠 𝑥 = 0
arrange our definition of our inertia.
𝑚𝑢 (𝑣𝑢 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑢 𝑥,i ) + 𝑚𝑠 (𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i ) = 0

This is just inertia multiplied by velocity, this is the 𝑝 ≡ 𝑚𝑣

definition of momentum. It has units kg∙m/s

Therefore our inertial equation then becomes (𝑝𝑢 𝑥,f − 𝑝𝑢 𝑥,i ) + (𝑝𝑢 𝑥,f − 𝑝𝑢 𝑥,i ) = 0.
when add our definition of momentum.
∆𝑝𝑢 𝑥 + ∆𝑝𝑠 𝑥 = 0
∆𝑝𝑢 + ∆𝑝𝑠 = 0

Example:
Compare the magnitude of the momenta of a 0.010 kg bullet fired from a rifle
at 1300 m/s and a 6.5 kg bowling ball moving across the floor at 4.0 m/s.
𝑝bullet = (0.010 kg) × 1300 𝑚/𝑠 = 13 kg∙m/s

𝑝ball = (6.5 kg) × 4.0 𝑚/𝑠 = 26 kg∙m/s

18
 Momentum 動量
(a) A red cart with an initial speed of 0.35 m/s collides with a stationary standard cart (ms =
1.0 kg). After the collision, the standard cart moves away at a speed of 0.38 m/s. What is the
momentum change for each cart?
(b) The experiment is repeated with a blue cart, and now the final speed of the standard cart
is 0.31 m/s. What is the momentum change for each cart in this second collision?
(c) If in the collisions 𝑣 𝑟 𝑥,f = +0.032 m/s and 𝑣 𝑏 𝑥,f = –0.039 m/s, what are the inertias of the
red and the blue carts?

Step 1, step up the problem

19
 Momentum 動量
Step 2, Translate to maths
part (a) part (b)
∆𝑝𝑟 𝑥 + ∆𝑝𝑠 𝑥 = 0 𝑣𝑟 𝑥,i =0.35 m/s 𝑣𝑏 𝑥,i =0.35 m/s
𝑚𝑟 (𝑣𝑟 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑟 𝑥,i ) + 𝑚𝑠 (𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i ) = 0 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i =0.0 m/s 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i =0.0 m/s
𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f =0.38 m/s 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f =0.31 m/s

Step 3, Solve part (c)

𝑣𝑟 𝑥,f =+0.032 m/s 𝑚𝑠 = 1 kg
(a) ∆𝑝𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑠 (𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i )
= (1 kg)(0.38 m/s − 0.0 m/s) 𝑣𝑏 𝑥,f == –0.039 m/s
= 0.38 kg∙m/s
∆𝑝𝑟 𝑥 = − ∆𝑝𝑠 𝑥 = −0.38 kg∙m/s Step 4, Evaluate
Blue cart moves backwards after collision => blue
(b) ∆𝑝𝑠 𝑥 = 0.31 kg∙m/s cart must have less mass than standard cart

Red cart moves forwards after collision => red cart

must have more mass than standard cart
𝑣𝑠 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑠 𝑥,i
(c) 𝑚𝑟 = − 𝑚𝑠 = 1.2 kg Answer makes sense.
𝑣𝑟 𝑥,f − 𝑣𝑟 𝑥,i
𝑚𝑏 = 0.8 kg 20
 Quick note on friction
This is our “ideal” world for now.
Friction will cause all objects to slow
down, but we will ignore it for now.

21
 Conservation of momentum
Earlier we saw this equation ∆𝑝 𝑢 + ∆𝑝 𝑠 = 0, which tells us
that the movements of our two objects can only interchange.
So if we consider the total momentum of two objects, 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝1 + 𝑝2, then we can see that
∆𝑝 ≡ ∆𝑝1 + ∆𝑝2 = 0. In other words, the total momentum of the system has not changed.
Momentum can be transferred
from one object to another, but it ∆𝑝 = 0
cannot be created or destroyed.

The physics equations

with which we describe
the world are setup to
obey this principle.

However we can in our

minds create a scenario
where this doesn’t hold.

22
 Conservation of momentum
Momentum is conserved inside the whole of the
universe. In other words, the system we are considering
is the whole universe.

We can consider systems where the total momentum

has changed. For example, consider pushing a moving
cart but do not include my hand in the system.

My hand is providing the change in momentum, but my

hand is out of the system so there is a change of
momentum.
However, in the whole universe the total momentum is
still the same.

Isolated systems: ∆𝑝 total =0

Non-Isolated systems: ∆𝑝 total ≠0

Non-isolated systems interact with the environment,

ie. the rest of the universe. Isolated system do not
interact with the rest of universe, they isolated from it.
23
 Isolated Systems
Previously we were always concerned with just a single object—
a puck, a car, and so on. However, most situations we encounter
deal with any number of objects that interact with one another.
The first step in any analysis therefore is to separate the
object(s) of interest from the rest of the universe:
Any object or group of objects that we can separate, in our
minds, from the surrounding environment is a system.

For example, when considering a collision between two carts on

a low-friction track, we consider both carts together as the
system. When throwing a ball and we only want to know the
motion of the ball, a logical choice of system is just the ball.
Once we have chosen the ball as our system, everything else—
the thrower, the air around the ball, Earth—is outside the system
and constitutes its environment.

Deciding what to include in the system will be dictated by the information

you wish to learn. Often the choice is obvious; sometimes you will need to
rely on experience to make this decision.
More important, once you decide to include a certain object in the system,
it must stay that way throughout the analysis. Failing to make a consistent
choice of system is a frequent source of error.

24
 Isolated Systems
Indicate at least two possible choices of system in each of the following two
situations. For each choice, make a sketch showing the system boundary and
state which objects are inside the system and which are outside.

(a) After you throw a ball upward, it accelerates downward toward Earth.

The description of the situation mentions three

objects: the ball, Earth, and you. One option is to
include all three of them in the system.
As a second choice, I include you and the ball in the
system.

(b) A battery is connected to a light bulb that illuminates a room.

Again I have three objects: the battery, the light

bulb, and the room. I can choose just one of them
(the battery) as my system or two of them (the
battery and the light bulb).

Note that my choices of system are arbitrary. Nothing in the

problem prescribes the choice of system. If you tried this problem
on your own before looking at my solution and you made different
choices, then your answer is just as “correct” as mine!
25
 Isolated Systems
In problems with momentum changes, it is
convenient to chose an isolated system. For an
isolated system, momentum remains constant.

1. Identify all objects

2. Identify all interactions between the objects
3. Consider which interactions will cause an
acceleration to the objects, remove all
others.
4. Create system to include all objects which
will experience acceleration. Make sure all
interactions are inside system.
5. Draw final and initial states of the system.

For non-Isolated systems: ∆𝑝 total =𝐽

where 𝐽 is the impulse delivered to the system. It is
a vector with SI units kg∙m/ s

26
 Isolated Systems
In the figure, the procedure for choosing an isolated
system for a collision between two carts is illustrated.

27
 Isolated Systems example
A person standing on a skateboard on horizontal ground pulls
on a rope fastened to a cart. Both the person and the cart are
initially at rest. Create a system based on this.

1. Identify all objects

2. Identify all interactions between the objects
3. Consider which interactions will cause an
acceleration to the objects, remove all
others.
4. Create system to include all objects which
will experience acceleration. Make sure all
interactions are inside system.
5. Draw final and initial states of the system.

28
 Inputs and Outputs to a system
Once we have chosen a system, we can study how certain
quantities associated with the system change over time:

Extensive quantities: quantities whose value is proportional to the size of

the system, example: number of transistors in a CPU (can change with
CPU size).
Intensive quantities: quantities that do not depend on the extent of the
system, for example density of transistors in a CPU (does not change with
CPU size).

Only four processes can change the value of an

extensive quantity: input, output, creation, destruction.
Then, the change of a certain quantity over a time
interval is given by
change = input – output + creation – destruction

29
 Inputs and Outputs to a system
If there is no transfer of an extensive quantity under
consideration across the boundary of the system, then
change = creation – destruction

For example: water in a bottle, it can evaporate

(destroyed) but it can also condense (creation).

Any extensive quantity that cannot be created or

destroyed is said to be conserved:
The change in the value of a conserved quantity is
change = input – output

Momentum is a conserved quantity.

30
 Inputs and Outputs to a system
Which of these quantities is extensive? ie. they
change with the size of the system.

(a) money
Extensive. If I separate an amount of money into two piles, then the sum
of the amounts of money in each pile equals the original sum of money.

(b) Temperature
Not extensive. The sum of the temperatures in each half of a
room is not equal to the temperature of the entire room.

(c) humidity
Not extensive. The sum of the humidity in each half of a room
is not equal to the humidity of the entire room.

(d) volume
Extensive. The volume of a room is equal to the sum of the
volumes of each half of the room.
31
 Collisions
Velocity Momentum

Cart 1: m1 = 0.36 kg, v1x,i = 0 m/s, v1x,f = +0.17 m/s:

Δp1x = m1(v1x,f – v1x,i) = 0.0061 kg · m/s
Cart 2: m2 = 0.12 kg, v2x,i = +0.34 m/s, v1x,f = –0.17 m/s:
Δp1x = m2(v2x,f – v2x,i) = –0.0061 kg · m/s
Consequently the momentum of the systems does not change.
32
 Collisions
I stand on a cart with negligible
friction. I throw a ball at a post
stuck to the trolley, and the ball
hits the post.
What will happen?

First, me + cart will accelerate to the right

and the ball accelerate to left.

Second, ball collides with post and transfers its

momentum to me + cart. Thus, I accelerate to
the left and ball accelerate to the right.

Finally, I will be moving to left with the trolley

(ball is moving to the right).
33
Collisions
Think about a rocket launch.

Gas comes out of the end at a very high

speed.

The rocket moves forward because of

conservation of momentum.

34
Collisions
This is the same principle as
wind sails.

Your are transferring the

momentum from the wind (air
movement) to the boat’s
momentum.

35
Collisions, sticking together
There is a scenario where when two objects collide, they combine
together. They become stuck together.

velocity momentum

This scenario is marked by the objects final velocities being equal, ie.
𝑣2,f = 𝑣1,f.
36
 Collisions, sticking together

𝑚1 = 0.36kg
𝑚2 = 0.12 kg
𝑣1,i = 0 m/s
𝑣2,i = + 0.34 m/s
𝑣f = + 0.085 m/s

Initial momentum
𝑝1,i + 𝑝2,i = 0 + (0.12 kg)(0.34 m/s)
= 0.041 kg∙m/s

Final momentum
𝑝1,f + 𝑝2,f = (0.36 kg)(0.085 m/s) + (0.12 kg)(0.085 m/s)
= 0.041 kg∙m/s
37
 Impulse
where 𝐽 is the impulse delivered to the system. It
For non-Isolated systems:
∆𝑝total = 𝐽 is a vector with SI units kg∙m/ s

A 0.20 kg rubber ball is dropped from a height of 1.0 m onto a Step 1, step up the problem
hard floor and bounces straight up. Assuming the speed with
which the ball rebounds (launches back up) from the floor is
ball, 0.02 kg
the same as the speed it has just before hitting the floor,
determine the impulse delivered by the floor to the rubber ball.
impulse

1m
Step 2, Translate to maths
1
𝑥f = 𝑥i + 𝑣𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 𝑥i = 0 m for convenience ground ground
2
𝑥f = − 1 m, 𝑣i = 0 m/s 𝑣down = 𝑣up
𝑣𝑥,f = 𝑣𝑥,i + 𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑡
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔 = − 9.8 m/s2
Ball changes direction, with Step 3, Solve Step 4, Evaluate
𝑣 down = 𝑣 up Velocity before hit is negative,
thus we must have 𝑡 = 2𝑥f /𝑔 𝐽 = − 2𝑚𝑔 2𝑥f /𝑔 after it is positive, so impulse
𝐽 = − 2𝑚𝑣down must also be positive.
𝑣𝑥,f = 0 + 𝑔 2𝑥f /𝑔 = + 1.77 kg∙m/s
38
39
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course
Code: PHY102G
Week 04

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw

1
 Energy

Chapter Goal: To continue a theoretical analysis of

motion using the concept of energy.
2
 Previously, conservation of momentum
Momentum can be transferred
from one object to another, but it ∆𝑝 = 0
cannot be created or destroyed.

In one dimension

∆𝑝1 𝑥 + ∆𝑝2 𝑥 = 0
𝑚1 (𝑣1 𝑥,f − 𝑣1 𝑥,i ) + 𝑚2 (𝑣2 𝑥,f − 𝑣2 𝑥,i ) = 0

Inputs and Outputs to a system

3
 Relative velocity and speed
Relative velocity of the carts:
𝑣12 ≡ 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 is the velocity of cart 2 relative to cart 1.

Relative Speed of the carts:

𝑣12 = |𝑣12 | = |𝑣2 − 𝑣1 | is the speed of cart 2 relative to cart 1.

4
 Classification of Collisions
Elastic collision: A collision in which the relative speeds before and
after the collision are the same, 𝑣 12,i = 𝑣 12,f

Inelastic collision: A collision in which the relative speed after the

collision is lower than before the collision, 𝑣 12,i > 𝑣 12,f

Totally inelastic collision: A special type of inelastic collision in

which the two objects move together after the collision so that their
relative speed is reduced to zero, 𝑣 12,f = 0

5
 Classification of Collisions
Are the following collisions elastic, inelastic, or totally inelastic?

(a) A red billiard ball moving at vr x,i = +2.2 m/s hits a white billiard ball initially at rest. After the
collision, the red ball is at rest and the white ball moves at vw x,f = +1.9 m/s.

𝑣 12,i = |2.2 − 0| = 2.2 m/s

𝑣 12,i > 𝑣 12,f Inelastic collision
𝑣 12,f = |0 − 1.9| = 1.9 m/s

(b) Cart 1 moving along a track at v1x,i = +1.2 m/s hits cart 2 initially at rest. After the collision, the
two carts move at v1x,f = +0.4 m/s and v2x,f = +1.6 m/s.

𝑣 12,i = |0.0 − 1.2| = 1.2 m/s

𝑣 12,i = 𝑣 12,f Elastic collision
𝑣 12,f = |1.6 − 0.4| = 1.2 m/s

(c) A clay 黏土 ball moving at vp x,i = +22 m/s hits a wooden block moving at vb x,i = +1.0 m/s. After
the collision, the two move at vx,f = +1.7 m/s.

𝑣 12,i = |22 − 1| = 21 m/s

𝑣 12,f = 0 Totally Inelastic collision
𝑣 12,f = |1.7 − 1.7| = 0 m/s

6
 Kinetic Energy
The quantity:
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2 Calculate the kinetic energy before and after the collisions
2
is called kinetic energy of the Elastic collision Totally inelastic collision
object. The “energy” associated with
motion. It is a scalar quantity and it
is associated with a single object.

In an elastic collision, the sum of

the kinetic energies of the object
before is the same as the sum of
kinetic energies after the collision.

7
 Kinetic Energy
(a) Is the collision in the figure on the right elastic,
inelastic, or totally inelastic? How can you tell?
(b) Verify your answer by comparing the initial
kinetic energy of the two-cart system with the final
kinetic energy.
v1x,i = 0; v2x,i = +0.34 m/s; v1x,f = +0.17 m/s;
v2x,f = –0.17 m/s; m1 = 0.36 kg ; m2 = 0.12 kg.

(a)
v12i = |v2x,i –v1x,i | = |(+0.34 m/s) – 0| = 0.34 m/s;
v12f = |v2x,f –v1x,f | = |(–0.17 m/s) – (+0.17 m/s)| = 0.34 m/s.

The relative speed is unchanged, and thus the collision is elastic.

8
 Kinetic Energy
(a) Is the collision in the figure on the right elastic,
inelastic, or totally inelastic? How can you tell?
(b) Verify your answer by comparing the initial
kinetic energy of the two-cart system with the final
kinetic energy.
v1x,i = 0; v2x,i = +0.34 m/s; v1x,f = +0.17 m/s;
v2x,f = –0.17 m/s; m1 = 0.36 kg ; m2 = 0.12 kg.

1 1
(b) 𝐾i = 𝐾1i + 𝐾2i = 𝑚1 𝑣21i + 𝑚2 𝑣22i
2 2
=1 0.36 kg 0 2 +1 (0.12 kg) 0.34 m/s 2
2 2
2 The initial and final kinetic
= 0.0069 kg∙m /s2
energies are the same, thus it
is also an elastic collision.
1 1
𝐾f = 0.36 kg 0.17 m/s 2
+ (0.12 kg) − 0.17 m/s 2
This is the same conclusion
2 2
= 0.0069 kg∙m2 /s2 as part (a), their relative
speeds.
9
 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is a scalar extensive quantity (it depends on size of the
system), bar diagrams are a good way to visually represent changes in this
quantity. The figure below shows collisions seen in the previous slides.

Elastic collision Totally inelastic collision

10
 Kinetic Energy
A moving cart collides with an identical cart initially at rest on a low-friction
track, and the two lock together. What fraction of the initial kinetic energy of
the system remains in this totally inelastic collision?

Denote the 𝑥 component of the initial velocity of the moving cart 𝑣 𝑥,i
and the 𝑥 component of the final velocity of the combined carts 𝑣 𝑥,f.

Conservation of momentum requires that the two carts have a final

momentum equal to the initial momentum, and so 𝑚𝑣 𝑥,i = 2𝑚𝑣 𝑥,f , thus
we get 𝑣 𝑥,f = 1/2𝑣 𝑥,i.

1
The initial kinetic energy is 𝑚𝑣𝑥,i; the final kinetic energy is
2
2
1 1 1
2𝑚 𝑣𝑥,f = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥,i = 𝑚𝑣𝑥,i .
2 2 4
This is half the initial kinetic energy.

11
 Elastic collisions
Relative speed 𝑣 12 = |𝑣 12 | = |𝑣 2 − 𝑣 1 |

In an elastic collision we have 𝑣12,i = 𝑣12,f .

Which for the scenario on the right can written as
𝑣2𝑥,i − 𝑣1𝑥,i = − 𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑣1𝑥,f
The minus sign comes from the exchange of velocities, ie if
𝑣2𝑥,i > 𝑣1𝑥,i then we must have 𝑣2𝑥,f < 𝑣1𝑥,f. This equation
can be re-arranged as
𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑣1𝑥,f = 𝑣2𝑥,i + 𝑣2𝑥,f (1)

This is a collision, so we can apply conservation of momentum

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,i = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
for an isolated system. This can then be rearranged as
𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑥,i − 𝑣1𝑥,f ) = 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑣2𝑥,i (2)

Then multiplying eq(1) by eq(2), we get that

𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑥,i − 𝑣1𝑥,f )(𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑣1𝑥,f ) = 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑣2𝑥,i 𝑣2𝑥,i + 𝑣2𝑥,f

𝑚1 𝑣21𝑥,i − 𝑣21𝑥,f = 𝑚2 𝑣22𝑥,f − 𝑣22𝑥,i (3)

12
 Elastic collisions
Then eq(3) on the previous slide can be re-arranged to

𝑚1 𝑣21𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣21𝑥,f = 𝑚1 𝑣22𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣22𝑥,f

which is the same as saying

2(𝐾1i + 𝐾2i ) = 2(𝐾1f + 𝐾2f )

where earlier I said that 𝐾 = 1 𝑚𝑣2 is the kinetic

2
energy of an object.

This is just saying that that initial kinetic energy equals the
final kinetic energy in an elastic collision.
𝐾i = 𝐾f

Which can also be written as The unit of energy is joule, and theSI
∆𝐾 = 𝐾i − 𝐾f = 0. units for energy are kg ∙m 2 /s 2 ≡ 1 J

For a system of two objects we have

𝐾 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
as the total kinetic energy of the system.
13
 Elastic collisions, 1
Two carts, one of inertia m1 = 0.25 kg and the other of inertia m2 = 0.40 kg,
travel along a straight horizontal track with velocities v1x,i = +0.20 m/s and
v2x,i = -0.050 m/s.
What are the carts’ velocities after they collide elastically?

Step 1, step up the problem

Step 2, translate to maths

𝑣2𝑥,i − 𝑣1𝑥,i = − 𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑣1𝑥,f 𝑚1 = 0.25 kg 𝑣1𝑥,i= +0.20 m/s

𝑚2 = 0.40 kg 𝑣2𝑥,i = -0.050 m/s
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,i = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
14
 Elastic collisions, 1
Two carts, one of inertia m1 = 0.25 kg and the other of inertia m2 = 0.40 kg,
travel along a straight horizontal track with velocities v1x,i = +0.20 m/s and
v2x,i = -0.050 m/s.
What are the carts’ velocities after they collide elastically?
Step 3, Solve
I use the 1st equation to obtain Then I put numbers in to obtain

Then I input this into the momentum equation to obtain

This is then solved for 𝑣 1𝑥,f

Step 4, Evaluate
We can check the relative speeds
before and after collision.

We then do the same for 𝑣 2𝑥,f

This is what I expect for an elastic collision.

15
 Elastic collisions, 2
A rubber ball of inertia mb = 0.050 kg is fired along a track toward a stationary cart of inertia
mc = 0.25 kg. The kinetic energy of the system after the two collide elastically is 2.5 J.
(a) What is the initial velocity of the ball?
(b) What are the final velocities of the ball and the cart?

Step 1, step up the problem

Step 2, Translate to maths

1
Elastic collision so ∆𝐾 = 𝐾 i − 𝐾 f = 0, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2
2
or written as 𝐾 i = 𝐾 f.

16
 Elastic collisions, 2
A rubber ball of inertia mb = 0.050 kg is fired along a track toward a stationary cart of inertia
mc = 0.25 kg. The kinetic energy of the system after the two collide elastically is 2.5 J.
(a) What is the initial velocity of the ball?
(b) What are the final velocities of the ball and the cart?

Step 3, Solve
So I can obtain that 𝐾 1i + 𝐾 2i = 1 𝑚b 𝑣2b,i + 𝑚c 𝑣2c,i =𝐾f
2
1
= 𝑚b 𝑣2b,i + 𝑚c 02 = 𝐾f
2

2 𝐾f 2 (2.5 J)
𝑣b,i = = = 10 m/s
𝑚b 0.05 kg

For part (b) I need to follow the same procedure as in the previous
example “Elastic collisions, 1” to obtain expressions for 𝑣 1𝑥,f and 𝑣 2𝑥,f

17
 Elastic collisions, 2
A rubber ball of inertia mb = 0.050 kg is fired along a track toward a stationary cart of inertia
mc = 0.25 kg. The kinetic energy of the system after the two collide elastically is 2.5 J.
(a) What is the initial velocity of the ball?
(b) What are the final velocities of the ball and the cart?

Step 3, Solve
Expressions for 𝑣 1𝑥,f and 𝑣 2𝑥,f only in terms of initial velocities and masses.

This gives me 𝑣 b𝑥,f = –6.7 m/s and 𝑣 c𝑥,f = +3.3 m/s

Step 4, Evaluate
From conservation of momentum, the velocity of the ball is reversed by the collision because the cart
is heavier (more mass).

From initial velocities, I can check that the relative speed remains the same (for elastic collision).

Cart is initially at rest, so the initial relative speed is 10 m/s;

The final relative speed is vbc,f = ǀ(+3.3 m/s) – (–6.7 m/s)ǀ = 10 m/s,
which is the same, as required for an elastic collision. 18
 Inelastic collisions
In totally inelastic collisions, the objects move together after
the collision. Therefore,
𝑣12,f = 0 (totally inelastic collision)

However, most collisions fall between the two extremes

of elastic and totally inelastic.

For these create a constant called the coefficient of restitution

and this is the ratio of final relative speed divided by the initial mi
ex nus
relative speed. ch si
an gn
𝑣12f 𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑣1𝑥,f 𝑣12𝑥,f e of vrom
g f
𝑒≡ or in 𝑥 component form 𝑒 =− =− elo
𝑣12i 𝑣2𝑥,i − 𝑣1𝑥,i 𝑣 12𝑥,i
cit
ie s

19
 Inelastic collisions
A white car of mass 1200 kg that is moving at a speed of 7.2 m/s rear-ends a blue
car of mass 1000 kg that is initially at rest. Immediately after the collision, the white
car has a speed of 3.6 m/s. What is the coefficient of restitution for this collision?

Step 1, Step up the problem

Step 2, Translate to maths

We have chosen an isolated system, thus 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,i = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
conservation of momentum holds.

𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑣1𝑥,f
We need to find the coefficient of restitution, 𝑒 =−
thus we also need the equation 𝑣2𝑥,i − 𝑣1𝑥,i

20
 Inelastic collisions
A white car of mass 1200 kg that is moving at a speed of 7.2 m/s rear-ends a blue
car of mass 1000 kg that is initially at rest. Immediately after the collision, the white
car has a speed of 3.6 m/s. What is the coefficient of restitution for this collision?

Step 3, Solve
Step 4, Evaluate
𝑚w 𝑣w𝑥,i + 𝑚b 𝑣b𝑥,i = 𝑚w 𝑣w𝑥,f + 𝑚b 𝑣b𝑥,f
The coefficient of restitution is small,but
𝑚w 𝑣w𝑥,i + 0 = 𝑚 w 𝑣w𝑥,f + 𝑚b 𝑣b𝑥,f because cars don’t bounce like metal
balls, it is should be small.
𝑚w
Therefore we get that 𝑣b𝑥,f = (𝑣w𝑥,i − 𝑣w𝑥,f ) The blue car moves just a little bit faster
𝑚b than the white car after the collision (4.3
m/s versus 3.6 m/s), as I expect.

𝑣w𝑥,f − 𝑣b𝑥,f
𝑒 =−
𝑣w𝑥,i − 𝑣b𝑥,i

𝑚w
𝑣w𝑥,f − (𝑣 − 𝑣w𝑥,f )
𝑚b w𝑥,i
=− = 0.1
𝑣w𝑥,i − 0

21
 Internal Energy
In all inelastic collisions, the relative speed changes and
therefore the total kinetic energy of the system changes.

What happens to this energy?

Does it just appear from nowhere or simply
vanish?

The state of a system is the condition of an object

completely specified by a set of parameters such as
shape and temperature.

The transformation of a system from an initial state to a

final state is called a process.

In physics, we aim to understand all processes, for example: melting

of ice, burning of fuel, liquid flowing and anything that changes the
state of any object.

22
Internal Energy

Inelastic collisions are irreversible

processes: The changes that occur in the
state of the colliding objects cannot
spontaneously undo themselves.

Elastic collisions are reversible

processes: There are no permanent
changes in the state of the colliding.

23
 Internal Energy
In an inelastic collision one form of energy is
converted to another form of energy (kinetic to
internal).
The sum of kinetic and internal energy remains
constant.

Inelastic collision: The states of the colliding Any collision: The energy of a
objects change, and the sum of their internal system of two colliding objects does
energies increases by an amount equal to the not change during the collision.
decrease in the sum of their kinetic energies.

Elastic collision Inelastic collision

24
 Internal Energy, example
A 0.2-kg cart 1 initially at rest is struck by an identical cart 2 traveling at v2x,i = +0.5 m/s along a
low-friction track. After the collision, the velocity of cart 2 is reduced to v2x,f = +0.2 m/s.
(a) Is the collision elastic, inelastic, or totally inelastic?
(b) By what amount does the internal energy of the two-cart system change?
(c) Make a bar diagram showing the initial and final kinetic and internal energies of the two carts.

Step 1, Step up the problem

Step 2, Translate to maths

Isolated system: conservation of 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,i = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
momentum

Relative speed 𝑣12 = |𝑣12 | = |𝑣2 − 𝑣1 |

1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2 ∆𝐾 = 𝐾f − 𝐾i
Kinetic energy
2 25
 Internal Energy, example
A 0.2-kg cart 1 initially at rest is struck by an identical cart 2 traveling at v2x,i = +0.5 m/s along a
low-friction track. After the collision, the velocity of cart 2 is reduced to v2x,f = +0.2 m/s.
(a) Is the collision elastic, inelastic, or totally inelastic?
(b) By what amount does the internal energy of the two-cart system change?
(c) Make a bar diagram showing the initial and final kinetic and internal energies of the two carts.

Step 3, Solve
(a) we need to check initial and final relative speeds. 𝑣12 = |𝑣12 | = |𝑣2 − 𝑣1 |
Initially: 𝑣12,i = |(+ 0.5 m/s)–0| = 0.5m/s

To determine 𝑣 1𝑥,f use conservation of momentum.

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,i − 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
𝑣1𝑥,f = = + 0.3 m/s
𝑚1

𝑣12,f = |(+ 0.2 m/s)–(+ 0.3 m/s)| = 0.1m/s

Final and initial relative speeds are not the same, and final relative
speed is non-zero. Thus inelastic collision.

26
 Internal Energy, example
A 0.2-kg cart 1 initially at rest is struck by an identical cart 2 traveling at v2x,i = +0.5 m/s along a
low-friction track. After the collision, the velocity of cart 2 is reduced to v2x,f = +0.2 m/s.
(a) Is the collision elastic, inelastic, or totally inelastic?
(b) By what amount does the internal energy of the two-cart system change?
(c) Make a bar diagram showing the initial and final kinetic and internal energies of the two carts.

Step 3, Solve
1
(b) Evaluate the final and initial kinetic energy 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2
2
0.2 kg
𝐾i = 𝐾1i + 𝐾2i = ( (0.5 m/s) 2 + 02 )
2
= 0.025 kg∙m2 /s2

0.2 kg
𝐾f = 𝐾1f + 𝐾2f = ( (0.2 m/s) 2 + (0.3 m/s)2 )
2
= 0.013 kg∙m 2 /s2

Hence the change in kinetic energy of the system is

∆𝐾 = 𝐾f − 𝐾i = 0.013 − 0.025 = –0.012 kg∙m 2 /s2

Thus the internal energy must increase by 0.012 kg∙m 2 /s 2

27
 Internal Energy, example
A 0.2-kg cart 1 initially at rest is struck by an identical cart 2 traveling at v2x,i = +0.5 m/s along a
low-friction track. After the collision, the velocity of cart 2 is reduced to v2x,f = +0.2 m/s.
(a) Is the collision elastic, inelastic, or totally inelastic?
(b) By what amount does the internal energy of the two-cart system change?
(c) Make a bar diagram showing the initial and final kinetic and internal energies of the two carts.

Step 3, Solve Step 4, Evaluate

(c) The final kinetic energy bar is about half of the initial kinetic If the collision were elastic,
energy bar. the velocities of the carts
I don’t know the value of the initial internal energy, thus I set it to would be interchanged and
zero and make the final internal energy bar equal in height to the cart 2 would come to a stop
difference in the kinetic energy bars. (see earlier).

So the collision must be

inelastic!

As expected for an inelastic

collision, I found that both the
relative speed and the sum
of the kinetic energies
change in the collision.

28
 Internal Energy
Consider the scenario of a spring is used to
accelerate a cart.

A system of only the cart will show that the cart

gains energy from no where.

Need a system which also include the spring.

Then internal energy from the spring is
transferred to the cart.

We can now extend the idea of internal energy to

other interactions, and from these observations we
can make the following assertion:

Energy can be transferred from one object to

another or converted from one form to another,
but energy cannot be destroyed or created.

No observation has ever been found to violate this

statement known as the law of conservation of
energy.
29
 Internal Energy
Imagine squeezing a piece of foam with
your hands.
Choose an appropriate closed system
and make a bar diagram representing
the energy conversions and transfers
that occur during the squeezing.

30
 Internal Energy
Consider an isolated object at rest in space. You will see it is quite awkward.
The object contains internal energy in some
form or another.
Is it in principle possible to convert the internal
energy to kinetic energy so that the object
starts to move?

No.
Getting the object to move would violate the
law of conservation of momentum because
the object would start with zero momentum
𝑝i = 𝑚𝑣 i = 𝑚 × 0 = 0 and end up with
nonzero momentum 𝑝f = 𝑚𝑣 f ≠ 0.

You can try it by trying to roll forward in an office

chair, but without touching the floor or any walls
(else you not an isolated system) and only using
your internal energy (moving your body).
31
 Closed systems
A closed system is defined by having a closed, not isolated system
constant total energy. In other words, no
energy is transferred in or out of the system.

It is important to note that a closed system

does not need to be isolated (conservation
of momentum).

The spring stores internal energy which is

Procedure to making a closed system: transferred to the cart.
1. Identify all the objects and sketch their final
and initial states.
2. Identify all the changes in state and/or motion Other example is car accelerating because we
that occur during the time interval of interest. are burning fuel.
3. Draw a boundary around all the objects that
includes changes to their state and motion.
4. Verify that nothing from the outside
environment can affect the system you have
created.

32
 Closed systems
Procedure to making a closed system:
1. Identify all the objects and sketch their final and
initial states.
2. Identify all the changes in state and/or motion that
occur during the time interval of interest.
3. Draw a boundary around all the objects that
includes changes to their state and motion.
4. Verify that nothing from the outside environment
can affect the system you have created.

Here, the objects are the fuel and air. The fuel is
ignited and it changes the temperature of the air.

The fuel contains chemical energy, i.e. it

changes its chemical state to release energy.
The increase in energy is seen as an increase in
temperature.

Note, temperature in gases is the average speed at which an

ensemble of particles is moving: Kinetic theory of gases, but you
won’t study this but the principles that give rise such theories.
33
 Closed systems
Procedure to making a closed system:
1. Identify all the objects and sketch their final
and initial states.
2. Identify all the changes in state and/or motion
that occur during the time interval of interest.
3. Draw a boundary around all the objects that
includes changes to their state and motion.
4. Verify that nothing from the outside
environment can affect the system you have
created.

In this case, the car is accelerating because

it is burning the fuel. It is transferring
chemical energy to kinetic energy.

When the fuel burns, it turns into a gas

(expands) and this is transferred into kinetic
energy (car moves).

34
 Closed systems examples
Choose an appropriate closed system and make a bar diagram
representing the energy conversions and transfers that occur when:

a pan of water is heated on a propane burner

Changes in motion: none.

Changes in state: the temperature of the water

increases, and the chemical states of the
propane and the air change.

The bar diagram shows an increase in thermal

energy and an equal decrease in chemical
energy.

Chemical energy is converted to thermal energy,

and in the process energy is transferred from the
propane to the water.

35
 Closed systems examples
Choose an appropriate closed system and make a bar diagram
representing the energy conversions and transfers that occur when:

a cyclist accelerates from rest

Changes in motion: the bicycle and the cyclist

accelerate.
Changes in state: humans uses muscles
(chemical energy) to move.

The bar diagram shows an increase in kinetic

energy and an equal decrease in chemical
energy.

Chemical energy is converted to kinetic

energy of the bicycle and cyclist.

36
 Closed systems examples
Choose an appropriate closed system and make a bar diagram
representing the energy conversions and transfers that occur when:

a spring-loaded gun fires a ball (of putty).

Changes in motion: the putty is accelerated.

Changes in state: the spring expands.

The bar diagram shows a decrease in the

elastic energy of the spring and an increase
in the kinetic energy of the putty.

As the spring expands, elastic energy is

converted to kinetic energy of the putty.

37
 Conservation of Energy
In a closed system, the total energy does not change. i.e.
energy is conserved. For a closed system we have
Example: dropping a ball onto a mattress.
𝐾i + 𝐸int,i = 𝐾f + 𝐸int,f (closed system)
where the energy of the system is given by
𝐸 ≡ 𝐾 + 𝐸int

With this definition we can rewrite the top equation as

𝐸i = 𝐸f (closed system)
or writing in terms of the change of energy
∆𝐸 = 0 (closed system)

Even though we cannot yet calculate Eint, the previous

equation allows us to compute ΔEint
Δ𝐸int = –ΔK (closed system)
The change in internal energy is seen as
a the change of shape in the mattress.

38
 Conservation of Energy
A different example, shorting a battery
In this example, there is no movement
(putting a wire between its contacts).
but the battery is still discharging.

The battery loses chemical energy

however it becomes hotter, i.e. it gains
thermal energy.

The energy equations then become

Δ𝐸chem + Δ𝐸th = 0

We can keep transforming energy from one

type of energy to another as many times as
we want, but conservation of energy must
always hold (for a closed system).

39
 Conservation of Energy, example
A 0.20-kg steel ball is dropped into a ball of dough, striking the dough at a speed of 2.3
m/s and coming to rest inside the dough. If it were possible to turn all of the energy
converted in this totally inelastic collision into light, how long could you light a desk lamp?
It takes 25 J to light a desk lamp for 1.0 s.

Step 1, Step up the problem

Calculate change in energy,

then use that to power lamp.

Divide by 25 J to get time

we can turn on lamp for.

40
 Conservation of Energy, example
A 0.20-kg steel ball is dropped into a ball of dough, striking the dough at a speed of 2.3
m/s and coming to rest inside the dough. If it were possible to turn all of the energy
converted in this totally inelastic collision into light, how long could you light a desk lamp?
It takes 25 J to light a desk lamp for 1.0 s.

Step 2, Translate to maths

1
Δ𝐸int = –ΔK 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2
2

Step 3, Solve
Step 4, Evaluate
Change in kinetic energy is
1
∆𝐾 = 𝐾f − 𝐾i = 0 − 𝑚b 𝑣2b,f + 𝑚d 𝑣2d,f This is a very short time, however a 0.2kg
2 steel ball is very small and not moving very
1
= − (0.2 kg) 2.3 m/s ^2 + 𝑚d 02 fast (humans walk at 5km/hr = 1.39 m/s). It
2 will not deform/break anything.
This is very low energy, so it makes sense I
= − 0.53 J This is how much energy I have, thus I can’t turn on the light for long.
can turn on the lamp for

0.53 J
= 0.021 s
25 J/s 41
 Explosive separations
Explosive separations are the exact opposite of a
totally inelastic collision. Here, one objects becomes two.

𝑣12,i = 0, 𝑣 12,f > 0

Kinetic energy is gained at the expense of internal

energy. This is what happens in an explosion.

When the gun powder ignites, it releases its chemical

energy. This is transferred to the cannon and cannonball.

Due to conservation of momentum, the cannon and

cannonball gain the same momentum in opposite
directions (recoil of the cannon).

The internal energy can be due to changing of the

object’s shape. Does not need to be due to change in
chemical energy.

42
 Explosive separations
Consider the case of two carts being
pushed apart by a spring (on the right).
They have mass of m and 3m respectively.

There is a decrease in the internal energy

of the spring 𝐸 spring (energy released by
the spring studied at a later time)

From conservation of momentum we have

0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
because 𝑣 1𝑥,i = 𝑣 2𝑥,i = 0

From conservation of energy we also have

∆𝐾 + ∆𝐸int = 0
1 1
𝑚1 𝑣21f + 𝑚2 𝑣22f + ∆𝐸int = 0
2 2

Note, the coefficient of restitution is infinity due

43
to zero initial relative speed, which is ok.
 Explosive separations, example
A 0.25-kg cart is held at rest against a compressed spring and then released. The cart’s
speed after it separates from the spring is 2.5 m/s. The spring is then compressed by the
same amount between a 0.25-kg cart and a 0.50-kg cart and the carts are released from rest.
What are the carts’ speeds after separating from the spring?

single cart pushed by spring

Step 1, Step up the problem
This time we are given the diagrams, so it is
already set up for us.
Need to calculate energy from spring, and it to
the two carts.

two carts pushed apart by spring

Step 2, Translate to maths
𝐾 = 1 𝑚𝑣2 for single cart
2

Then two carts’ speeds must obey:

0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f
1 1
∆𝐾 + ∆𝐸int = 𝑚1 𝑣21f + 𝑚2 𝑣22f + ∆𝐸int = 0
2 2
44
 Explosive separations, example
A 0.25-kg cart is held at rest against a compressed spring and then released. The cart’s
speed after it separates from the spring is 2.5 m/s. The spring is then compressed by the
same amount between a 0.25-kg cart and a 0.50-kg cart and the carts are released from rest.
What are the carts’ speeds after separating from the spring?

Step 3, Solve
Step 4, Evaluate
Single cart change in kinetic energy
∆𝐾1 = 1 𝑚𝑣 2 = 0.25 kg 2.5 m/s 2
= 0.78 J. Thus the spring
2 2 The carts move in opposite
must give ∆𝐸 int = − 078 J. directions, as expected. I also note
that cart 1 moves at twice the
Then I obtain the velocity of the first cart from conservation of speed of cart 2, as it should to
momentum 𝑣 1𝑥,f = − (𝑚 2 /𝑚 1 )𝑣 2𝑥,f keep the final momentum of the
system zero.
Putting this into the conservation of energy we get
1 1
𝑚 − 𝑚2 /𝑚1 2 𝑣22𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣22𝑥,f = − ∆𝐸int
2 1 2

− 2𝑚1 ∆𝐸int
𝑣2𝑥,f = = 1 m/s , 𝑣 1𝑥,f = − 2 m/s
𝑚2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

45
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 05 Code: PHY102G

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Conservation of Energy
In a closed system, the total energy does not change. i.e.
energy is conserved. For a closed system we have
𝐾i + 𝐸int,i = 𝐾f + 𝐸int,f (closed system)
where the energy of the system is given by
𝐸 ≡ 𝐾 + 𝐸int

With this definition we can rewrite the top equation as

𝐸i = 𝐸f (closed system)
or writing in terms of the change of energy
∆𝐸 = 0 (closed system)

Elastic collision: A collision in which the relative speeds before and

after the collision are the same, 𝑣 12,i = 𝑣 12,f

Inelastic collision: A collision in which the relative speed after the

collision is lower than before the collision, 𝑣 12,i > 𝑣 12,f

Totally inelastic collision: A special type of inelastic collision in

which the two objects move together after the collision so that
their relative speed is reduced to zero, 𝑣 12,f = 0
2
 Interactions

Chapter Goal: To investigate how interactions convert energy from

one form to another in physical processes within the universe.
3
 Effects of interactions
Interactions are defined as a mutual influence
between two objects that produces either
physical change or a change in motion.

The figure on the right shows an interaction

between two carts linked by a spring.

There is three types of possible interactions:

attractive, no interaction & repulsive. They are
defined by how they affect the acceleration of
the objects.

Imagine holding a ball a certain height above the ground. If you let the ball go, it
accelerates downward.
An interaction between the ball and what other object causes this acceleration? Is
this interaction attractive or repulsive?

Once the ball hits the ground, its direction of travel reverses. Is this reversal the
result of an attractive interaction or a repulsive one? 4
 Effects of interactions
Consider two carts colliding.

Momentum
Velocity

Kinetic energy
Acceleration

5
 Effects of interactions
The figure on the previous slide shows the velocities, momentum,
accelerations, and kinetic energies of two carts before and after an
elastic collision. The mass of cart 1 is m1 and the inertia of cart 2 is
m2, where m2 = 2m1.

We can observe that:

The relative velocities of the two carts before and after
the interaction (or collision) are the same.

The momentum of the two-cart system remains constant

before, after, and even during the collision.

The ratio of the x component of the carts’ accelerations is

equal to the negative inverse of the ratio of their mass.
𝑎1𝑥 𝑚
=− 2
𝑎2𝑥 𝑚1

The kinetic energy of the two-cart system is not constant

during the collision. It is the same before and after, but
during collision it is reduced.

6
 Effects of interactions
So, does the system violate energy conservation
during the interaction?
No: The kinetic energy “missing” during the interaction
has merely been temporarily converted to internal
energy.
As seen in the figure, the kinetic energy of the bouncing
ball goes into changing the shape of the ball during the
interaction with the wall.

As the ball regains its original shape, the kinetic energy

that was converted to internal energy reappears as kinetic
energy after the collision.

7
 Effects of interactions
The figure below shows that whenever two objects interact, their
To summarize interactions:
relative speeds have to change, and therefore the kinetic energy
– Two objects are needed. of the system must also change during the interaction.
– The momentum of an isolated
system of interacting objects is the
same before, during, and after the
interaction.

The ratio of the x component of the

accelerations of the interacting objects
is the negative inverse ratio of their
masses.
𝑎1𝑥 𝑚
=− 2
𝑎2𝑥 𝑚1

In elastic collisions, all of the converted energy

reappears as kinetic energy after the collisions.
The system’s kinetic energy changes
during the interaction. Part of it is converted
to (or from) some internal energy:
In inelastic collisions, some of the converted kinetic
energy reappears as kinetic energy.
8
 Effects of interactions
(a) In the Figure on the right, what is the
momentum of the ball during the collision?

Momentum is zero, because speed is zero.

(b) Is the momentum of the ball constant before,

during, and after the collision?
If so, why? If not, why not, and for what system is
the momentum constant?

Momentum is constant only for an isolated system.

Ball on its own is not interacting with anything
(ignoring gravity), hence it is isolated.

During collision, ball is interacting with the wall. So

a system of ball + wall is isolated because the
momentum of the wall will change before and after
collision.
Note, wall is connected to the Earth and thus its change in momentum its negligible.

9
 Interactions and accelerations
Momentum conservation requires that the momentum of an
isolated two-object system remains constant during an interaction:

∆𝑝1 = − ∆𝑝2

If the time-interval of the interaction is Δt, then we can write

∆𝑝1 ∆𝑝
=− 2
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
If the masses of the two objects are m1 and m2, we have because
our definition of momentum is 𝑝 ≡ 𝑚𝑣
∆𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑚1 = − 𝑚2 2
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

∆𝑣
Recall that the acceleration is lim ≡ 𝑎, therefore we get that
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑚1 𝑎1 = − 𝑚2 𝑎2
𝑚1 𝑎
or = − 2𝑥 . This is the ratio we saw earlier in the graphs. It
𝑚2 𝑎1𝑥
holds true for all interactions in a two-object isolated system.
10
 Interactions and accelerations
A 1000-kg car and a 2000-kg van, each traveling at 25 m/s, collide head-on and remain locked
together after the collision, which lasts 0.20 s.
Calculate the average acceleration in the direction of travel experienced by each vehicle during the
collision.

Step 1, Setup the problem

Initially Finally 𝑚1 = 1000 kg

𝑚2 = 2000 kg

Δ𝑡 = 0.2 s

𝑣 1𝑥,f = 𝑣 2𝑥,f = 𝑣 𝑥,f = ? m/s

𝑣 1𝑥,i = − 𝑣 2𝑥,i = 25 m/s

Step 2, Translate to maths

Isolated system, so conservation of momentum:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,i + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,i = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥,f + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥,f

Δ𝑣
Average acceleration 𝑎 av =
Δ𝑡

11
 Interactions and accelerations
A 1000-kg car and a 2000-kg van, each traveling at 25 m/s, collide head-on and remain locked
together after the collision, which lasts 0.20 s.
Calculate the average acceleration in the direction of travel experienced by each vehicle during the
collision.

Step 3, Solve Step 4, Evaluate

Momentum equation becomes

𝑚1 𝑣 1𝑥,i − 𝑚2 𝑣 1𝑥,i = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 𝑥,f Objects accelerate in opposite directions,
as expected in a collision.
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣 𝑥,f = 𝑣 = − 8.3 m/s The lighter object accelerates more than
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1𝑥,i
the heavier object as expected.

Therefore we get that Final velocity is in direction of heavier

object as expected from conservation of
𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 1𝑥,i momentum.
𝑎1,av = = − 166.5 m/s2
Δ𝑡
𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 2𝑥,i
𝑎2,av = = 83.5 m/s 2
Δ𝑡

12
 Potential energy
In any interaction, the converted kinetic energy that is temporarily
stored as internal energy and is then converted back to kinetic
energy after the interaction is called potential energy 𝑈.

Potential energy is stored in reversible changes in the

configuration state of the system or the spatial arrangement of the
system’s interacting components.

When you squeeze a ball or a spring, you change the

configuration state of the atoms that make up the ball or spring.

As seen on the left, when the cart interacts with the spring the
kinetic energy is temporarily converted to elastic potential energy
in the spring.

Reversible deformation corresponds to changes in elastic

potential energy.

There are many forms of potential energy related to the way the
interacting objects arrange themselves spatially.

13
 Potential energy
heavy
If you lift something in the air, you change the configuration state object
of the object-Earth system.

As the object moves upward, the form of potential energy called

gravitational potential energy is stored in the system.
Elevator ℎ
As the object moves back toward the Earth, gravitational
potential energy converts back to kinetic energy and the objects
accelerates.

Potential energy is the form of internal energy Ground

associated with reversible changes in the configuration
state of an object or system. Potential energy can be
converted entirely to kinetic energy.

Lifts use this idea, a heavy object is lifted when the elevator is on
floor. Then they change locations when the lift (with you) goes up.

Hydroelectric dams use the gravitational potential of water being

stored in a higher location.

14
 Source energy
Energy obtained from sources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, Closed system, total energy
biomass fuels, water reservoirs, solar radiation, and wind are collectively must be constant.
called source energy.
Broadly speaking, there are four kinds of source energy: chemical,
nuclear, solar, and stored solar energy.
To facilitate our accounting of energy, we divide all energy into four
categories: kinetic energy K, potential energy U, source energy Es, and
thermal energy Eth.

15
 Source energy
Energy can be converted to different types of energy.
Here are some examples.

We can convert kinetic energy to potential energy,

and the back again. For example in with a spring.

We can convert kinetic energy to potential energy and

thermal energy. This is friction.
Friction means we always needs some source energy
to keep moving.

In a car engine, we are converting source energy

(fuel) into mechanical energy (kinetic + potential) and
thermal energy. Most of the converted energy is
thermal, hence lost.

It is possible to convert source energy into thermal

energy. This is what we do when we heat our homes
burning fuel.

16
 Source energy
An example of the conversion process shown
in the burning of fuel of the previous slide is
illustrated on the right.

In the combustion of fuels (methane in this

case), some chemical source energy is
converted to kinetic energy of the reaction
products.

The newly formed molecules require lower

energy to be held together, hence this extra
energy is released into the universe.
This is the idea behind chemical energy

To determine whether or not an interaction is dissipative, check if the interaction is

reversible:
– Interactions that cause reversible changes are non-dissipative; those that
cause irreversible changes are dissipative.

17
 Source energy
For each of the following scenarios, choose a closed
system, identify the energy conversions that take place,
and classify each conversion according to the four
processes shown on the left
(a) A person lifts a suitcase.
(b) A object suspended from a spring moves up and down.
(c) A pot of water is heated on a propane burner.
(d) A cyclist brakes and comes to a stop.

18
 Source energy
(a) A person lifts a suitcase.

Closed system: person, suitcase, and Earth.

Person uses muscles to lift suitcase (use of

chemical energy).

During the lifting, the potential energy of the

Earth-suitcase system increases and the
kinetic energy of the suitcase increases.

Person gets hot in using energy. Thus this is

the energy conversion diagram

19
 Source energy
(b) An object suspended from a spring moves up and
down.

Closed system: object , spring, and Earth.

As the object moves up and down, its height relative

to the ground changes, its velocity changes, and the
configuration of the spring changes.

The movement thus involves conversions of

gravitational and elastic potential energy and kinetic
energy.

20
 Source energy
(c) A pot of water is heated on a propane burner.

Closed system: pot of water and propane tank

As chemical (source) energy is released by

burning the propane, the water is heated and
its thermal energy increases

Process is represented by

21
 Source energy
(d) A cyclist brakes and comes to a stop.

Closed system: Earth and cyclist.

During the braking, the bicycle’s kinetic

energy is converted to thermal energy by
friction (I’m ignoring the muscle source
energy required to pull the brakes).

Process is represented by

22
 Source energy
How many types of energy are (or can be) stored in a pencil?
Coherent (mechanical) energy:
Kinetic energy: You can throw it, it should move
with about 1 J.

Potential energy: You can bend it to store elastic

potential energy. Maybe about 0.1 J of elastic potential
energy in it before it breaks.
Notice the difference in energies!
Incoherent energy:
Thermal energy: Thermal energy is the energy associated
with the random jiggling of atoms. It is impossible to convert Coherent forms of energy are
all of this energy to another form. Raising its temperature insignificant compared with
from 20˚C to 36˚C (body temperature) gives about 100 J. incoherent forms.
Chemical energy: A pencil (wood) store chemical energy.
When burned the wood turns to ashes, and the When energy is dissipated,
configuration energy stored in the chemical bonds is virtually all of it becomes
converted to thermal energy. The energy converted by thermal energy;
burning the pencil is 100,000 J, an amount equal to the
kinetic energy of a medium-sized car moving at 56 km/h.

23
 Nondissipative interactions
For a closed system we know that the total
energy must remain constant

ΔE = ΔK + ΔU + ΔEs + ΔEth = 0 (closed system)

Kinetic Thermal energy

potential source
energy
energy energy (fuel)

For nondissipative systems, ΔES = 0 and ΔEth = 0. In

other words, we are not burning any fuel (chemical energy)
or changing the temperature.

We introduce the concept of mechanical energy of a system as

Emech = K + U,
Therefore we can write
ΔEmech = 0 (closed system, nondissipative interaction)

24
 Nondissipative interactions
Consider the nondissipative interaction shown in
the figure on the right.

The interaction between the cart and the spring

(attached to the Earth) is nondissipative because it is
reversible.

Because KEarth does not change, the only mechanical

energy change is in the cart and spring, therefore:
ΔKcart = –ΔUspring
where Uspring is the elastic potential energy associated
with the shape of the spring.

Uspring has a definite value at each position x of the end

of the spring (studied later).

More generally, the potential energy of any system can be

written in the form
U = U(x)

25
 Nondissipative interactions
The fact that potential energy is a unique function
of position leads to a very important point:

For an example, consider a closed system with

the potential energy function U(x), as shown.

We can state in general that:

The parts of any closed system always tend

to accelerate in the direction that lowers the
system’s potential energy.

Or in other words, nature tends to minimize the

potential energy of a system.

26
 Nondissipative interactions
Path independence of change in potential energy.
Consider a cart striking a spring as shown on the left.
Top figure: the cart starts at initial position x1 (when it first touches
the spring), then travels to the position x2 (path A).
Bottom figure: the cart starts at x1, then goes to x3 and finally back to
x2 (path B).

Show that the change in the cart’s kinetic energy is the same for
both paths if the interaction caused by the spring is reversible.

The spring gets compressed from the cart, thus it takes energy from the
cart ΔKcart = –ΔUspring. The spring’s potential energy is function of
distance U = U(x), more compression more energy it has taken.
Therefore for path A we get
ΔUpath A = Uf – Ui = U(x2) – U(x1)

Similarly for Path B we get

ΔUpath B = ΔU13 + ΔU32
= [U(x3) – U(x1)] + [U(x2) – U(x3)]
= U(x2) – U(x1) = ΔUpath A.

So, the change in the cart’s kinetic energy is the same for
27
both paths.
 Nondissipative interactions
Use the conservation laws to show that, when the spring in the
Figure on the left expands, the change in the kinetic energy of
Earth is negligible.

Change in the kinetic energy of the Earth:

We can further re-arrange so that we can put in the

change of momentum ∆𝑝 = 𝑚∆𝑣

We assume the Earth is at rest hence 𝑣 E𝑥,i

= 0 and from conservation of momentum
we get ∆𝑝c𝑥 = ∆𝑝E𝑥. Mass of the Earth is 6 × 1024 kg, so ∆𝐾E ≈ 0. 28
 Potential energy near Earth’s surface
Objects can be dropped from a height. This means they must gain
some kinetic energy. Therefore to gain that energy they must have
had some other form of energy: Gravitational potential energy.
As discussed earlier, free-falling objects near Earth’s surface fall
with an acceleration g = 9.8 m/s2.

Since the gravitational interaction near Earth’s surface is

nondissipative, and since ΔKEarth = 0, we can write energy
conservation as
ΔUG + ΔKb = 0
where ΔUG is the change in gravitational potential energy of Earth-
ball system, and ΔKb is the change in the ball’s kinetic energy.

We know the acceleration of object is

∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥 , or written as ∆𝑡 =
∆𝑡 𝑎𝑥

Substituting ax= – g into the displacement equation 𝑥f − 𝑥i =

𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 and also ∆𝑡 = − ∆𝑣𝑥 /𝑔 gives us
2
1
Δ𝑥 = − 𝑣 𝑥,i ∆𝑣 𝑥 /𝑔 − 𝑔(− ∆𝑣 𝑥 /𝑔)2
2
29
 Potential energy near Earth’s surface
Substituting ax= – g into the displacement equation 𝑥f − 𝑥i =
𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 and also ∆𝑡 = − ∆𝑣𝑥 /𝑔 gives us
2
1
Δ𝑥 = − 𝑣 𝑥,i ∆𝑣 𝑥 /𝑔 − 𝑔(− ∆𝑣 𝑥 /𝑔)2
2
− 2𝑣 𝑥,i (𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i ) − (𝑣 𝑥,f − 𝑣 𝑥,i )2
Δ𝑥 =
2𝑔
𝑣 2𝑥,f − 𝑣 2𝑥,i
Δ𝑥 = −
2𝑔
Multiplying both sides by the mass m, and re-arranging gives
1 1
𝑚𝑔Δ𝑥 = − 𝑚𝑣2𝑥,f − 𝑚𝑣2𝑥,i .
2 2
We can see that this is just the change in kinetic energy. So it
must have come from somewhere else: gravitational potential
𝑚𝑔Δ𝑥 = ∆𝑈𝑔
where ∆𝑈 𝑔 is the gravitational potential near the Earth’s surface.
Can also be written as
∆𝑈𝑔 = 𝑈𝑔f − 𝑈𝑔i = 𝑚𝑔 𝑥f − 𝑥i

Conclusion 𝑈 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 (near Earth′s surface) 30

 Potential energy near Earth’s surface
Ball A is released from rest at a height h above the ground. Ball B is launched upward from
the same height at initial speed 𝑣 B,i. The two balls have the same mass m. Consider this
motion from the instant they are released to the instant they hit the ground.
Using kinematics, show that the change in kinetic energy is the same for both balls.

Step 1, Setup up the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

I know the final and initial positions and velocities, and I
know they will experience acceleration due to gravity.
1
𝑥f − 𝑥i = 𝑣 𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2 𝑣 𝑥,f = 𝑣 𝑥,i + 𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑡 ax= – g
2
Step 3, Solve
1
For ball A we have that 0 − ℎ = 0Δ𝑡 + (− 𝑔)(Δ𝑡) 2 hence
2
ball A takes Δ𝑡 = 2ℎ/𝑔 time to fall down.

Its final velocity is then 𝑣 𝑥,f = 0 − 𝑔 2ℎ/𝑔 .

Which gives a change in kinetic energy of

𝑚 2
∆𝐾 = 𝑣𝑥,f − 𝑣2𝑥,i = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2

31
 Potential energy near Earth’s surface
Ball A is released from rest at a height h above the ground. Ball B is launched upward from
the same height at initial speed 𝑣 B,i. The two balls have the same inertia m. Consider this
motion from the instant they are released to the instant they hit the ground.
Using kinematics, show that the change in kinetic energy is the same for both balls.

Step 3, Solve Step 4, Evaluate

For ball B we need to find what 𝑑 is, so find when the
If two objects of the same mass start at
velocity is zero.
the same height and end up in the same
0 = 𝑣 B,i − 𝑔Δ𝑡, this gives us that Δ𝑡 = 𝑣 B,i /𝑔. Which final height, they must have used/gained
the same gravitational potential energy.
we can use to find the final displacement 𝑑.
1 Thus there is no reason why the change
(ℎ + 𝑑) − ℎ = 𝑣 B,i 𝑣 B,i /𝑔 − 𝑔(𝑣 B,i /𝑔)2
2 in kinetic energies would be different. My
𝑣 2 answer makes sense.
Which gives us 𝑑 = 1 B,i.
2 𝑔

Now for an object falling a distance ℎ + 𝑑 from rest we have

(previous slide)
𝑚𝑣2B,i
∆𝐾 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ + 𝑑) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ +
2
so if we look at the total change from when we launched the
ball with velocity 𝑣 B,i, then we the total change in kinetic
energy is just 𝑚𝑔ℎ 32
 Energy dissipation
Part of the converted kinetic energy that does not reappear
after an inelastic collision is said to be dissipated.

Coherent 相干性 deformation (reversible): A piece of

paper that is gently bent returns spontaneously to its
original shape.

Incoherent 不相干性 deformation (irreversible): If

crumpled, it does not regain its original shape.

In coherent deformations there is a pattern to the displacement of

atoms. Such a deformation stores potential energy in it. When
released, this potential energy converts back to kinetic energy.

In incoherent deformations, the atoms are randomly displaced.

When released, the atoms get in one another’s way and the object
cannot regain its original shape.

33
 Energy dissipation
You can have incoherent motion of internal Elastic collision with barrier
parts. For example consider the collision of
these carts with a wall.

When the top cart collides, it regains its kinetic

energy (elastic collision).
When the bottom cart collides, the balls start to
move in a disorganized manner.
Inelastic collision with barrier
The total kinetic energy of the system (cart +
balls) the same, however the cart has lost some
of its initial kinetic energy. It was transferred to
an internal part of the object (the balls)

This experiment shows what happens inside objects when

they collide. Except install small balls we have the atoms
inside the object.
34
 Energy dissipation
All energy can be divided into two fundamental
classes: energy associated with motion and
energy associated with the configuration of
interacting objects. Each class of energy comes in

Energy of motion
two forms: coherent and incoherent.

We can now give a complete classification of

energy:

(all but kinetic)

Internal energy
The sum of a system’s kinetic energy and
potential energy is called the system’s
mechanical energy or coherent energy.

Energy of configuration
A system can also have incoherent energy
associated with the incoherent motion and
configuration of its parts.

An important part of a system’s incoherent

energy is its thermal energy.

The higher the thermal energy of an object, the

higher the temperature.

35
 Energy dissipation
Example from the book:
Balls bouncing in box, they eventually come to
stop.

They will stop bouncing because every time

they collide, the atoms start to move in an
incoherent manner and take away some of the
kinetic energy of the ball.
Note, the balls will increase in temperature as a
result.

If you consider the same scenario of a gas: small

spheres bouncing in a box.

They do not come to a stop because the atom

has no internal structure which can move in an
incoherent manner.

36
 Dissipative interactions
The slowing down is due to friction—the resistance to
motion that one surface (or object) encounters when
moving over another surface.

The friction acting on the puck causes its kinetic energy to

be converted to thermal energy.
Since there is no change in potential energy and there is no
source energy, energy conservation simplifies to
∆K + ∆Eth = 0
which can be written as
∆K = – ∆Eth.
In this example only the kinetic energy of the puck changes,
and therefore ∆K = ∆Kpuck.

This is an irreversible interaction because incoherent

thermal energy cannot spontaneously converted to
coherent kinetic energy. Dissipative interaction: cannot
convert energy back in the kinetic energy.

37
Dissipative interactions
We introduce the concept of center-of-mass of What about interactions
a system during collisions?
𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + …
𝑟cm ≡
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + …

From this it is easy to get the center-of-mass

velocity of the system:
𝑑𝑟 cm 𝑚1 𝑣 1 + 𝑚2 𝑣 2 + …
𝑣 cm = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + …
Consider the conservation of momentum for
the center-of-mass
𝑚𝑣 cm,i = 𝑚𝑣 cm,f
where 𝑚 = 𝑚 1 + 𝑚 2 + …

This can only hold true if 𝑣 cm,i = 𝑣 cm,f. So

therefore we can see that the kinetic energy
of the center-of-mass must remain constant.
1 1
∆𝐾cm = 𝑚𝑣2cm,i − 𝑚𝑣2cm,f = 0
2 2

If kinetic energy of the system is lost, then there must

be another part: convertible kinetic energy 𝐾 conv.
38
 Dissipative interactions
Then we know that our kinetic energy is 𝐾 = 𝐾 cm + 𝐾 conv, which a
coefficient of restitution, from
part that cannot be converted to anything else, and another part that
be converted.
WK4 𝑣12f
𝑒≡
𝑣12i
For a two-object system then we have the kinetic energy of the
system to be
1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣21 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣2cm + 𝐾conv
2 2 2

This equation can be re-arranged to get rela

t
𝑚1 𝑚 2 1
ive
spe
𝐾conv = 2 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 𝜇𝑣212 ed
2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2) 2
𝑚 𝑚
where 𝜇 ≡ 1 2 is defined as the reduced mass of the system.
𝑚1+𝑚2
Note, when dealing with explosive
So the change in kinetic energy is
separations where 𝑒 = ∞, you
∆𝐾 = ∆𝐾cm + ∆𝐾conv
should deal with the above line
1 1 where 𝑣2
∆𝐾 = 0 + 𝜇∆𝑣212 = 𝜇(𝑣212f − 𝑣212i ) 12i = 0
2 2
1 2
∆𝐾 = 𝜇𝑣12i (𝑒2 − 1)
2
This energy can be dissipated to thermal energy or incoherent
deformation of the object.
39
 Dissipative interactions, example
A 1000-kg car traveling at 10 m/s collides with and attaches to an identical
car that is initially at rest.
(a) How much energy is dissipated in the collision?
1 Step 3, Solve
(b) Use ∆𝐾 = 𝜇𝑣212i (𝑒 2 − 1) to verify your result.
2 (a) 𝑚𝑣 1i + 𝑚 × 0 = 𝑚𝑣 f + 𝑚𝑣 f
𝑣
Step 1, Setup up the problem 𝑣f = i
2
So the change in kinetic energy is

1 1 1 1
∆𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣21,f + 𝑚𝑣22,f − 𝑚𝑣21,i + 𝑚𝑣22,i
2 2 2 2
∆𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2f − 1 𝑚𝑣2i = − 25 kJ. Thus the energy
2
dissipated is 25 kJ.

(b) For a totally inelastic collision 𝑒 = 0 hence

1
∆𝐾 = 𝜇𝑣212i 𝑒2 − 1
2
𝑚×𝑚
Step 2, Translate to maths = 10 − 0 2
0 − 1 = − 25 kJ
Use conservation of momentum to find out the 2(𝑚 + 𝑚)
final velocity, and the change in kinetic energy
Step 4, Evaluate
𝑚1 𝑣 1,i + 𝑚2 𝑣 2,i = 𝑚1 𝑣 1,f + 𝑚2 𝑣 2,f
Both methods give the same results, so we must
be correct.
40
 Dissipative interactions
The explosive separation interaction (left) is reversible
because one form of coherent energy (elastic potential
energy) is converted to another form of coherent
energy (kinetic energy).
This type of nondissipative explosive separation is
described by
∆K + ∆U = 0.

The interaction shown on the left is an irreversible

explosive separation.
During the separation, stored chemical energy in the
firecracker is partly converted to (coherent) kinetic
energy and partly to (incoherent) thermal energy.

For this interaction, we get

∆K + ∆Echem + ∆Eth = 0

41
 Dissipative interactions
Standing a few meters from a skateboard, a person begins running and then jumps onto
the skateboard. Make bar diagrams like the ones in on the previous slide to illustrate the
energy conversions
(a) while he accelerates and
(b) while he jumps onto the board.
Are the interactions dissipative or nondissipative?

(a) Closed system consisting of the person, the

skateboard, and Earth.

As he accelerates, he gains kinetic energy

while the kinetic energy of Earth and the board
remain zero.

For this he converts source energy (chemical

energy extracted from food) to kinetic energy
and thermal energy (he gets warmer).

Conversion to thermal energy, so the

interaction is dissipative.

42
 Dissipative interactions
Standing a few meters from a skateboard, a person begins running and then jumps onto
the skateboard. Make bar diagrams like the ones in on the previous slide to illustrate the
energy conversions
(a) while he accelerates and
(b) while he jumps onto the board.
Are the interactions dissipative or nondissipative?

(b) Closed system consisting of the person, the

skateboard, and Earth.

The jump onto the skateboard is a totally

inelastic collision. Initially the person moves
while the skateboard is at rest; after he lands
both move at the same velocity.

During this “collision,” there is no conversion of

source energy and no change of potential
energy.

However, totally inelastic collision thus some

initial kinetic energy is dissipated to thermal
energy between the boarder’s feet and the
board and between the wheels and the ground.

43
 Dissipative interactions
• In the figure on the left, a 10-kg weight is suspended from
the ceiling by a spring. The weight-spring system is at
equilibrium with the bottom of the weight about 1 m above
the floor. The spring is then stretched until the weight is just
above the eggs. When the spring is released, the weight is
pulled up by the contracting spring and then falls back down
under the influence of gravity.

On the way down, it:

1. reverses its direction of travel well above
the eggs.

2. reverses its direction of travel precisely as it

reaches the eggs.

3. makes a mess as it crashes into the eggs.

44
 Interaction range
The underlying mechanisms of interactions are still poorly
understood, and as a result no one can answer the question:
How do objects interact?

For example, we know certain objects interact in a certain

way, but we do not know why.
We separate the objects depending on how they interact with Physics: we don’t why anything
other materials. e.g. magnets interact with other materials in a is happening, but we know how
certain way. to talk about it with maths.

Magnets experience an interaction Other objects do not feel an interaction

before they come into contact. It is a before they come into contact. They
“long” range interaction experience an interaction at “short” range.

45
 Interaction range
We say there is a field related to the object to
determine the long range interactions of the object.

Magnetic field, Earth’s gravitational field, and electric

field are the most common examples. With the Earth’s
gravitational field discussed later in this course.
You will study magnetic and electric field in a different
course.

However, physicists carried on thinking about these fields soo

much they now think interactions are caused by exchanges of
gauge particles, which have been observed at facilities like the
Large Hadron Collider 大型強子對撞機 .

46
 Fundamental interactions
Ga
- An interaction is fundamental if it cannot be explained in terms of me uge
other interactions. dia pa
te rtic
the les
- All known interactions can be traced to the four fundamental int tha
interactions listed below. era t
cti
on
s

The weak and strong interactions are not relevant to you from the
electrical engineering course. But you should be aware of them more for
completeness of knowledge...

Gravity is something you experience everyday!

Electromagnetic, you will study this in great depth!!!

47
 Fundamental interactions
1. Gravitational interaction:
Long-range interaction between all objects that have mass.
Mediated by a gauge particle called the graviton (still undetected).
Determines the large-scale structure of the universe. (and produces pretty
pictures)

48
 Fundamental interactions
2. Electromagnetic interaction: Responsible for most of what happens
around us.
- Responsible for the structure of atoms and molecules, for all chemical and
biological processes, for repulsive interactions between objects such as a bat
and a ball, and for light and other electromagnetic interactions.
- Long-range interaction mediated by a gauge particle called the photon.

and lasers

49
 Fundamental interactions
3. Weak interaction: Responsible for some radioactive decay
processes and for converting hydrogen to helium in stars.
Acts inside the nucleus of atoms between subatomic particles that
carry an attribute called weak charge.
Mediated by gauge particles called vector bosons.

Radioactive materials

50
 Fundamental interactions
4. Strong interaction: Acts between quarks, which are the building
blacks of protons and neutrons, and other particles.
The attribute required for this interaction is called color charge.
Mediated by a gauge particles called gluons.
Responsible for holding the nucleus of an atom together.

Most exciting video I could find of

it. We don’t know what it looks like

51
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 07
Code: PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Interactions
Potential energy
Elastic collision with barrier Coherent and incoherent deformations

Inelastic collision with barrier

Source energy Closed system, total energy

must be constant.

Interactions between objects, they

cause an acceleration

2
 Force

Chapter Goal: To learn how to analyze interacting systems

that are neither isolated nor closed using the concept of force.

3
 Momentum and Force
To relate the intuitive concept of force to momentum, consider
the case of a moving object slamming into (a) a concrete wall
and (b) a mattress.

We can discover that:

The force of impact is governed by the speed and
inertia of the object.

In the case of the mattress, the momentum change

occurs at a slow rate, compared to the concrete wall.
The longer the impact (interaction) time interval, the
smaller the force of impact.

Forces are manifestations of interactions, two objects causing each other to

accelerate.

For an on object participating in one interaction only, we can quantitatively define

force:
The force exerted on the object is the time rate of change in the
object’s momentum.
 Momentum and Force
Imagine pushing a crate in a straight line along a
surface at a steady speed of 1 m/s. What is the time
rate of change in the momentum of the crate? For an object interacting with more than
one other objects, we can discover that:
The vector sum of all forces exerted on
an object equals the time rate of
change in the momentum of the object.

Imagine the crate is initially at rest, then you push it.

(a) what is the direction of the vector sum of the forces exerted on To the right
it when it starts to move?

(b) If you stop pushing, while you are stopping what is the direction
To the left
of the vector sum of the forces exerted on it?

(c) What is the direction of the vector sum of the forces once the None
crate comes to rest?
5
 Equations of motion
We know that an if object changes it momentum by ∆𝑝 in time
∆𝑡, then we know its rate of change is going to be

So looking at the instantaneous change in momentum we get that

where the vector sum of the forces acting on the object is

represented by

This is commonly written without the subscripts as

6
 Equations of motion
However, we know that 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣, where can write that

The SI unit of force is called a

newton (N):

We know that 𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑣 which then gives us that

𝑑𝑡

This definition means that a force of 1

(1) N exerted on an object that has an
mass of 1 kg causes that object to
accelerate at 1 m/s2.
Or in component form

(2)
This is known as
Newton’s second law:
The time rate of change
of its momentum equals
Equation (1) is called the equation of motion for the object. For a the force.
given vector sum of forces, this equation allows us to obtain the
acceleration and therefore to determine the motion of the object.

Conversely, if we know the acceleration of an object, Eq. 8.6 allows us

to determine the vector sum of the forces exerted on that object.
7
 Equations of motion
The property of adding forces vectorially is called the superposition of forces (see
figure below).

We can use the equation of motion to determine the acceleration in each case.

8
 Equations of motion
A person is sitting on a stool in an elevator. The forces exerted on the stool are a downward
force of magnitude 60 N exerted by Earth, a downward force of magnitude 780 N exerted by
the person, and an upward force of magnitude 850 N exerted by the elevator floor.
If the mass of the stool is 5.0 kg, what is the acceleration of the elevator?

Step 1, Setup the problem Step 3, Solve

Σ𝐹𝑥 1 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 = = 𝐹fs,𝑥 + 𝐹𝑐fs,𝑥 + 𝐹𝑐fs,𝑥
𝑚 𝑚
1
= + 850 𝑁 + − 780 N + (− 60 N)
5 kg

= + 2.0 m/s 2

Step 4, Evaluate
Step 2, Translate to maths
Positive acceleration => moving upwards.
The acceleration is about 1/5 the acceleration
I know all the forces and the mass. due to gravity, this is a reasonable.

9
 Equations of motion
You exert a constant force of 200 N on a friend on roller skates. If your friend is
initially at rest and has a mass of 50kg, how far does your friend move in 2.0 s?

The two equations we need are

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
1
∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥,i Δ𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 (Δ𝑡)2
2

We need to put 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 /𝑚 into the

displacement equation

∆𝑥 = (0)Δ𝑡 + 1 (𝐹𝑥 /𝑚)(Δ𝑡)2 and we

2
know Δ𝑡 = 2 s

Thus ∆𝑥 = 8 m

10
 The reciprocity of forces
Because of the reciprocal nature of interactions,
forces always come in pairs:
– When two objects interact, each exerts a force
on the other.
– Such a pair of forces is called an interacting
pair.
To see this, consider the figure on the right.

For this collision, the interaction time interval is about 10

ms. The forces on the objects are

(Fby 2 on 1)x = Δp1x /Δt

= (+0.096 kg · m/s)/(0.010 s) = +9.6 kg · m/s2

(Fby 1 on 2)x = Δp2x /Δt

= (–0.096 kg · m/s)/(0.010 s) = –9.6 kg · m/s2

11
 The reciprocity of forces
What happens if I hit something hard?
Hard collision Soft collision
Interaction time interval is about 1 ms

(Fby 2 on 1)x = Δp1x /Δt

= (+0.096 kg · m/s)/(0.001 s)
= +96 kg · m/s2

(Fby 1 on 2)x = Δp2x /Δt

= (–0.096 kg · m/s)/(0.001 s)
= –96 kg · m/s2

Much larger forces, but they still cancel

each other out.

We can conclude that

Whenever two objects interact, they
exert on each other forces that are
equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

12
 The reciprocity of forces
Whenever two objects interact, they exert on each other
forces that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

We can see this is true for the figure on the right; an elastic
collision.

Is this still true for an inelastic collision?

Yes.

Two colliding objects are isolated, thus the momentum

of the system remains unchanged regardless of the
type of interaction.

Therefore, from conservation of momentum we have

that ∆𝑝 1 = − ∆𝑝 2, and so the objects exert equal
forces on each other in opposite directions.

The pair of forces that two interacting objects exert on

each other is called an interaction pair.

13
 The reciprocity of forces
We know that forces come in interaction pairs.

So let’s consider the case of a collision to see the maths. We know

there is an isolated system hence from conservation of momentum

If we consider this over a time-period ∆𝑡 and make ∆𝑡 → 0,

we get

Meaning the rate of change of momentum must be the same,

but also we know Σ𝐹 ≡ 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑡 therefore

For our cart collision we have that

This gives us Newton’s third law of motion Every action has an

equal and opposite
reaction
14
 The reciprocity of forces
Consider a mosquito splattering onto the windshield of a moving bus and sticks to
the glass. Are the forces exerted on the bus and mosquito different or the same?

During the collision, the system is isolated so ∆𝑝 mos = − ∆𝑝 bus and

therefore ∆𝑝 mos = ∆𝑝 bus .

The collision last the same amount of time for both objects, therefore
the forces are going to be equal but in opposite directions.

This might seem a bit strange because nothing happens to bus

whereas the mosquito gets crushed.

15
 The reciprocity of forces
Say if the the mosquito has an mass of 0.1 g and is initially at rest, while the bus,
with an mass of 10,000 kg, has an initial speed of 25 m/s. The collision lasts 5 m/s.
How large is the average force exerted by the bus on the mosquito?

Step 1, Setup the problem

Initially Final

𝑚m = 10−4 kg
𝑚b = 104 kg

𝑣 m,i = 0 m/s 𝑣 b,i = 25 m/s 𝑣 m,f = 𝑣 b,f = 𝑣 f = ? m/s

Step 2, Translate to maths

Totally inelastic collision 𝑣 m,f = 𝑣 b,f = 𝑣 f
isolated system so conservation of momentum
𝑚1 𝑣 1,i + 𝑚2 𝑣 2,i = 𝑚1 𝑣 1,f + 𝑚2 𝑣 2,f

We know the collision time interval,

so 𝑎 av = ∆𝑣/∆𝑡 and 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

16
 The reciprocity of forces
Step 3, Solve 𝑣 m,f = 𝑣 b,f = 𝑣 f = ? m/s
𝑣 b,i = 25 m/s
𝑣 m,i = 0 m/s
𝑚m = 10−4 kg
𝑚b = 104 kg

Solving this for the final speed of the bus

(no one will notice)

Getting the average acceleration then gives

for the bus

For the mosquito

17
 The reciprocity of forces
Step 3, Solve 𝑣 m,f = 𝑣 b,f = 𝑣 f = ? m/s
Getting the change in momentum gives us 𝑣 b,i = 25 m/s
𝑣 m,i = 0 m/s
𝑚m = 10−4 kg
𝑚b = 104 kg

So finally we have the change in momentum and know the

collision interval hence

Step 4, Evaluate

The speed change of the bus is negligible (no one will notice it).
I also know splatting a mosquito requires a small force I can notice, and 0.5 N is
a small force I can notice.

18
 Identifying forces
To identify forces on an object, we distinguish between
contact forces and field forces:

Contact forces arise when objects physically touch each

other.
For example: pushing, pulling, and rubbing.

Field forces are associated with what is called “action at a

distance”. Interacting objects do not need to be physically
touching.
For objects larger than atoms, gravitational and
electromagnetic forces are the only ones.

19
 Identifying forces
Identify all the forces exerted on the bold object in each situation:
(a) A book is lying on top of a table.
(b) A ball moves along a trajectory through the air.
(c) A person is sitting on a chair on the floor of a room.

(a) Contact forces: The book is in contact with the table, so

table exerts a force on the book.
Field forces: Earth exerts a gravitational force on the book.

(b) Contact forces: The ball is not in contact with anything

during its flight, and so there are no contact forces. (we ignore
air resistance)
Field forces: The Earth exerts a gravitational force on the ball.

(c) Contact forces: The chair is in contact with the floor and the
person, and so both the floor and the person exert a force on
the chair.
Field forces: Earth exerts a gravitational force on the chair.

20
 Identifying forces
If forces always come in interaction pairs and the forces in such a pair are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, how can the vector sum of the
forces exerted on an object ever be nonzero?

Interaction pairs are exerted on different objects, so they do

not cancel if you only consider a single object.

Consider a pushing on a crate. There is an interaction pair,

the force the crate exerts on you just slows you down.

What are all the forces here?

person to car car to person

car to floor floor to car

floor to person person to floor

21
 Translational equilibrium
A system whose motion or state is not changing is said to be in equilibrium.

An object at rest or moving at constant velocity is said to be in

translational equilibrium.
For an object in translational equilibrium, the force vectors add up to zero.

However, as seen in the figure, forces can cause an object to rotate or to

deform in addition to causing it to accelerate.

Whenever an object is at rest or moving at constant velocity, the

vector sum of the forces exerted on the object is zero, and the object
is said to be in equilibrium.

book on a table example

22
 Free-body diagrams
Forces give you a powerful tool for analyzing physical situations:
If the vector sum of the forces exerted on an object is known and also
the time rate of change in the object’s momentum, the object’s motion
can be calculated.

To analyze the motion of an object you must first separate the object
and forces that act on it from the environment.

We are only interested in the forces that act on the object, because
they affect it motion.

This is what we achieve with a free-body diagram.

23
 Free-body diagrams
Procedure: Free-body diagram

1. Identify the object you wish to consider, mark it with a circle-cross

⦻ where its center of mass is. Pretend the object is by itself in
empty space (free body).

2. List all the items in the object’s environment that are in contact
with the object. These are the items that exert contact forces on
the object. Do not add these items to your free-body diagram!

3. Identify all the forces exerted on the object by objects in its

environment.

4. For each force, draw an arrow indicating the direction. Then label
these with
type
𝐹 by on
where "type" indicates the origin of the force, "by" indicates the object
exerting the force and "on" indicates the object subjected to that force.

5. Verify that all forces you have drawn are exerted on and not by the
object under consideration.

6. Draw a vector representing the object’s acceleration next to the

center of mass that represents the object. Verify the direction of
acceleration is correct. 24
 Free-body diagrams
Draw a free-body diagram for a book lying on the floor at rest.

Start by drawing a small sketch of the

situation, then draw a circle with a cross.

List of objects in contact with book: 1. Floor

There is gravity, and upwards force from floor.

Give those forces reasonable labels.

𝐹Eb
G G (for gravity) and the subscript Eb to indicate that it is a
force exerted by Earth (E) on the book (b).

𝐹fbc c (for contact) and the subscript fb to indicate that it is a

force exerted by the floor (f) on the book (b)

Finally, I verify that all forces in the diagram have subscripts ending in b because my
diagram should contain only forces exerted on the book.

Because the book is at rest 𝑎 = 0. This is what I know.

25
 Free-body diagrams
Consider a person hanging at rest from a ring suspended from a cable,
with the person’s feet not touching the floor.
Draw a free-body diagram for the ring.

Start by drawing a small sketch of the situation, then

draw a circle with a cross.

List of objects in contact with ring: 1 cable, 2 person

There is gravity, person pulling down, and

upwards force from cable.

𝐹Er
G G (for gravity), Er a force exerted by Earth (E)
on the ring (r).
c
𝐹pr c (for contact), pr a force exerted by the person
(p) on the ring (r)

𝐹crc c (for contact), pr a force exerted by the cable (c)

on the ring (r)

Finally, I verify that all forces in the diagram have subscripts ending in r because my
diagram should contain only forces exerted on the ring.

Because the ring is at rest 𝑎 = 0. This is what I know. 26

 Free-body diagrams
A woman stands in an elevator that is accelerating upward. Draw a free-body
diagram for her.

Start by drawing a small sketch of the

situation, then draw a circle with a cross.

List of objects in contact with woman: 1. Floor

There is gravity, and upwards force from floor.

𝐹Ew
G G (for gravity), Ew a force exerted by
Earth (E) on the woman (w).

𝐹fw
c c (for contact), fw a force exerted by
floor (f) on the woman (w).

Finally, I verify that all forces in the diagram have subscripts ending in w because my
diagram should contain only forces exerted on the woman.

Because the woman is accelerating upwards, 𝑎 > 0.

This is what I know.
27
 Springs and tension
To better understand the behavior of contact forces let us examine the behavior of springs.

(a) A brick lying on a spring, compression

(b) A brick hanging from a spring, stretching

In both cases the force exerted by the spring always tends to return the
spring to its relaxed length.

The spring force counteracts the gravitational force, and because the
spring is at rest the vector sum of the two forces is zero.
28
 Springs and tension
The amount of stretching or compression of
a spring depends on:
- The force exerted on the spring
- The stiffness of the spring.

As the figure on the right shows, soft and stiff

springs exert the same support force on the
load.
The soft spring compresses more.

The same is true for stretching a spring. It

needs to deform in order to hold the brick
from falling down.
The soft spring stretches more.

Over a certain range, called the elastic range, the deformation of the
spring is reversible.
In this range, the forces exerted by a compressed or stretched material
is called an elastic force.
29
 Springs and tension
Consider the figure below, where identical bricks are suspended by

The free-body diagrams show the forces exerted on the ceiling.

For the thread, due to reciprocity of
For objects with lower mass, the gravitational force forces, the force exerted by the thread
approaches zero. on the ceiling becomes equal to the
The magnitude of the two contact forces (exerted by magnitude of the force exerted by the
the ceiling and the brick) become equal. brick on the thread.

The thread simply transmits the downwards force of the brick to the ceiling.
This is because it has negligible weight.

30
 Springs and tension
The Taipei 101 building is around 500m tall,
steel wires have a density of 7.85 g/cm3

This means that the a steel cable of radius 1cm

from the top of the bottom has a mass of 1233 kg.

In this case, you can not ignore the weight the of

steel cables used to pull the elevator up!

Elevator
ℎ

Ground

31
 Springs and tension
Usually the force of gravity exerted on a rope, spring, or thread is much smaller than the
forces that cause the stretching, and we can ignore the force of gravity (see figure).

The force exerted on one end of a

rope, spring, or thread is transmitted The stress caused by the pair of forces on each end of
undiminished to the other end, the rope is called the tension, represented by 𝛵
provided the force of gravity on the
rope, spring, or thread is much Or as in the book but I have issues
smaller than the force that causes the formatting this letter in a .pptx format.
stretching.

32
 Springs and tension
If two people, A and B, pull on opposite ends of a rope that is at rest, each exerting a horizontal
tensile force of magnitude 𝐹, the tension in the rope is 𝑇 = 𝐹 . Suppose instead that one end of
the rope is tied to a tree and A pulls on the other end by himself with the same force magnitude 𝐹.

Is the tension in the rope larger than, equal to, or smaller than the tension when A and B pull on
opposite ends?

Draw a free-body diagram for both cases

to study what is happening.

Horizontal forces, so I can ignore gravity.

Acceleration of rope is zero, so equal

forces when the two people pull on it.

Same for the rope tied to the tree. What happens to the
tension if the rope is
The sum of forces must equal zero in tied to the tree and
both cases. This means the tree must be both person A and B
applying the same force as person B. pull on the free end?

𝑇 = 2𝐹
33
 Force of Gravity
We know everything has a weight (force of
gravity), but how big is this force?

All objects in free fall near Earth’s surface

have a downward acceleration of 𝑎 𝑥 = − 𝑔.

Earlier we learned that , therefore the

equation of motion for a free-falling object is

Σ𝐹 𝑥 = 𝐹𝐺Eo, 𝑥 = − 𝑚𝑔

This is the x component of the gravitational force

exerted by the Earth on an object.

𝐹gravity = − 𝑚𝑔

34
 Force of Gravity
A tennis ball of mass 0.20 kg is launched straight up in the air by hitting it with a
racquet. If the magnitude of the acceleration of the ball while it is in contact with the
racquet is 9𝑔,
What are the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the racquet on the ball?

Step 1, setup the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

𝐹𝐺Eb, 𝑥 = − 𝑚𝑔

𝑎𝑥 = 9𝑔

Step 3, Solve Therefore in the end we get

I know all the forces on the ball, so

Putting in the value for the force of Step 4, Evaluate

gravity and acceleration gives
Upwards direction, and large force needed to
accelerate the ball in a short time. Makes sense.
35
 Force of Gravity
• The magnitude of the gravitational force exerted by Earth
on an object of mass m1 is m1g. What is the magnitude of
the force exerted by the object on Earth (mass mE)?

1. m1g

2. mEg

3. 0

4. Cannot be determined from the given information

36
 Force of Gravity
The magnitude of the gravitational force exerted by Earth on an object
of mass m1 is m1g. The mass of the Earth is mE.
What is the acceleration of Earth due to its gravitational interaction
with the object?

1. 0

2. g

3. m1g/mE

4. mEg/m1

5. Cannot be determined from the given information

37
 Hooke’s law
Consider compressing or stretching a spring.
What can you tell about the force it will be
applying?

The graph on the right shows the x

component of the displacement of the
spring from its relaxed position (x0) versus
the x component of the force exerted on it.

The relationship between the displacement

and force can be quantitatively expressed as

(Fby load on spring)x = k(x – x0)

where k is called the spring constant.

This is the force on the spring from some on

the spring object (we placed a book on it).

From Newton’s third law we know that So, the force exerted by the spring is given by

𝐹by load on spring = − 𝐹by spring on load (Fby spring on load)x = -k(x – x0)
This equation is called Hooke’s law.
38
 Hooke’s law
A book of mass 1.2 kg is placed on top of the
spring in figure on the right.
What is the displacement of the top end of
the spring from the relaxed position when the
book is at rest on top of the spring?

Step 1, setup the problem

Step 2, Translate to maths

Find gravitational force from book onto
spring,
Use the graph calculate spring constant k.
Hooke’s law equation.

39
 Hooke’s law
A book of mass 1.2 kg is placed on top of the
spring in figure on the right.
What is the displacement of the top end of
the spring from the relaxed position when the
book is at rest on top of the spring?

Step 3, Solve
Gravitational force of Earth on book
𝐹𝐺Eb, 𝑥 = (1.2 kg)(− 9.8 m/s2 )
= − 11.8 N
So the force from the spring on the book is So now I can get my final displacement as
𝐹𝑐sb, 𝑥 = − 𝐹𝐺Eb, 𝑥 = 11.8 N

Need to find the spring constant from the graph. − 11.8 N

=
3
(Fby spring on load)x = -k(x – x0) 5 × 10 N/m
−3
This is the gradient of the red line on the graph. I = − 2.36 × 10 m
pick (x – x0)=5 mm
Step 4, Evaluate
Downwards force, so downwards
compression. This makes sense.
40
= 5.0 × 103 N/m.
 Hooke’s law
(a) Is a spring that has a large spring constant k stiffer or softer than
a spring that has a small spring constant?
(b) Which has a larger spring constant: steel or foam rubber?

(a) If k is large, then small displacement

requires a large force.
So stiffer

(b) Think about putting a weight on steel and on foam.

Which compresses more?
Foam compressed more, therefore steel has a
larger spring constant.

41
 Impulse
Earlier, we defined the change in momentum of
a system as the impulse delivered to it.
∆𝑝total = 𝐽
Now we determine the relation between
impulse and force.
First let us consider the case of a single object
subject to a constant force. Constant force will
give the object a constant acceleration:

We can multiple both sides by the mass m

Impulse delivered by a constant force during a

time interval Δt is shown in the area of the
Earlier we saw that Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, thus shaded rectangle.

Next slide we will consider the more general

This means that the impulse on a system is case when the force is not constant in time.
related to force via the impulse equation For example, hitting a ball.

42
 Impulse
The relationship between impulse and area under the
Fx(t) curve holds for a time-varying force.

Thus we need to integrate in order to get the impulse

The force decreases as the hand stops pushing. So the

momentum stops changing.
This is true when a bat hits ball, but much faster.

If the object is in translational

equilibrium (zero acceleration),
then Σ𝐹 = 0 and we get
∆𝑝 = 0

43
 Impulse
• A constant force is exerted on a cart that is initially at rest on an air
track. Friction between the cart and the track is negligible. The force
acts for a short time interval and gives the cart a certain final speed.

To reach the same final speed with a force that is only half as big,
the force must be exerted on the cart for a time interval

– four times as long as (×4)

– twice as long as (×2)
– equal to (×1)
– half as long as (×1/2)
– a quarter of that for
the stronger force. (×1/4)

44
 Impulse
• A constant force is exerted for a short time interval on a cart that is
initially at rest on an air track. This force gives the cart a certain final
speed. The same force is exerted for the same length of time on
another cart, also initially at rest, that has twice the mass of the first
one. The final speed of the heavier cart is

– one-fourth (1/4)

– four times (×4)

– half (1/2)

– double (×2)

– the same as
that of the lighter cart. (×1)

45
 Impulse
(a) A feather and a brick are falling freely in a vacuumed tube (ignore air resistance).
Is the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted by Earth on the feather larger than,
smaller than, or equal to that exerted by Earth on the brick?
(b) Suppose equal forces of 10 N are exerted on both objects for 2 s. Which object gains
more momentum?

𝑎) 𝐹gravity = − 𝑚𝑔 where 𝑔 = − 9.8 m/s2

so Earth exerts a larger force on the brick
because it is has larger mass.

b) The momentum change is the same for both of them.

The change in an object’s momentum caused by a

constant force is ∆𝑝 = (Σ𝐹)Δ𝑡, and Δ𝑡 is the same for
both of them.

However, change in speed is different because the brick

is much heavier

46
 System of two interacting objects
Let us now look at a system of two interacting objects.

In the right figure, two carts are equipped repelling

magnets move on a track while cart 1 gets a push.

Notice how there is external and internal forces in the

system.
External: hand pushing cart 1
Internal: magnets on the carts.

The momentum of the two cart system is

Differentiating with respect to time gives For cart 1, we know there is an external force and
internal force (from the other cart).

Finally we end up with the equation that For cart 2, there is only an internal force

47
 System of two interacting objects
We know that 𝐹𝑚
12 and 𝐹21 form an interaction
𝑚

12 = − 𝐹21
pair, therefore we have that 𝐹𝑚 𝑚

This gives us a simple expression that

Simply, the change in momentum is only due to the

external forces.

With the definition of the center of mass (week 5

Dissipative interactions), we have that 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 cm
where 𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2. Thus we have that

The center of mass of a two-object system

accelerates as though both objects were
located at the center of mass and the
external force were exerted at that point.
Therefore we can combine these equations to get that

48
 System of many interacting objects
Usually more than just two objects interact with each other, so
we will deal with this more complicated case.

The momentum equation then becomes

We know that for each object we have some external and

internal forces. For object 1 we have

So for our total system we have that

What happens to these internal

and external forces?
49
 System of many interacting objects
Earlier we showed that the internal forces cancel
out for a two object system. This is because each
internal each is part of an interaction pair.

Therefore the change of momentum is due external

forces only:

For the center of mass we again have that 𝑝 =

𝑚𝑣cm where 𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + …

We can now treat things like pushing on a

Which consequently gives us pillow. It deforms but does not move. However,
it’s center of mass does move. It has many
internally interaction objects.
50
 System of many interacting objects
This is the cancellation of internal forces for three objects from
the book. But it can be applied to many objects.

51
52
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 08 Code: PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Force
Contact forces Interaction pairs

person to car car to person

car to floor floor to car

floor to person person to floor

Field forces

Hooke’s law.
Fx = -k(x – x0)

2
 Work

To learn how to analyze the change in energy of a system due to

external influences. This type of energy change is called work.

3
 Force displacement
Forces can change the physical state of an object (internal
energy) as well as its state of motion (kinetic energy).
To describe these changes in energy, physicists use the
concept of work:
Work is the change in the energy of a system due
to external forces.
The SI unit of work is the joule (J).

Does an external force always cause a change

in energy on a system? Look at right figure.

(a) Does this force accelerate the wall? Change its shape?
Raise its temperature?

There is a no acceleration or shape change. There will

be a small increase in temperature, but we will focus on
force displacement so ignore it for now.
(c) Does the force you exert on the wall do
(b) Does the energy of the wall change as a result of the work on the wall?
force you exert on it?
No, there is no work done on the
No, because we have ignored temperature wall.
changes and the wall is not broken.
4
 Force displacement
In the figures below the work is zero in (a), and it is nonzero in (b) and (c).

In order for a force to do work, the

point of application of the force must
We denote the point of force application as
undergo a displacement.
The displacement of the point of 𝑟𝐹, and thus ∆𝑟𝐹 is the force displacement,
application of the force is called the force where the subscript 𝐹 is added to avoid
displacement. confusion with other displacements.

5
 Force displacement
For which of the following forces is the force displacement nonzero:

(a) the force exerted by a hand compressing a spring,

Non-zero, because the spring end where you apply

the force moves.

(b) the force exerted by Earth (gravity) on a ball thrown upward,

Non-zero, because the balls moves as gravity is

affecting it.

(c) the force exerted by the ground on you at the instant you jump upward
Zero, because the force is applied to the floor and the floor
does not move.

(d) the force exerted by the floor of an elevator on you as the elevator
moves downward at constant speed?

Non-zero, because you are moving so the point of force

application is moving.
6
 Force displacement
A woman holds a bowling ball in a fixed position. The work she does on
the ball

1. depends on the weight of the ball.

2. cannot be calculated without more information.
3. is equal to zero.

A man pushes a very heavy object across a horizontal floor. The work
done by gravity on the object

1. depends on the weight of the object.

2. cannot be calculated without more information.
3. is equal to zero.

7
 Positive and Negative Work
Positive work
Work done by an external force on a system can be
positive or negative.

Positive work: The change in energy is positive,

Negative work: The energy change is negative.

The work done by a force on a system is

positive when the force and the force Negative work
displacement point in the same direction
and negative when they point in opposite
directions.

8
 Positive and Negative Work

We consider the spring + blocks to be a closed system.

In this case the change in potential energy will manifest as a change in the
kinetic energy of the blocks, keeping the total energy constant.

Because no external forces are exerted on the system, no work is involved. 9

 Positive and Negative Work

We consider the spring by itself as the system.

The force exerted on the spring by the block and the force displacement
are in the same directions, which confirms that the work is positive.

When the compressed spring is released, the decrease in the energy of the
10
spring implies that the work done by the block on the spring is negative.
 Positive and Negative Work
A ball is thrown vertically upward.

(a) As it moves upward, it slows down under the influence of gravity. Considering the
changes in energy of the ball, is the work done by Earth on the ball positive or negative?

𝑣 𝐹𝐺𝐸𝑏

So work done by the

Earth is negative

(b) After reaching its highest position, the ball moves downward, gaining speed. Is the work
done by the gravitational force exerted on the ball during this motion positive or negative?

𝑣 𝐹𝐺𝐸𝑏

So work done by the

Earth is positive

11
 Positive and Negative Work
For which of the following forces is the work done positive, negative or zero?

(a) the force exerted by a hand compressing a spring,

Positive, because the spring moves in the direction

you are compressing the spring.

(b) the force exerted by Earth (gravity) on a ball thrown upward,

Negative, ball is moving upwards but accelerating

downwards due to gravity.

(c) the force exerted by the ground on you at the instant you jump upward

Zero, there is not work done because the floor does not
move

(d) the force exerted by the floor of an elevator on you as the elevator moves
downward at constant speed?

Negative, the elevator moves downwards but the force it

exerts on you points upwards.
12
 Positive and Negative Work
You throw a ball up into the air and then catch it. How much work is
done by gravity on the ball while it is in the air?

1. A positive amount

2. A negative amount

3. Cannot be determined from the given information

4. Zero

There is no change in potential energy or kinetic energy.

The ball starting and stopping points are the same.

13
 Energy diagrams
Construct energy diagrams that represent how
the various types of energy in a system change
due to the work done on the system.

We can use energy bar charts to visually analyze

situations involving work.

The initial energy is related to the system’s energy:

Kinetic, potential, source and thermal energy. These
were introduced in (Week 5 page 15) of the lecture
notes.

14
 Energy diagrams
Consider the scenario on the right. The
system accelerates, thus there is an
increase in Kinetic energy.

Need more details in our energy diagram.

But drawing the initial and final energies is

too many bars sometimes.

We can also draw one set of bars for the

change in energy for each category, and a
fifth bar to represent work done by
external forces.

These are energy diagrams: a graphical

representation of conservation of energy.

In this example, the carts accelerate due

to the person pushing them, and the
spring contracts.
There is work done on the system by the
person.

15
 Energy diagrams
Procedure of drawing energy diagrams.

1. Specify the system under consideration by listing the components inside

the system.
2. Sketch the system in its initial and final states (if provided by the problem,
else you chose). Include any external forces exerted on the system that
undergo a nonzero force displacement, and draw the point of application of
each force.

3. Determine any nonzero changes in energy for the four typesof energy,
taking into account the four basic energy-conversion processes illustrated
on the right:
a) Change in Kinetic energy?
b) Change in potential energy (configuration of the system)?
c) Consumption of source energy (burning fuel)?
d) Is there an increase in thermal energy due to friction?

4. Determine if any work W is done by external forces on the system. Is the

work negative or positive? Draw a bar representing this work, making the
length of the bar equal to the sum of the lengths of the other bars in the
diagram. If no work is done, no need to show bar representing “work”.
16
 Energy diagrams
A cart is at rest on a low-friction track. A person pushes the cart, and the cart moves along the
track until it hits a spring. This slows down the cart as the spring compresses.
Draw an energy diagram for the system that comprises the person and the cart over the time
interval from the instant the cart is at rest until it has begun to slow down.

1. List components in the system.

Person and Cart.

2. Sketch initial and final states of the

system.

External forces on person: Gravity and

contact from floor.
External forces on cart: Gravity, contact
from floor, contact force from spring.

Vertical forces cancel out on both the cart

and person. Force displacement on cart,
so include force from spring.

17
 Energy diagrams
A cart is at rest on a low-friction track. A person pushes the cart, and the cart moves along the
track until it hits a spring. This slows down the cart as the spring compresses.
Draw an energy diagram for the system that comprises the person and the cart over the time
interval from the instant the cart is at rest until it has begun to slow down.

3. Determine changes in energy.

Kinetic energy: The cart begins at rest
and ends with nonzero speed
==> Kinetic energy increases

Potential energy: The cart nor the person

configuration changes in a reversible way
(Spring not part of system)
==> No change in potential energy
Source energy: The person uses muscles
to push cart, so source energy is
consumed
==> Source energy decreases.
4. Work done on system
Thermal energy: No friction is involved, but
the conversion of source energy is always The force from spring on the cart points to
accompanied by the generation of thermal the left and the force displacement points
energy. (The person’s muscles heat up.) to the right.
==> Thermal energy increases. ==> Negative work done on system
18
 Energy diagrams
A block initially at rest is released on an inclined surface. The block slides down, compressing a
spring at the bottom of the incline; there is friction between the surface and the block. Consider
the time interval from after the release (the block is moving at some speed 𝑣) until it comes to
rest against the spring.
Draw an energy diagram for the system that comprises the block, surface, and Earth.

1. List components in the system: Block,

surface and Earth.

2. Sketch initial and final states of the system.

External forces on block: contact force from
spring.
The spring exerts a nonzero force displacement
on the block, so include in sketch.
3. Determine changes in energy.
Kinetic energy: The block is initially moving and comes to
rest, the Earth and surface do not change their speeds.
==> Decrease in kinetic energy.
Potential energy: Block moves down, thus the
gravitational potential energy of the block-Earth system
decreases (spring is not part of the system).
==> Decrease in potential energy
19
 Energy diagrams
A block initially at rest is released on an inclined surface. The block slides down, compressing a
spring at the bottom of the incline; there is friction between the surface and the block. Consider
the time interval from after the release (the block is moving at some speed 𝑣) until it comes to
rest against the spring.
Draw an energy diagram for the system that comprises the block, surface, and Earth.

3. Determine changes in energy.

Source energy: none (no fuel, food, or other
source of energy is used in this problem).
==> No change in source energy

Thermal energy: As the block slides, energy

is dissipated by the friction between the
surface and the block,
==> Increase in thermal energy

4. Work done on system

The point of application of the external force
𝐹𝑐sb exerted by the spring on the block
undergoes a force displacement opposite the
direction of the force, so that force does
negative work on the system.

20
 Choice of system
Choose an appropriate system for a physical
problem of interest in order to systematically
account for the various energy changes.

Different choices of systems lead to different energy diagrams.

A person lowers a basket from a balcony using a rope.

The baskets initially moves at a speed 𝑣 i, but friction
between the person’s hands and the rope slows the
basket so that it ends up at rest on the ground.
For simplicity we assume no source energy is consumed;
the person lets the rope slide, exerting no physical effort.

Our first system is the basket + Earth.

Basket decreases speed => Lower kinetic energy.

Basket goes closer to the Earth => Lower potential energy of

Basket-Earth system.

Friction increases heat of person and rope, but they are not
in system.

Negative work done by the rope pulling the basket up,

slowing it down.
21
 Choice of system
A person lowers a basket from a balcony using a rope.
The baskets initially moves at a speed 𝑣 i, but friction
between the person’s hands and the rope slows the
basket so that it ends up at rest on the ground.
For simplicity we assume no source energy is consumed;
the person lets the rope slide, exerting no physical effort.

Our second system is the person + rope + basket + Earth.

Basket decreases speed => Lower kinetic energy.

Basket goes closer to the Earth => Lower potential energy of

Basket-Earth system.

Friction increases heat of person and rope => increase in

thermal energy

No external forces (person is inside the system), hence no

work is done to the system.

22
 Choice of system
A person lowers a basket from a balcony using a rope.
The baskets initially moves at a speed 𝑣 i, but friction
between the person’s hands and the rope slows the
basket so that it ends up at rest on the ground.
For simplicity we assume no source energy is consumed;
the person lets the rope slide, exerting no physical effort.

Our third system is the person + rope + basket.

Basket decreases speed => Lower kinetic energy.

Basket goes closer to the Earth, but Earth is outside of the

system hence no change in potential energy.

Friction increases heat of person and rope => increase in

thermal energy

External force is due to the Earth’s gravity pulling the basket.

Positive work is done.

23
 Choice of system
As seen in the “person + rope + basket” system, we need to be careful not to
double count gravitational potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy always refers to the Depending on the choice of system, the
relative position of various parts within a system, gravitational interaction with the system can
never to the relative positions of one component of appear in energy diagrams as either a change in
the system and its environment. gravitational potential energy or work done by
Earth, but not both!

24
 Choice of system
Draw an energy diagram for just the basket for the previous scenario.

The only energy in the system that changes is the kinetic energy,
which decreases to zero. The work done on the system must
therefore be negative.

Only two forces: upwards from the rope and downwards

from gravity.

Basket comes to rest due to the rope, so sum of forces

must be upwards. Displacement is downwards.

The work done by the rope on the system is negative

(force upward, force displacement downward).
The work done by Earth on the system is positive (force
and force displacement both downward).

For the system to slow down, the magnitude of the force

exerted by the rope must be larger than that exerted by
Earth. Therefore the overall work must be negative.

25
 Choice of system
If friction acts across the boundary it is difficult to analyze. This is because
in these situations thermal energy is generated in both the environment and
the system, making energy accounting for the system problematic.

When drawing an energy diagram, do not choose a system for

which friction occurs at the boundary of the system. Where is the point of force
application when considering
You can pick any system you want, however you are making life friction?
difficult for yourself if you pick the system on the left.
26
 Choice of system
A puck sliding on a horizontal surface hits the free end of a spring that is held fixed at the
other end. There is friction between puck and surface. Consider the interval from the
instant before the puck comes in contact with the spring until the instant the puck has
zero velocity and the spring reaches maximum compression.

Draw an energy diagram for a system that contains the puck and for which
the work done on the system is nonzero. (Your system may include objects
in addition to the puck if you like.)

Step 1, Setup up the problem

Step 2, Translate to maths

This is a conceptual problem, so no maths. But need to consider
the system to choose.
Must include the puck, but should include the surface otherwise
thermal energy from friction will be awkward to deal with.
If I include the spring, then no work can be done on the system. 27
 Choice of system
Step 3, Solve
Just follow the procedure of creating an
energy diagram for my system.
System = Puck + Surface (Earth).

External forces on puck: contact from spring.

The puck comes to rest from some speed

==> Decrease in kinetic energy

There is no change in distance between

surface (Earth) and the puck
==> No change in potential energy.

No use of source energy

==> No change in source energy.

Friction causes the puck to slow down

==> Increase in thermal energy

Work done on system: Force displacement Step 4, Evaluate

opposite the direction of the force The puck slows down due to frictional force and the
==> Negative work. force exerted by the spring.
So puck’s initial kinetic energy is converted to thermal
Adjust the lengths of the bars so that the energy and compressing the spring.
It will slow down faster due to spring, so more work
length of the W bar is equal to the sum of the
lengths of the other bars. done by spring than friction |∆𝑊| > |∆𝐸 th |.
28
 Choice of system
Do any of the systems in the figure below undergo a change in potential energy?
If yes, is the change positive or negative? Ignore any friction.

Yes. (a), (c), and (d). Because none of the situations involves friction or the conversion of source energy,
the only things you need to consider are changes in the kinetic and potential energies and work done by
external forces on the system.

(a) System is closed, and so the decrease in kinetic energy causes an increase in gravitational potential
energy: ΔU > 0.
(b) Earth is not included in the system, so there can be no potential energy component of the system’s
energy.
(c) the system is closed, so the increase in kinetic energy must be due to a decrease in gravitational
potential energy: ΔU > 0.
(d) Earth does negative work on the system, so the energy of the system must decrease. Because the
kinetic energy increases, the elastic potential energy of the spring must decrease: ΔU > 0.
29
 Work done on a single particle
Earlier, we defined work as the change in the energy of due to
external forces, and represented by 𝑊 with SI unit of joule J.

The called the energy law and it arises from the conservation of
energy: energy cannot be created of destroyed but only taken out
of the system.
Particle refers to any object that has no internal structure and no
size in space, but it has mass m. Therefore it has no internal
energy and it cannot change shape.

Only its kinetic energy can change.

For a constant force then its acceleration is given by the equation

of motion

Note, for now we will consider

So we can obtain a particle’s velocity and position in some time mechanical transfers of energy
internal Δt = tf – ti and ignore other types. You will
learn about energy transfer by
heating and radiation at a later.

30
 Work done on a single particle
The particle’s change in kinetic energy is going to be given by

Putting in the final velocity gives us

where ΔxF is the force displacement.

For motion in one dimension, the
work done by a constant force
Since ΔE = W, and for a particle ΔE = ΔK, we get
exerted on a particle equals the
For a constant force exerted product of the x component of the
on a single particle. force and the force displacement.

If more than one force is exerted on the particle, we get This is an approximation that can
be used for any rigid object as
W = (ΣFx)ΔxF long as only the kinetic energy of
This is called the work equation. It is used for dealing with the object changes.
non-closed systems.
31
 Work done on a single particle
Notice the similarities between our treatment of momentum/impulse
and energy/work,
Illustrated in the figure below.

32
 Work done on a single particle
A ball of mass mb is released from rest and falls vertically.
What is the ball’s final kinetic energy after a displacement Δx = xf – xi?

Step 1, Setup the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

Ball’s internal energy is constant as it falls (shape and
temperature do not change),
Ball is a particle ==> only its kinetic energy changes.

Can ignore air resistance, so gravity is the only external

force.

Force of gravity 𝐹 𝐺 = − 𝑚𝑔

Work done by a force

displacement

33
 Work done on a single particle
A ball of mass mb is released from rest and falls vertically.
What is the ball’s final kinetic energy after a displacement Δx = xf – xi?

Step 3, Solve Step 4, Evaluate

Inserting the gravitational force exerted on the Because the ball moves in the negative x direction,
ball and the force displacement xf – xi gives Δx = xf – xi is negative and so the final kinetic
energy is positive (as it should be).
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐺Eb,𝑥∆𝑥𝐹 = − 𝑚b 𝑔(𝑥f − 𝑥i )
An alternative approach is to consider the closed Earth-
Because the work is equal to the change in
ball system. For that system, the sum of the
kinetic energy and the initial kinetic energy is
gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy does
zero, I have W = ΔK = Kf – 0 = Kf., so
not change, and so from (WK5, page 30)
𝐾f = − 𝑚b 𝑔(𝑥f − 𝑥i ) 1
∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 𝐺 = 𝑚𝑏 𝑣2f − 𝑣2i + 𝑚𝑏 𝑔 𝑥f − 𝑥i = 0
2
Because the ball starts at rest, 𝑣 i = 0 , and so I obtain
the same result for the final kinetic energy:

34
 Work done on a single particle
The two approaches used in the previous example are shown schematically in the figure
below. They give the same answer,

35
 Work done on a single particle
Verify that in the previous example the momentum transferred to the ball by the
gravitational force is Δpx = mb (υx,f – υx,i).

The impulse from a constant force is related to the

change in momentum by (WK7, page 43)

Acceleration is constant hence

Or alternatively we can re-arrange

This gives us the following expression

36
 Work done on a many-particle system
Extend the work-force-displacement relationship for single
objects to systems of interacting objects.

The acceleration of the center of mass of a system

consisting of many interacting particles is given by

Following an approach analogous to the one we took with the

single particle, for some time interval Δt = tf – ti we can
write

Note that from (WK5, page 38)

1
𝐾cm = 𝑚𝑣2cm
2
kinetic energy of the center of mass

Then we do a similar derivation as the single particle to

obtain

37
 Work done on a many-particle system
Even though these two equations are very similar

They give a different results.

This is because from (WK5, page39) we saw that

K = Kcm + Kconv. Therefore, ΔKcm ≠ ΔE, and since
ΔE = W, we can see that
ΔKcm ≠ W (many-particle system)

If we press on the cart, the system will accelerate so

increase in kinetic energy. Some energy will also be
stored as a potential energy in the spring.

But we do not know the velocities of the carts or how

much the spring compresses. We can approximate that the carts do not
have any internal energy.

So how much work is done on a many particle-system?

38
 Work done on a many-particle system
To determine the work done by external forces on a many
particle system, we can use the fact that Wenv = –Wsys
because energy can only be transferred: system gains
energy then environment loses energy and vice verse.

So we can create two systems to analyze this problem.

We can see from the figure that the work done by the
two-cart system on the hand is = –Fh1xΔxF.
Then the work done by the external force on the two-cart
system is
W = Fext 1xΔxF
for a constant nondissipative force in one dimension and
ΔxF is the x component of the displacement of the point
where we apply the force.

Generalizing this work equation to many-particle systems

subject to several constant forces, we get

Or expressed as a sum

39
 Work done on a many-particle system
A 60-kg person jumps off a chair and lands on the floor at a speed of 1.2 m/s. Once
his feet touch the floor surface, he slows down with constant acceleration by
bending his knees. During the slowing down, his center of mass travels 0.25 m.
Determine the magnitude of the force exerted by the floor surface on the person
and the work done by this force on him.
Step 2, Translate to maths
Step 1, Setup the problem

Σ𝐹ext = 𝐹𝐺Ep + 𝐹csp

Step 3, Solve
∆𝐾cm 1
Σ𝐹ext = =0− 𝑚𝑣2𝑐𝑚,i
∆𝑥cm 2∆𝑥cm
1
= 60 kg 1.2 m/s 2
= − 43 J
2(0.25 m)
c
Then use the 3rd eq. to get 𝐹sp
Sketch the problem, Notice that I choose to point 𝐹csp = Σ𝐹ext − 𝐹𝐺Ep
x downwards.
Setup the forces of the problem
= − 170 N − 60 kg − 9.8 m/s2
Two forces on person: one from gravity 𝐹𝐺 = − 760 N
Ep
c Step 4, Evaluate
and another from the surface 𝐹sp . Negative force, as expected needed to
slow down the person.
40
 Work done on a many-particle system
This table summarizes the equation of motion and energy
accounting for a particle and a system of particles

This is for a constant force. It does not apply for a force that varies.

41
 Variable and distributed forces
We need to consider what happens if the force not constant
or applied at a well-defined location in the system.
We are going to consider a force that its x component it is a
function of x: Fx=Fx(x)

We can consider the force over a small displacement δxF,

then it is approximately constant over this small distance.

Then the total sum of the work done is approximately going

to be the sum of the rectangular areas between the steps xi
and xf in the graph on the right.

Our approximation will keep getting better as δxF tends to zero.

This is the definition of an integral

for a nondissipative force in one

dimension
42
 Variable and distributed forces
A brick of inertia m compresses a spring of spring constant k so that the free
end of the spring is displaced from its relaxed position.
What is the work done by the brick on the spring during the compression?

Step 1, Setup the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

Force from a spring is
We have an interaction pair, so the force we
are interested in is the negative.

Finally, calculate the work done via

I choose the spring only as my system, because the

brick can’t be inside the system.
I ignore the force of gravity on the spring (assume it
has negligible weight). So need to consider the
force 𝐹bs as it undergoes a force displacement.
𝑐

43
 Variable and distributed forces
A brick of inertia m compresses a spring of spring constant k so that the free
end of the spring is displaced from its relaxed position.
What is the work done by the brick on the spring during the compression?

Step 3, Solve Step 4, Evaluate

From the interaction pair, we the force we are Because the spring constant k is always positive
interested in is: (see WK7 Hooke’s law), the work done by the
brick on the spring is also positive.

This is what I expect because the work done in

Because x0>x, Fbs x is negative, which means compressing the spring is stored as potential
that the force points in the same direction as energy in the spring.
the force displacement. So we have positive
work.

44
 Variable and distributed forces
In the problem in the previous two slides, consider the situation from the instant the
brick is released to the instant at which it has zero velocity (when the spring
compression is greatest). Draw an energy diagram for a system that comprises
(a) the spring alone
(b) Earth, spring, and brick.

45
 Variable and distributed forces
Next we turn to friction. It is a problem for two reasons. First, the
dissipated energy goes in two objects. Second, there is no single
point of application for frictional forces (distributed over two
surfaces that move relative to each other).
Consider a block sliding across a surface. The block will stop
moving after some distance.
No reversible changes in configuration, no use of source energy.
Thus all the kinetic energy becomes thermal energy

Final speed is zero, hence we have

Need to relate the changes in kinetic energy to displacement of the

center-of-mass. Let 𝐹fsb be frictional force from the surface to the
block. Then kinetic energy change is

Our block have no internal structure, hence ∆𝐾 cm = ∆𝐾.

This gives us

Or alternatively we have
where 𝑑 path is the distance traveled by the block. 46
 Variable and distributed forces
When you plot the force exerted on a particle as a function of the
particle’s position, what feature of the graph represents the work done
on the particle?

1. The maximum numerical value of the force

2. The area under the curve

3. The value of the displacement

4. You need more information about the way the work was done.

47
 Variable and distributed forces
A 0.50-kg wood block slides 0.50 m on a horizontal floor before colliding elastically
with a wall and reversing its direction of travel.
If the block has an initial speed of 1.0 m/s and comes to rest exactly at its starting
position, what is the magnitude of the frictional force between block and floor?

The block travels a distance of 𝑑 = 2 × 0.5 m,

All of the kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy, hence

𝛥𝐸th = 𝐾i = 1 𝑚𝑣2 = 1 0.5 kg 1 m/s 2 = 0.25 J
2 2

Then from the equation on the previous slide

𝐹fsb = 𝛥𝐸th /𝑑 = (0.25 J)/(1 m) = 0.25 N

48
 Power
We know how much energy is converted, but we need to know the
rate at which energy is converted or transferred out of a system.
This is definition of power. If the energy of a system changes by
Δ𝐸 over a time period Δ𝑡, then the average power is

A person is good physical condition can deliver about 75 W of

average power. A professional athlete can deliver about 400 W. The SI unit of power is watt, which
is equal to 1 J of energy per second:
We however want the instantaneous power 1 W ≡ 1 J/s.
Note the difference between
work 𝑊 and watt W.
Consider pushing a cart with a constant force.

Over a time period Δ𝑡 we get

Hence its instantaneous power is obtained by Δ𝑡 → 0

49
 Power
A 0.50-kg wood block initially traveling at 1.0 m/s slides 0.50 m on a
horizontal floor before coming to rest.
What is the average rate at which thermal energy is generated?
Step 1, Setup the problem Step 3, Solve
Assume constant acceleration and because 𝑣 𝑥,f = 0 m/s

𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑣 𝑥,i /∆𝑡, which put in the displacement equation

1 − 𝑣 𝑥,i 1
𝑥f = 𝑥i + 𝑣 𝑥,i ∆𝑡 + ∆𝑡 2 = 𝑣 𝑥,i ∆𝑡
2 ∆𝑡 2
∆𝑡 = 2∆𝑥/𝑣 𝑥,i = 2(0.5 m)/(1 m/s) = 1 s
The initial kinetic energy is entirely converted to
thermal energy hence
∆𝐸 𝐾 1
𝑃av = th = i = 𝑚𝑣2i
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 2∆𝑡
There is only friction, so decrease in kinetic 1
energy and increase in thermal energy 𝑃av = 0.5 𝑘𝑔 1 m/s 2
= 0.25 W
2(1 s)
Step 2, Translate to maths
Calculate change of thermal energy ∆Eth and Step 4, Evaluate
the time interval ∆t. Sliding a block over 0.5 m is not really going to
𝑣𝑥,f = 𝑣𝑥,i + 𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑡 make it hotter, so a small power is expected.
𝑥f = 𝑥i + 𝑣𝑥,i ∆𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑡 2 /2 50
 Power
A car requires 300 kJ of energy to overcome air resistance and
maintain a constant speed of 20 m/s over a distance of 1.0 km.
What is the force of air resistance exerted on the car?

Step 1, Setup the problem Step 3, Solve

Force from air ∆𝐸 300 × 103 J
vav = 20 m/s 𝐹ext 𝑥 = =
∆𝑥 1 × 103 m
= 300 N
d = 1 km
Step 4, Evaluate
ΔE = 300 kJ The answer I obtain, 300 N, is the magnitude of the
gravitational force exerted on a 30-kg object and
Step 2, Translate to math therefore equal in magnitude to the force required to
hold up such an object.
I know the distance and the energy
dispersed. I also know the speed If I put my hand outside the window, I experience a
of the car. smaller force. However, the car is much bigger so it
must experience a large force my hand.

So 300 N seems reasonable.

∆𝑡 = 𝑑/𝑣 51
 Power
(a) A gallon of gasoline contains about 1.4 × 108 J of chemical energy. A car consumes this amount of
gasoline in approximately 30 min when cruising along a highway; a plane consumes the same amount in
about 1 s when flying at cruising altitude.
What is the average power of the energy release in each case?

Car: (1.4 × 108 J)/(1800 s) = 78 kW

Plane: (1.4 × 108 J)/(1 s) = 140 MW

(b) A 10-kg load must be hoisted up the side of a building that is 50 m tall.
How quickly can an athlete capable of delivering 500 W of power get the job done?

We need to increase the gravitational potential of the load.

ΔUG = mgΔx = (10 kg)(10 m/s2)(50 m) = 5000 J.

Therefore this takes (5000 J)/(500 J/s) = 10 s.

(c) A 3-kW engine gets the job done six times faster than the athlete.
How does the work done by the engine on the load compare with the work done by the athlete on the load?

The work done is the same because work done does not depend on how fast it
is being done.

52
53
 Midterm exam.
Write it using
BLACK pen

General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Code: PHY102F
Week 09

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw

1
 Presenting your solution well
Imagine working for TSMC and your boss asks you what is the People that can explain
next manufacturing node the company should research? things clearly is what highly
Basically what is the transistor density that they can make intelligent people do.
If your answer is 7nm
Write your solutions clearly so
Your boss will likely fire you... people can see that you understand
The reason is this does not
communicate your thinking.
Why is 7nm process node the
best?

Compare that to this answer:

If we develop 6nm process node, then we get best
processors however we can process 200 wafers per hour.
If we develop 7nm process node, then the processors are ok
and still competitive and we can process 850 wafers per hour. Wafers per hour is related to your
profit, the higher the better.
If we develop 8nm process node, then Samsung has better but
we can process 3100 wafers per hour. But you might lose customers to
Samsung since they have better
I think 7nm is best. process nodes.

2
Very easy to see where the questions end
and start. There is empty space where
only Q1, a),.. are written. This makes it
very easy to see what you are making
Easy to see the equations

Final answers are underlined to draw

attention to them.
Numbered pages, useful in case
homework falls apart.
3
Very easy to mark against the solutions PDF.

4
5
6
 Where is Q1 b)?
Written somewhere not that obvious

Question layout is just horrible to decipher.

This line looks like

“... cars collide all kinetic energy = -3351.8 N”

Bad question layout again...

7
This is an actual mark, but written at
an angle.

8
 Presenting your solution well
In future homeworks, you will be given 7 points depending on solution
presentation.
So this will be for homeworks WK10-11, WK12-13 and WK14-15

If you give a homework like my “Good Solutions” you will get 7 extra points.

If you give a homework like my “Bad Solutions” you will get 0 extra points.

9
 Marking your classmates’ exam
You will now mark one of your classmate’s exam, using BLUE pen!!!
Write your student number saying “Marked by Bxxxxxx” where Bxxxxx is
your student number!

You have mark using your blue pen and then give them a total score.
Solutions will be uploaded to Google Classrooms shortly.
Later on, me and my teaching assistant will mark these exams
and give them a total score.
If you give them the same total score, then you will be given an
extra 5 points to score.
Same is true if you give them +/- 1 from the prof.’s final mark.
You can leave after you have
5 extra points for +/- 1 marks. handed back the marked exam
4 extra points for +/- 2 marks. to prof. Stantchev.
3 extra points for +/- 3 marks
2 extra points for +/- 4 marks
1 extra points for +/- 5 marks
0 for all others.

Example: If you give 17 marks but the prof gives a final

score of 19, then you get an extra 4 points. To your score.

Finally, you get an extra 2 points if you write a few sentences to your
classmate saying how they can improve their solutions presentation (or
what you like about their solutions presentation).
10
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 10 Code: PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Work
Force displacement Choice of system

Forces that vary

with distance.

Work done on many

particle system.

2
 Motion in a plane

Develop the tools that allow us to deal with motion that

takes place in two dimensions.
3
Straight is a relative term
Consider the film clip on the left.
The ball is dropped from a pole attached to a cart
that is moving to the right at a constant speed.

(a) The ball falls to the ground in a straight line if observed from the cart’s
reference frame (put an eye on top of the cart).
(b) The ball has a horizontal displacement in addition to the straight downward
motion when observed from Earth’s reference frame (camera on the side).

Think about watching someone jump inside a

train. What is the difference if you are inside the
train, and outside watching that person?

4
 Straight is a relative term
(a) In the figure below, what is the ball’s velocity the instant
before it is released? (a) In which frame of reference?

(b) Is the ball’s speed in the reference frame of the cart Initially, from the cart’s reference frame
greater than, equal to, or smaller than its speed in the the ball is not moving.
Earth reference frame? From the Earth’s reference frame it is
moving with the speed of the cart.

(b) The speed is the magnitude of the

velocity, which is the rate at which the
displacement changes.

From the Earth’s reference frame, the

ball has moved more thus the ball’s
speed is higher in the Earth’s reference
frame.

5
 Vectors in a plane
To analyze the motion of an object moving in a plane, we
need to define two reference axes, as shown on the right.

We see that we now have two coordinates: 𝑥 and 𝑦 which

describe the position of our ball. Consequently we have a
displacement in each of these coordinates ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦.

But this depends our reference

frame.

However, we now need to re-

examine the rules regarding
adding and subtracting 2-
Dimensional vectors, or simply 2D
vectors.

1D vectors 2D vectors

6
 Vectors in a plane
The vector sum of two vectors in a
plane is obtained by placing the tail of
the second vector at the head of the first
vector, as illustrated below.

To subtract a vector 𝑏 from a vector 𝑎

reverse the direction of 𝑏 and then add
the reversed 𝑏 to 𝑎.

Note that vector addition is commutative 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎,

But vector subtraction is not commutative 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏 − 𝑎.

7
 Vectors in a plane
Any vector 𝐴 can be decomposed to component vectors 𝐴 𝑥 and 𝐴 𝑦 along the
axes of some conveniently chosen set of mutually perpendicular axes, called a
rectangular coordinate system.

The procedure for decomposing a vector is shown below.

There is no formal requirement that the axes of the coordinate system be

perpendicular to each other. Any set of two intersecting axes allows you to
decompose and therefore uniquely specify all possible vectors in a plane.

However, calculations are considerably simpler with axes that are

perpendicular to each other.
8
 Vectors in a plane
You can decompose a vector 𝐴 in many different
coordinate systems. On the right is three examples.

If each major grid unit in the of the left corresponds to 1 m,

specify the location of point P in terms of its 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates
in each of the three coordinate systems.

Top graph
The vertical line dropped from P intercepts the 𝑥
axis 4 grid units to the right of the 𝑦 axis, so x =
+4.0 m. The horizontal line dropped from P
gives y = +3.0 m. The location of point P is thus
given by
(x, y) = (+4.0 m, +3.0 m).

Middle graph
(x, y) = (+4.7 m, +1.8 m).

Bottom graph
(x, y) = (+5.0 m, 0).
9
 Vectors in a plane
The displacement, instantaneous velocity, and acceleration of the
ball in the previous slides is shown below. By definition, ball’s acceleration
points in the direction of change in
We can notice that ∆𝑟 points from the initial to final position and velocity.
that 𝑣 is tangent to the trajectory.
There is no horizontal acceleration,
What about acceleration? and only vertical downwards
acceleration.

This makes sense given that

Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
There is only gravity that is
applying any force on the ball. Thus
there is a downwards acceleration.

10
 Vectors in a plane
To further consider the case that the instantaneous velocity and
acceleration are not in the same direction, we will decompose
acceleration into two components:
one parallel to the instantaneous velocity,
one perpendicular to the instantaneous velocity.

In two-dimensional motion, the component of the

acceleration parallel to the instantaneous velocity
changes the speed; the component of acceleration
perpendicular to the instantaneous velocity changes the
direction of the velocity but not its magnitude.

11
 Vectors in a plane
In the Figure below, the ball’s instantaneous velocity 𝑣 does
not point in the same direction as the displacement ∆𝑟 (it There is a horizontal velocity
points above the final position of the ball). Why? component, and the ball is always
accelerating downwards.

Thus this gives it a downwards

curvature in its trajectory.
So 𝑣 always points above ∆𝑟

12
 Decomposition of Forces
The figure below shows a brick lying on a horizontal plank and
then the plank is gently tilted. The brick is constrained to move along
When the angle of incline exceeds a θmax the brick accelerates the surface of the plank, it makes sense
down the incline. to choose the 𝑥 axis along surface.

Then, the vector sum of the forces exerted on the brick must
also point down the incline.

13
 Decomposition of Forces
Choosing the 𝑥 axis to be along surface, we get two force components.
If possible, choose a coordinate
The force components parallel to the surface are called
system such that one of the axes
tangential components.
lies along the direction of the
The force components perpendicular to the surface are called
acceleration of the object under
normal components.
consideration.

14
 Decomposition of Forces
A suitcase being loaded into an airplane moves at constant velocity
on an inclined conveyor belt.
Draw a free-body diagram for the suitcase as it moves up along with
the belt.
Show the normal and tangential components of the forces exerted
on the suitcase.

The suitcase is subject to a downward gravitational force and

an upward contact force exerted by the belt.
𝐹𝑐bs is the force from the belt to
Because the suitcase’s velocity is constant, its acceleration is the suitcase
zero, and so the vector sum of these forces must be zero.
𝐹GEs is the gravitational force
The two forces must therefore be equal in magnitude. from the Earth to the suitcase
15
Decomposition of Forces
Pigeon vs. Escalator www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiL9WiMBi68

16
 Decomposition of Forces
Using a rope, you pull a person sitting on a swing: figure on the right.
Every one is at rest.
𝑐
(a) As you increase the angle θ, does the magnitude of the force 𝐹rp
required to hold the person in place increase or decrease?

Draw a free-body diagram.

Three forces are exerted on person:
1) the force of gravity directed vertically downward 𝐹𝐺
Ep ,
𝑐
2) the horizontal force 𝐹rp exerted by the rope,
𝑐
3) a force 𝐹sp exerted by the swing seat.

I choose horizontal and vertical axis because I am

pulling horizontally and gravity is pulling downwards.

𝑐
Decomposing the 𝐹sp into 𝑥 and 𝑦 components, gives
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
me 𝐹sp,𝑦 = − 𝐹𝐺 Ep and that 𝐹sp,𝑥 = − 𝐹rp .
𝑐
Increasing θ, then 𝐹𝐺
Ep remains the same so 𝐹sp,𝑦 can’t
change otherwise there will be vertical acceleration.
𝑐
To keep 𝐹sp,𝑦 as you increase θ requires 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 to
𝑐
increase thus 𝐹rp must also increase.
17
 Decomposition of Forces
Using a rope, you pull a person sitting on a swing: figure on the right.
Every one is at rest.
(b) Is the magnitude of your pulling force larger than, equal to, or
smaller than the magnitude of the gravitational force 𝐹𝐺 Ep exerted by
Earth on your friend? (Consider the situation for both small and large
values of θ.)
From the free-body diagram, I can see that
tan (𝜃) = 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 / 𝐹𝑐sp,y

For 𝜃 < 45˚, tan (𝜃) < 1 hence 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 < 𝐹𝑐sp,y .

I have that 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐rp and that 𝐹𝑐sp,y = 𝐹𝐺Ep

𝑐
therefore for 𝜃 < 45˚ we have that 𝐹rp < 𝐹𝐺 Ep .

For 𝜃 > 45˚, tan (𝜃) > 1 hence 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 > 𝐹𝑐sp,y .

I have that 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐rp and that 𝐹𝑐sp,y = 𝐹𝐺Ep

𝑐
therefore for 𝜃 > 45˚ we have that 𝐹rp > 𝐹𝐺 Ep .
18
 Decomposition of Forces
Using a rope, you pull a person sitting on a swing: figure on the right.
Every one is at rest.
𝑐
(c) Is the magnitude of the force 𝐹sp exerted by the swing on the
person larger than, equal to, or smaller than 𝐹𝐺Ep ?

We have that 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑦 = 𝐹𝐺Ep and

2 2
also 𝐹𝑐sp = 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑥 + 𝐹𝑐sp,𝑦 .

Therefore 𝐹𝑐sp > 𝐹𝐺Ep when 𝜃 ≠0

19
 Friction
(a) Suppose you push the file cabinet just enough to keep it moving at constant
speed. Draw a free-body diagram for the cabinet while it slides at constant
speed.

(b) Suddenly you stop pushing. Draw a free-body diagram for the file cabinet at
this instant.

There is three forces:

𝑐
(1) me pushing 𝐹mc
(2) contact force from floor 𝐹𝑐fc
(3) downwards force from gravity 𝐹𝐺
Ec
For part (a), there is constant speed so no
acceleration.

For part (b), the cabinet stops moving so

there is a deceleration. This is because the
force from me pushing disappears.

The tangential/parallel component of the

contact force exerted by the floor on the
cabinet has something to do with friction.
20
 Friction
The tangential/parallel component of the contact force exerted by
the floor on the cabinet is the force of friction.
The normal/perpendicular component of the contact force exerted by
the floor on the cabinet is the normal force.

To understand the difference between normal and frictional forces,

consider a brick on a horizontal wooden plank as shown below.

As seen in the figure, the normal force takes on whatever value is

needed to balance the net downward force, up to the breaking point.

21
 Friction
Now consider gently pushing the brick to the right, as shown below.
The horizontal frictional force is caused by microscopic bonds between
the surfaces in contact.
As you push the brick, the net effect of these microscopic forces is to
hold the brick in place.
As you increase your push force, this tangential component of the
contact force grows.

22
 Friction
The friction exerted by the surfaces that are not The friction force exerted by the surfaces when they
moving relative to each other is called static friction. move relative to each other is called kinetic friction.

When the push force exceeds the maximum force of It is caused by transient microscopic bonds between
static friction, the brick will accelerate. the two surfaces.

23
 Friction
The main differences between the normal The maximum value of the force of static
force and the force of static friction are: friction is generally much smaller than
the maximum value of the normal force.

Once the maximum value of the normal force is Once the maximum value of the force of static
reached, the normal force disappears. friction is reached, there still is a smaller but
nonzero force of kinetic friction.

24
 Friction
Which type of friction—static or kinetic—plays a role in
(a) holding a pen,
Static friction

(b) skiing downhill,

Kinetic friction

(c) polishing a metal surface,

Kinetic friction

(d) walking down an incline?

Static friction.
As long as you are stepping and your feet are not
slipping. This means your feet are at rest when they are
on the ground.
25
 Work and Friction
Like normal force, the force of static friction is an elastic force
that causes no irreversible change. The force of elastic
friction causes no energy dissipation. It is reversible.

If I push a heavy object, I will not damage the floor if the

object does not move.

Once the heavy object moves, then I will scratch (damage)

the floor and this is irreversible.

Kinetic friction does cause irreversible change, including

causing microscopic damage to the surfaces.
The force of kinetic friction is not an elastic force and so
causes energy dissipation.

26
 Work and Friction
Can the force of friction do work?

Consider the two case on the right.

(a) When the person’s foot is on the ground, there

the floor gives an upward contact force that must
be equal to the downwards force from gravity.

However, there is a tangential component to the

contact force. This is friction and it moves the
person forward.
There is no force displacement, so no work done.
Person uses muscles to change center of mass.

(b) Package on conveyor belt has the same free-

body diagram.
In both cases shown above, friction causes the
This time there is a force displacement, so there is motion. Without the forward pointing force of friction,
work done by friction. neither the person nor the package would accelerate.
Package has no muscles (internal energy) to
change its center of mass. Friction opposes the motion of two surfaces relative to
each other, not the motion.

27
 Vector Algebra
The position of a point P can be specified by:
1) Rectangular coordinates x and y (graph a)
2) Polar coordinates r and θ (graph b)

As seen from part (c), we can express polar coordinates

from rectangular coordinates and vise versa:

In polar coordinates, can r be negative?

1. Yes
2. No
3. It depends on the situation.

28
 Vector Algebra
If each major grid unit in the figure on the right
corresponds to 1 m, specify the location of point 𝑃 in
polar coordinates.

I begin by reading off the rectangular coordinates:

x = +3.6 m, y = +2.4 m.
Then I can use the equations below to convert to polar
coordinates:

𝑟 =+ 3.6 m 2+ 2.4 m 2 = 4.3 m

2.4 m
𝜃 = tan−1 = 34˚
3.6 m

29
 Vector Algebra
In rectangular coordinates, the position vector of a
point P is

where î and ĵ represent unit vectors along the 𝑥 and 𝑦

axes, respectively.

More generally as illustrated in the figure on the right, the

decomposition of an arbitrary vector 𝐴 can be written as:

Using the Pythagorean theorem, the magnitude of 𝐴 is

defined as
Note that 𝐴 𝑥 and 𝐴 𝑦 are signed numbers,
ie. they can be negative. These are not are
where the plus sign in front of the square root indicates not the magnitude of 𝐴 𝑥 and 𝐴 𝑦.
that only the positive square root applies because
magnitude is always a positive quantity.

The angle of 𝐴 with respect to the 𝑥 axis is

30
 Vector Algebra
The decomposition of vectors is particularly
useful when adding or subtracting them. Figure
on the right shows adding two vectors:

The 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of the vector sum 𝑅 of two

vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal to the sum of the
corresponding components of 𝐴 and 𝐵.

31
 Vector Algebra
A ball is thrown at an angle of 30˚ to the horizontal at a speed of 30 m/s.
Write the ball’s velocity in terms of rectangular unit vectors.

Sketch the problem From the sketch you can see that 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑣 cos (𝜃) and
that 𝑣 𝑦 = 𝑣 sin (𝜃).

𝑣 𝑥 = (30 m/s) cos (30˚) = + 26 m/s

𝑣 𝑥 = (30 m/s) sin (30˚) = + 15 m/s

The velocity in terms of unit vectors is thus

I have chosen my coordinate system, 𝑥 is the

horizontal and 𝑦 is the vertical.
Checking your answer gives that
I know the velocity can be written as
𝑣 = 𝑣 2𝑥 + 𝑣 2𝑦 = 26 m/s 2 + 15 m/s 2

𝑣 = 30 m/s
Then from the triangle I can find out what
𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 are.
32
Projectile motion in 2D
The position vector of an object moving in two dimensions is

The object’s instantaneous velocity is

Therefore we get that

Where we have that

Similarly, instantaneous acceleration components are

Decomposing vectors into components allows us to separate

motion in a plane into two one-dimensional problems.

33
 Projectile motion in 2D
Consider the motion of a ball launched straight up from a cart
moving at a constant velocity (see the figure on the previous
slide)

The resulting 2D projectile motion in the Earth’s reference frame

is the curved trajectory shown in the figure on the right.
The ball has a constant downward acceleration of ay = –g.

Viewed from the Earth’s reference frame, the ball has an an initial
velocity of

The ball’s launch angle relative to the 𝑥 axis is

Using ax = 0 and ay = –g in the displacement equations of (WK2

constant acceleration) we get

These are the results we derived for

the 1D projectile motion.

The 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of the balls’ displacement is

34
 Projectile motion in 2D
The ball of the figure on right is launched from the origin of an 𝑥𝑦
coordinate system. Write expressions giving, at the top of its
trajectory, the ball’s rectangular coordinates in terms of its initial
speed 𝑣 i and the acceleration due to gravity 𝑔.

The ball is launched from the origin, thus xi = 0 and yi = 0.

The ball will move upwards, stops, and then moves down. As the ball passes 𝑦
through its highest position, velocity reverses sign so at that position vy = 0.

Then I know 𝑣 𝑦,f = 0 and then I can find ∆𝑡 top from 𝑥

Thus I then find the (𝑥,𝑦) position from the equations on the previous slide.

means that

Using xi = 0, yi = 0 gives us the positions at the top to be

35
 Projectile motion in 2D
How far from the launch position is the position at which the ball of the
figure on the right is once again back in the cart?
This distance is called the horizontal range of the projectile.

I know that ∆𝑦 = 0, and I can use that to find how long the time-of-
1
flight is. Thus ∆𝑦 = 𝑣 𝑦,i 𝑡 + (− 𝑔)𝑡 2 goes to
2
𝑦
0= 𝑣𝑦,i − 𝑔 𝑡 𝑡 gives us that ∆𝑡 flight = 2𝑣 𝑦,i /𝑔.
2
𝑥
Therefore we can use the results for the horizontal displacement on
the previous slide to find that

Because the trajectory is an inverted parabola, the top of the parabola lies midway
between the two locations where the parabola intercepts the horizontal axis.

So the location at which the parabola returns to the horizontal axis lies a horizontal
distance twice as far from the origin as the horizontal distance at the top.

In the previous slide I found that xtop = υx,iυy,i/g. The answer I get for the horizontal
range is indeed twice this value. 36
 Projectile motion in 2D
Suppose a projectile’s initial velocity is specified by the initial speed 𝑣i and launch angle
𝜃 instead of by its rectangular components. Assume only gravity affects the motion.
(a) Write expressions for the projectile’s maximum height and horizontal range in terms
of 𝑣i and 𝜃. (polar coordinates)
(b) What angle θ gives the greatest value of ymax
(c) and xmax?

(a) The 𝑥𝑦 components are then given by the polar coordinates relationship (a few slides
earlier) 𝑣 𝑥,i = 𝑣i cos (𝜃) and 𝑣𝑦,i = 𝑣i sin (𝜃).
Putting these into the expressions we obtained in the previous two slides, gives us

(b) ymax occurs when sin2 (𝜃) has a maximum, so 𝜃 = 90˚. This makes
sense since all the projectile’s speed goes into the upward motion.

(c) 𝑥f is maximized when sin (𝜃) cos (𝜃) = 12 sin (2𝜃) is

maximized. Therefore 𝜃 = 45˚.

37
 Projectile motion in 2D
A baseball player hits a ball that has an initial velocity for which the horizontal
component is 30 m/s and the vertical component is 40 m/s.
What is the speed of the ball at the highest point of its flight?

1. 30 m/s 2 + 40 m/s 2

2. Zero

3. 30 m/s

4. 40 m/s

38
 Collisions and Momentum in 2D
As we saw in Week 3, momentum conservation states that the momentum
of an isolated system of colliding objects does not change, or ∆𝑝 = 0.

Momentum is a vector, so in two dimensions momentum change must be

expressed in terms of the components.
Thus conservation of momentum in two dimensions is given by

39
 Collisions and Momentum in 2D
Pucks 1 and 2 slide on ice and collide. The mass of puck 2 is twice that of puck 1. Puck 1
initially moves at 1.8 m/s; puck 2 initially moves at 0.20 m/s in a direction that makes an angle
of 45˚ with the direction of puck 1. After the collision, puck 1 moves at 0.80 m/s in a direction
that is at an angle of 60˚ with its original direction.
What are the speed and direction of puck 2 after the collision?

Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

𝑣𝑥,i = 𝑣i cos (𝜃)

𝑣𝑦,i = 𝑣i sin (𝜃)

Need to find 𝑣 2f of puck 2 and the angle θ that

is makes with the 𝑥 axis.
40
 Collisions and Momentum in 2D
Pucks 1 and 2 slide on ice and collide. The mass of puck 2 is twice that of puck 1. Puck 1
initially moves at 1.8 m/s; puck 2 initially moves at 0.20 m/s in a direction that makes an angle
of 45˚ with the direction of puck 1. After the collision, puck 1 moves at 0.80 m/s in a direction
that is at an angle of 60˚ with its original direction.
What are the speed and direction of puck 2 after the collision?

Step 3, Solve
We can get 𝑣2𝑥,f from the conservation of momentum in 𝑥
𝑚1
𝑣 2𝑥,f = − 𝑣 − 𝑣 1𝑥,i + 𝑣 2𝑥,i
𝑚2 1𝑥,f
1
𝑣 2𝑥,f = − 𝑣 cos (𝜃1f ) − 𝑣 1i cos (𝜃1i ) + 𝑣 2i cos (𝜃2i )
2 1f
𝑣 2𝑥,f = 0.84 m/s

Similarly we get 𝑣 2𝑦,f from the conservation of momentum in 𝑦

𝑚1
𝑣 2𝑦,f = − 𝑣 1𝑦,f − 𝑣 1𝑦,i + 𝑣 2𝑦,i
𝑚2

𝑣 2𝑦,f = − 1 𝑣 1f sin (𝜃1f ) − 𝑣 1i cos (𝜃1i ) + 𝑣 2i cos (𝜃2i )

2

𝑣 2𝑦,f = − 0.21 m/s

41
 Collisions and Momentum in 2D
Pucks 1 and 2 slide on ice and collide. The mass of puck 2 is twice that of puck 1. Puck 1
initially moves at 1.8 m/s; puck 2 initially moves at 0.20 m/s in a direction that makes an angle
of 45˚ with the direction of puck 1. After the collision, puck 1 moves at 0.80 m/s in a direction
that is at an angle of 60˚ with its original direction.
What are the speed and direction of puck 2 after the collision?

Step 3, Solve
𝑣 2𝑥,f = 0.84 m/s 𝑣 2𝑦,f = − 0.21 m/s
Now I can get the final speed and the angle:

𝑣 2f = 0.84 m/s 2
+ − 0.21 m/s 2
= 0.87 m/s
𝑣 2𝑦,f
𝜃 = tan −1
= − 14˚.
𝑣 2𝑥,f
Step 4, Evaluate
We have positive v2x,f and negative v2y,f after the collision, so puck
2 moves in + 𝑥 and − 𝑦 directions.
Puck 1 has no initial velocity in 𝑦 and after it has v1y,f>0, hence
puck 2 moving in − 𝑦 direction makes sense.
Puck 1 slows down in 𝑥 direction after collision, so it makes sense
for puck 2 to increase its velocity in 𝑥 direction.
42
 Work as the product of two vectors
Work is a scalar but force and displacement are vectors, so what form does take?

Consider a block sliding down an incline as shown (ignore friction).

There is no internal energy, so work done is equal to ∆𝐾.

The 𝑥 component of the force of gravity is what causes the block

to accelerate

Then we know the acceleration is

Which is what I told you in week 2. We now see sin (𝜃) comes
from decomposing the force of gravity into components parallel
and perpendicular to the incline.

After some time, the block will move down by some

distance ℎ. What then?

43
 Work as the product of two vectors
As illustrated in the figure below, the block begins at rest (vx,i = 0) at position
xi = 0 and drops a height h.
The displacement along the incline is then (from trigonometry)

The displacement along 𝑥 is then

This leads us to obtain that

44
 Work as the product of two vectors
The final kinetic energy of the block is then given by From previous slide

We can get the same result by using

Therefore we have a final expression
the work equation:

The work done on the system is just the change in

kinetic energy (no internal energy) hence:

45
 Work as the product of two vectors
If the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is ϕ, the scalar product of
the two vectors is defined as

Note that the scalar product is commutative

Under what circumstances could the scalar product of two vectors be

zero?

1. When the vectors are parallel to each other

2. When the vectors are perpendicular to each other

3. When the vectors make a 25° angle with each other

4. None of the above

46
 Work as the product of two vectors
We can write work as a scalar product:

Any normal force does no work, because ϕ = 90° between

the normal force and the force displacement.

So for a block sliding down an incline (previous slides) the

work done by gravity is

where θ is the angle of the incline and ϕ is the angle between

the gravitational force and force displacement ∆𝑟 𝐹.

However, since ϕ = π/2 – θ and sin 𝜃 = cos (𝜋/2 − 𝜃)

we have again see that W = mgh.

Consider our block sliding down a more general shape, say an

incline which is not straight.

If we approximate the surface by, say, four inclined surfaces, we can But we need to do better!
apply the above equation to each one. The total work done (no friction):

47
 Work as the product of two vectors
Let’s consider a rolling down an arbitrary hill. In a closed
system we know that

From week 5 we know that change is gravitational potential

energy, so therefore the change in kinetic energy is:

If we change to an open system with just the ball, then we

know that the work done by gravity is going to be

48
 Work as the product of two vectors
The previous example considered the case when the force is
constant, but we know this is not always the case.
We consider a general nondissipative force 𝐹(𝑟). We start by
subdividing the force displacement ∆𝑟𝐹 into many small
fragments 𝛿𝑟 𝐹𝑛, this gives the work done as:

where 𝐹(𝑟 𝑛 ) is the force at position 𝑟 𝑛.

The work done over the entire force displacement is the sum of
all the different regions:

If we let 𝛿𝑟𝐹𝑛 approach to zero,

which is the definition of an integral for a variable nondissipative force.

For a dissipative force, we perform the same treatment in (WK8,

A block slides across a surface and stops,
Variable and distributed forces) to get that: thus its kinetic energy is converted to
thermal energy.
for a variable dissipative force.
49
 Coefficients of Friction
If I push an object, I know the object will not move until I push
hard enough. So what is the maximum force of static friction in
a given situation?
I know pushing one brick is easier than pushing two bricks
stacked on top of each other. The contact surface area is the
same, but one has twice the weight of the other.

Another measurement I can make is put a brick on an incline

and measure the angle at which it starts to slide. I can also
rotate the brick on its side (smaller contact area) and see when
it begins to slide.

They begin to slide at the same time despite the difference in

contact area.

The maximum force of static friction exerted by a

surface on an object is proportional to the force
with which the object presses on the surface and
does not depend on the contact area.

50
 Coefficients of Friction
Let’s consider the force that an object presses on an inclined surface.

The normal force 𝐹𝑛sb exerted by the surface on the block has an opposite
interaction pair 𝐹𝑛bs (not shown on the right) and thus equal in magnitude.
We know the maximum static friction is going to proportional to this force.

For any two surfaces 1 and 2, we can therefore write

The unitless constant μs is called the coefficient of static friction.

Since the brick does not move in 𝑥 or in 𝑦 we have that:

We can then therefore obtain that: , or

From the figure on the right, we see that

Finally, this is the maximum value thus the magnitude of static friction
must obey the following condition:

Once surfaces start to slip relative to each other, the force of kinetic
friction is relative to the normal force

where μk is called the coefficient of kinetic friction. 51

 Coefficients of Friction

Notice that 𝜇 𝑘 ≤ 𝜇 𝑠.
This is always true.

52
The values given are for clean, dry, smooth surfaces.
 Coefficients of Friction
Procedure of working with frictional forces:
1) Draw a free-body diagram for the object of interest. Choose your 𝑥 axis parallel to
the surface and the 𝑦 axis perpendicular to it, then decompose your forces along
these axes. Indicate the acceleration of the object.

𝑦 direction, then you can determine the normal forces in

2) Consider the forces in the
the equation of motion Σ𝐹 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑦. If 𝑎 𝑦 = 0 look at the 𝑦 component forces in
your free-body diagram to determine the normal forces.

3) Look at the𝑥 component forces in your free-body diagram. The equation of motion
is Σ𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑥. If 𝑎 𝑥 = 0 then you can determine frictional forces.

4) If the object is not slipping/sliding, the force of friction will obey

53
 Coefficients of Friction
A hiker is using a rope to pull a friend up a hill that makes an angle of 30° with level ground.
The cable is parallel to the hill so that it also makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The
coefficient of static friction between the soles of the hiker’s boots and the surface of the hill
is 0.80 and his mass is 65 kg.
What is the maximum magnitude of the force he can exert on the cable without sliding?

Step 1, Sketch the scenario Step 2, Translate to maths

𝐹gravity = − 𝑚𝑔

Need to determine the contact force

perpendicular to the surface that the hiker
exerts on the slope.
𝐹𝐺Eh,𝑥 = − 𝑚𝑔 sin (𝜃)

𝐹𝐺Eh,𝑦 = − 𝑚𝑔 cos (𝜃)

The negative signs are due to the
What are the forces acting on the hiker? definition of the 𝑥𝑦 axis.
Draw a free-body diagram.

54
 Coefficients of Friction
A hiker is using a rope to pull a friend up a hill that makes an angle of 30° with level ground.
The cable is parallel to the hill so that it also makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The
coefficient of static friction between the soles of the hiker’s boots and the surface of the hill
is 0.80 and his mass is 65 kg.
What is the maximum magnitude of the force he can exert on the cable without sliding?

Step 3, Solve
Looking at the sum of forces in the 𝑦 direction we have

Looking at the sum of forces in the 𝑥 direction we have

Putting in these values into the inequality equation yields Step 4, Evaluate
Same force as a 12 kg object, so not very
hard. But I know I can’t pull very hard when I
am on an inclined slope.
As the maximum magnitude of the force that the cable exert
on the on hiker before he slips. 55
 Coefficients of Friction
You design a conveyor belt system for a new airport, and you determine that on an
incline of 20°, the magnitude of the maximum acceleration a rubber belt can give a
typical suitcase before the suitcase begins slipping/sliding is 4.0 m/s2.
What is the coefficient of static friction for a typical suitcase on rubber?
Step 1, Sketch the scenario Step 2, Translate to maths

𝐹gravity = − 𝑚𝑔

This time 𝑎 𝑥 ≠ 0 and at most 𝑎 𝑥 = 4 m/s 2

What are the forces acting on the suitcase?

Draw a free-body diagram.

56
 Coefficients of Friction
You design a conveyor belt system for a new airport, and you determine that on an
incline of 20°, the magnitude of the maximum acceleration a rubber belt can give a
typical suitcase before the suitcase begins slipping/sliding is 4.0 m/s2.
What is the coefficient of static friction for a typical suitcase on rubber?
Step 3, Solve
We begin by looking at the 𝑥 and 𝑦 equations of motion

where 𝑚 is the mass of the suitcase.

Step 4, Evaluate
If we say that 𝑎 is the maximum acceleration that the suitcase
does not slip, then this is the maximum force of static friction. I can only compare this result to the
Thus from the Σ𝐹 𝑥 equation I get that table I showed earlier, this value is
similar. So it is comparable to what
others have observed.
where I have said 𝐹𝑠bs = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑛bs. I also notice the final result does not
depend on 𝑚.
So now from the Σ𝐹 𝑦 equation we get that 𝐹𝑛bs = 𝑚𝑔 cos (𝜃).

This allows us to solve for 𝜇 𝑠

57
58
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 11 Code: PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Motion in a Plane
Decomposition of forces

Work as the product of two vectors

Projectile motion in 2D
Constant force

Variable force

Static and kinetic

friction
𝑦

𝑥 2
 Motion in a circle

Develop the tools that allow us to understand the kinematics

and dynamics of particles and extended objects moving in
circular motion centered on an axis of rotation.
3
Circular motion at constant speed

The motion we have been dealing with so far is

called translational motion (figure part a).

This week we will start exploring rotational

motion.

In rotational motion (figure parts b and c), the

orientation of the object changes, and the particles
in the object follow different circular paths
centered on the axis of rotation.

4
 Circular motion at constant speed
Examples of circular motion.

The block and the puck revolve around

the vertical axis through the center of
each circular path.

The definition of rotate is to move in

circular motion around an internal axis.

The definition of revolve is to move in

circular motion around an external
center.

5
 Circular motion at constant speed
The figure below shows an overhead view of the puck moving along the arc of a circle.

The instantaneous velocity 𝑣 of an object in circular motion is always perpendicular to

the object’s position 𝑟 measured from the center of the circular trajectory.

For now we will study only objects in circular motion at constant speed.

6
 Circular motion at constant speed
The motion lies entirely in a plane, therefore we can use Cartesian
𝑥, 𝑦 coordinates to describe the puck’s position and velocity, as
shown on the right.

Any time instant 𝑡 1 is specified by (𝑥 1 ,𝑦 1 ) and similarly 𝑡 2 is

specified by (𝑥 2 ,𝑦 2 ).

However, the magnitude of the puck’s position vector 𝑟 is

always equal to the radius of the circle. Thus we can also describe
the puck’s position in terms of radius 𝑟 and an angle 𝜃. These are
polar (𝑟,𝜃) coordinates.

Any time instant 𝑡 1 is specified by (𝑟 1 ,𝜃 1 ) and similarly 𝑡 2 is

specified by (𝑟 2 ,𝜃 2 ).

7
 Circular motion at constant speed
We usually use the rotational coordinate in radians, not
degrees, to describe a object’s position.

It is denoted by 𝜗 and it increases by

2𝜋 for every revolution (number of
times a full circle has been completed).

Note that the polar angle 𝜃 can in

degrees, radians or revolutions.

The time it takes for one revolution is

called the period 𝑇.

8
 Circular motion at constant speed
The relationship between an object’s
speed and angular velocity is
illustrated on the right.

All points on the rotating disc will

have the same rotational velocity,
but they all have different velocities.

However, the speed depends on the

radius of the circle: The further the point
on the disc from the rotation axis, the
larger the speed.

9
 Circular motion at constant speed
Consider a puck rotating about a central
axis.

Even though the initial and final speeds of

the object in circular motion are the same,
the object undergoes a change in velocity.
You can see 𝑣 f ≠ 𝑣 i on the right.

The puck is accelerating towards the center

with average acceleration of 𝑎 av = Δ𝑣/∆𝑡.
This is called the centripetal acceleration.

An object executing circular motion at

constant speed has an acceleration of
constant magnitude that is directed
toward the center of its circular path.

10
 Circular motion at constant speed
We use a rotational coordinate system to analyze circular motion.
The different axis from these are shown below.

11
 Circular motion at constant speed
Is it possible for an object to have a nonzero acceleration if the object
is traveling
(a) at constant velocity and
(b) at constant speed?

1. Yes, yes

2. Yes, no

3. No, yes

4. No, no

12
 Circular motion at constant speed
Determine the direction of the average acceleration in each of the following situations:
(a) A car goes over the top of a hill at constant speed.

(b) A runner slows down after crossing a finish line on level ground.

(c) A cyclist makes a left turn while cycling at a constant speed on a horizontal road.

(d) A roller-coaster car is pulled up a straight incline at constant speed.

13
 Forces and Circular motion
The centripetal acceleration of an object in circular motion
at constant speed points toward the center of the circle. Your body is obeying the law of inertia,
Then from Newton’s second law: moving objects carry on moving in a
An object that executes circular motion at constant straight line.
speed is subject to a force (or vector sum of forces) of
constant magnitude directed toward the center of the Your body does not want to change its
circular trajectory. velocity, so it exerts a force on the car
which then exerts a force on you.

In a car turning, you feel as if you are being pushed outward. Why?
There is no outward force pushing you,
even though that is what you feel. You
only think this is the case because you
are viewing things from a rotating
frame of reference.

Avoid analyzing forces from a

rotating frame of reference because
such a frame is accelerating and
therefore noninertial.

14
 Forces and Circular motion
To see how the inward force depends on radius, we now
look at the two figures on the right.

The puck on the larger radius moves a smaller amount of 𝜗 in

the same amount of time.
Consequently, it has a smaller change in velocity thus smaller
centripetal acceleration. Therefore, the force it experiences
due to centripetal acceleration is smaller.

The smaller the radius the larger the

centripetal force for a constant speed.

The inward force required to make an

object move in circular motion increases
with increasing speed and decreases
with increasing radius.
15
 Forces and Circular motion
A cube lies on a turntable initially rotating at constant speed. The rotational speed of the
turntable is slowly increased, and at some instant the cube slides off the turntable.
Explain why this happens.
Free-body diagram
Sketch of the problem So what happens if I add
another cube 2 with twice
the mass.

Do they slide of the same

time?

The lighter cube slides off

first due to lower weight
providing lower friction.

The cube executes a circular motion on 𝑛

Normal component from contact force 𝐹sc must cancel
a rotating surface, why it falls off at high
out the gravitational force 𝐹𝐺
Ec .
speed?
Then there must be a frictional force from two surfaces.
Circular motion means there is centripetal 𝑠 𝑛
This is related to normal force by 𝐹sc ≤ 𝜇 𝑆 𝐹sc .
acceleration, so I have to analyze the forces.
𝑠
Gravity and contact from the turntable. This frictional surface force 𝐹sc provides the centripetal
acceleration, but there is a maximum value after which
the cube slide outwards.
16
 Forces and Circular motion
Does a bicycle always have to lean into
a curve as illustrated ion the right?

If the road is flat, then yes it must always

lean on the right.
The contact force exerted by the road
surface on the bicycle must at an angle
to the vertical. So bicycle must lean into
the corner.

Is it possible to swing the bucket around so

that the rope is exactly horizontal?

No, there must always be an upwards

component from the rope preventing the
bucket from falling down.
If the rope is horizontal, then this
upwards component is also zero so the
bucket will fall down.

This is quite fun, so I recommend! 17

 Forces and Circular motion
What can you say about the vector sum of the forces exerted on an
object that moves in a circle at constant speed?

1. It is zero.

2. It is nonzero.

3. It depends on the speed and radius of the circle.

Is rotational inertia an intrinsic property of an object?

1. Yes

2. No

18
 Rotational Kinematics
The rotational coordinate 𝜗 of an object moving along a circle of
radius 𝑟 is defined as the length of the arc 𝑠 over which the object
has moved divided by the radius:

The change in the rotational coordinate of an object, is the object’s

final rotational coordinate minus its initial rotational coordinate:

where ∆𝑠 is the length of the arc between the final and initial
locations of the object.

19
 Rotational Kinematics
Starting from a position with rotational coordinate zero, an object moves in the positive 𝜗
direction at a constant speed of 3.0 m/s along the perimeter of a circle of radius 2.0 m.

(a) What is the object’s rotational coordinate after 1.5 s?

In 1.5 s the object moves 4.5 m. Thus 𝜗 = (4.5 m)/(2 m) = 2.3

(b) How long does it take the object to complete one revolution?

The circumference of a circle is 2𝜋𝑟 hence it takes 𝑡 = 2𝜋(2 m)/(3 m/s) = 4.2 s

(c) What is its rotational coordinate 1.0 s after passing a point on the circle whose polar
angle is 90°?

In 1 s, its rotational coordinate is 𝜗 = (3 m/s)(1 s)/(2 m) = 1.5, thus after it passes

𝜋
90° means that 90° + 1.5 = 3.1 is the rotational coordinate.
180°

20
 Rotational Kinematics
We have motion in a circle, so we can define the average
rotational velocity:

Taking ∆𝑡 → 0 gives us the instantaneous rotational velocity

The rotational speed is absolute value :

We can then get a relationship between the rotational velocity and

velocity by putting in the definition of 𝜗 into rotational velocity

The rate at which arc length 𝑠 is being swept at is the tangential In terms of speeds we have
velocity, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑠/𝑑𝑡, therefore
The speed of an object in circular
or
motion equals its rotational speed
multiplied by the radius of the circular
path.
Rotational acceleration
21
 Rotational Kinematics
Let’s consider constant speed for now, hence the rotational speed
𝜔 = 𝑣/𝑟 is constant.
We now derive the centripetal acceleration.

Look at the two triangles on the right. If the position vector 𝑟

sweeps out an angle 𝜃 then so must the velocity 𝑣 (its always
points at 90° to 𝑟). Therefore we have that:

which after dividing by ∆𝑡 re-arranges to

Taking the limit ∆𝑡 → 0 gives the magnitude of the centripetal

acceleration

This is the acceleration required to keep an object moving at

speed 𝑣 along the perimeter of a circle of radius 𝑟.
22
 Rotational Kinematics
Earlier we defined our radial axis to be defined as pointing
outwards from the rotational axis, therefore we can write

For any motion along

an arc of radius 𝑟

If the speed is not constant, then we have another

component parallel to the velocity. It is called the
tangential acceleration:

Other useful information:

For any type of circular motion we always have a zero
radial velocity:

For circular motion with constant speed we have

zero tangential acceleration.

𝑇 as the period, the time interval it

takes the object to complete one
revolution where we used 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔.
23
 Rotational Kinematics
If the tangential acceleration is nonzero, then looking at the Circular motion with increasing speed
bottom right figure the magnitude of the acceleration is

and acceleration direction no longer points to the axis of rotation.

The tangential acceleration can also be expressed in terms of

the rotational acceleration 𝛼 𝜗 = 𝑑𝜔 𝜗 /𝑑𝑡, where we get

The relationship between rotational and translational motion

quantities can be given as

translational motion = r × rotational motion

This can be seen in the table

on the left

24
 Rotational Kinematics
Using the kinematic equations developed in (Week 2, constant
acceleration), we can obtain for rotational motion

Dividing through by 𝑟 then means we obtain the rotational kinematics

equations for constant rotational acceleration:

25
 Rotational Kinematics
A women is rollerblading, and she rounds a corner at full speed, sharply leaning into the
curve (see on the right). During the turn, she goes along the arc of a circle of radius 4.5
m at a constant speed of 5.0 m/s.
What angle 𝜃 must her body make with the vertical in order to round the curve without
falling?

Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

View from above

𝐹gravity = − 𝑚𝑔

Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑟 = 4.5 m, 𝑣 = 5 m/s

There is gravity and force from

the floor.

There is gravity and force from

the floor.

26
 Rotational Kinematics
A women is rollerblading, and she rounds a corner at full speed, sharply leaning into the
curve (see on the right). During the turn, she goes along the arc of a circle of radius 4.5
m at a constant speed of 5.0 m/s.
What angle 𝜃 must her body make with the vertical in order to round the curve without
falling?

Step 3, Solve
I know that 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐, acceleration in 𝑥 equals centripetal
acceleration, hence

where 𝑚 is the mass of the woman (not given, so hopefully

not needed). From the free-body diagram I can see

sub
𝑐 𝑐
I know that 𝑎 𝑦 = 0 and as well as that 𝐹sp,𝑦 = 𝐹sp cos (𝜃),

s
𝐹𝐺Ep,𝑦 = − 𝑚𝑔, therefore the equation of motion becomes

titu
ting

27
 Rotational Kinematics
A women is rollerblading, and she rounds a corner at full speed, sharply leaning into the
curve (see on the right). During the turn, she goes along the arc of a circle of radius 4.5
m at a constant speed of 5.0 m/s.
What angle 𝜃 must her body make with the vertical in order to round the curve without
falling?

Step 3, Solve

We know the 𝑥 acceleration must equal centripetal acceleration hence

or as an angle 𝜃 = tan −1 (0.57) = 0.52 rad or about 30°

Step 4, Evaluate
This angle seems to be similar to picture in the top right corner, so
this seems reasonable.

28
 Rotational Inertia
Consider the two experiment illustrated in the figure below:
Pucks A, B and C are identical in mass and size. Puck A traveling at speed 𝑣 hits the
stationary Pucks B and C in the two separate experiments.
B and C are fastened to two strings and are free to rotate with 𝑟 C > 𝑟 B.

We can conclude that the rotational speed of puck B is larger than

the rotational speed of puck C, but they have the same speed.
It seems that puck C, having a trajectory with a larger radii than B,
resists a change in its rotational velocity more than B.
This is rotational inertia: an object’s
tendency to resist changes in its
rotational velocity.

We can also deduce that it is not

simply the mass, but somehow
related to the distance from the axis
of rotation.

29
 Rotational Inertia
Therefore, unlike inertia, which has a single value, rotational
inertia depends on the location of the rotation axis.

Rotating an object at one axis might be easier than rotating

about a different point. In other words, an object can have a
a small rotational inertia about one axis and a large
rotational inertia about another axis.

Just try and rotate a hammer. It is very easy to rotate it about

its center of mass, and more difficult at other points.

About which axis is the rotational inertia of

a pencil largest and smallest:
(1) a lengthwise axis through the core of
the pencil;
Smallest, for this axis all the inertia of
the pencil is close to the axis.
(2) an axis perpendicular to the pencil’s
length and passing through its midpoint;

(3) an axis perpendicular to the pencil’s

length and passing through its tip?
Largest, for this axis half of the object is
30
further than the furthest point of axis 2.
 Angular momentum
Let us consider the previous experiment of a stationary puck C
fastened to a string of length 𝑟 is struck by an identical puck moving
at speed 𝑣. Treating the puck C as a particle, its kinetic energy can
be written as

Defining the term in the parenthesis as the rotational inertia 𝐼 of

puck C about the axis of rotation

so we can write the rotational kinetic energy

Suppose that we have another puck B around a string of 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑟𝐶 /2 struck by

the puck A with velocity 𝑣
(a) What is the ratio of the rotational velocity of B to that of C?

Therefore it has 2× rotational velocity.

Why is the velocity 2× the
amount but the tendency to
(b) What is the ratio of the rotational inertia of B to that of C? resist rotational motion 1/4?

Therefore it has 1/4 of the rotational inertia.

31
 Angular momentum
Consider the two collisions shown on the right: In both cases the Puck strikes rod far from rotation axis
rods and pucks are identical and the puck has the same initial
velocity with the rods rotating about the same axis.
1
On the previous slide I showed you that 𝐾 rot = 𝐼𝜔 2, so if we
2
put in our definitions of 𝐼 and 𝜔, then we get that

All the translational kinetic energy is transferred into rotational

kinetic energy.

What about rotational momentum 𝐼𝜔 ? Puck strikes rod closer to rotation axis

The result is different this time: The quantity 𝐼𝜔 is not equal to

the magnitude 𝑚𝑣 of the momentum of the incoming puck A.

The larger the radius, the larger its ability to set an object in
rotational motion. Think about what happens if you hit the rod at
the axis of rotation.

32
 Angular momentum
The quantity 𝐼𝜔 plays a fundamental role in physics. The larger the
value of 𝐼𝜔 for a moving object, the more easily the object can set
another object in rotational motion. Due to the similarity of
momentum, this quantity is called angular momentum:

As illustrated in the figure, the object does not have to rotate or

revolve to have a nonzero 𝐿 𝜗. A rotation axis is needed and the
perpendicular distance 𝑟 ⊥ between the axis of rotation and the
straight line defined by the momentum of the object.

𝑟⊥ is sometime called the level arm distance or simply level arm.

33
 Angular momentum
Determine the angular momenta of objects A and B on figure to the
right relative to (a) axis 1 and (b) axis 2.
The masses are 𝑚 A = 2.0 kg and 𝑚 B = 0.50 kg, and their speeds are
𝑣 A= 0.60 m/s and 𝑣 B = 1.0 m/s. The tall side of the rectangle is 2.0 m
long and object B travels along the diagonal, which makes an angle of
30° with the long side of the rectangle.

(a) Object A: 𝑟⊥ = 2 m, so the angular momentum is therefore

𝐿A𝜗 = + (2 m)(2 kg)(0.6 m/s) = + 2.4 kg m 2 /𝑠. We have
positive rotation.
Object B: 𝑟⊥ = 0 m, so the angular momentum is therefore 𝐿 B𝜗 = 0.

(b) Object A: 𝑟⊥ = 2 m, so the angular momentum is therefore 𝑟⊥

𝐿A𝜗 = − (2 m)(2 kg)(0.6 m/s) = − 2.4 kg m 2 /𝑠 with
negative rotation relative to axis 2.

Object B: 𝑟⊥ = ? m, we need to use trigonometry.

𝑟⊥ = sin (30°) 2 𝑚 = 1 m.
Therefore 𝐿A𝜗 = − (1 m)(0.5 kg)(1 m/s) = + 0.5 kg m 2 /𝑠

34
 Angular momentum
Consider the particle in circular motion shown on the right:

• The radial component of the force keeps the particle

moving in a circle.
• The tangential component causes the particle’s angular
momentum to change.
• In the absence of the tangential component, the angular
momentum remains constant.

For the absence of the tangential forces, think about Puck A

striking Puck C tied to a string from before. The angular
momentum of Puck A is transferred to Puck C:

𝐿A𝜗,i = 𝐿C𝜗,f = + 𝑟C 𝑚𝑣.

This new observation leads us to the conservation of angular

momentum:
Angular momentum can be transferred from one object
to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

35
 Angular momentum
Uses of angular momentum: Squirrel spinning. youtube.com/watch?v=uA1NofxfRz0

36
 Angular momentum
Divers increase their spin by tucking in their arms and legs
figure on the right. Suppose the outstretched body of a diver rotates at 1.2
revolutions per second before he pulls his arms and knees into his chest,
reducing his rotational inertia from 9.4 kg∙m2 to 3.1 kg∙m2.
What is his rotational velocity after he tucks in his arms and legs?

I know that the initial and final angular momentum are

going to be the same, therefore

From the definition of angular momentum we have that

You can try this by spinning

on an office chair.
Which is simply re-arranged to get that

37
 Angular momentum
Does the rotational kinetic energy of the diver in the question on
the previous slide change as he pulls his arms in?
Explain

Yes, the kinetic energy increases.

Conservation of
angular momentum

His arms must accelerate inwards, this requires a force and this force is
provided by his muscles. Thus the diver uses internal chemical energy to
increase his rotational kinetic energy.

38
 Angular momentum
In the figure on the right, two identical pucks B and C, each of inertia 𝑚, are
connected by a rod of negligible inertia and length ℓ that is free to rotate about a
fixed axis through its center. A third identical puck A, initially moving at speed
𝑣 i, strikes the combination as shown.
After the elastic collision, what are the rotational velocity of the dumbbell and
the velocity of puck A?

Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

Elastic collision, so kinetic energy remains constant see
(WK4, elastic collisions)

Two unknowns, 𝑣 A,f and dumbbell rotational velocity 𝜔 𝜗,f

So use conservation of angular momentum of a system

from puck A and the dumbbell.

Rotational inertia

39
 Angular momentum
In the figure on the right, two identical pucks B and C, each of inertia 𝑚, are
connected by a rod of negligible inertia and length ℓ that is free to rotate about a
fixed axis through its center. A third identical puck A, initially moving at speed
𝑣 i, strikes the combination as shown.
After the elastic collision, what are the rotational velocity of the dumbbell and
the velocity of puck A?

Step 3, Solve

We have initial kinetic energy

Puck A only moves in the 𝑥 axis hence we
and final kinetic energy get that and .
The rotational inertia of each puck in the dumbbell is There is a further point that
𝑚 ℓ/2 , therefore (negligible inertia of rod)
2
which gives us:

(1)

Elastic collisions for equating the final and initial kinetic

energies gives:

Which can be written simply as:

40
 Angular momentum
In the figure on the right, two identical pucks B and C, each of inertia 𝑚, are
connected by a rod of negligible inertia and length ℓ that is free to rotate about a
fixed axis through its center. A third identical puck A, initially moving at speed
𝑣 i, strikes the combination as shown.
After the elastic collision, what are the rotational velocity of the dumbbell and
the velocity of puck A?

Step 3, Solve The system is isolated hence

(1)

Next we focus on the change in angular momentum

Which yields
of puck A
This equation can solved for 𝑣 𝑥,f and substituted into
equation (1) to give

So I can get the final velocity of puck A to be

Initially the dumbbell has no angular momentum, Step 4, Evaluate

hence Puck A bounces back, as seen in its negative final
velocity in 𝑥. Positive rotational velocity.
These are expected. 41
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
We need to apply the concept of rotational inertia to extended rigid
objects, not just single point particles. For example, consider the
object on the right.

We can split it into small segments 𝛿𝑚, and each segment will
have a different velocity 𝑣. Then the rotational kinetic energy of the
object is the sum of the kinetic energies of the segments:

However, from 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 we can write this equation as

where 𝑟 𝑛 measures the distance of segment 𝑛 to the rotation axis.

This can also be written as

where
is the sum of the rotational inertial of each small segment.

Taking the limit that segments tend to zero 𝛿𝑚 𝑛 → 0

42
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
This integral is difficult to evaluate for an
arbitrarily shaped object. However there are
cases where it is easy. This is when the objects
Some results for the rotational inertia of uniform exhibit some symmetry and are uniform in their
objects of inertia 𝑀 about axes through their center mass distribution.

43
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
Calculate the rotational inertia of a hoop of inertia 𝑚 and
radius 𝑅 about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
hoop and passing through its center.

I can divide the hoop is small segments 𝑑𝑚 each of inertia,

then I can use the rotational inertia equation

I can also see that 𝑟 = 𝑅 for each segment, hence 𝑟 2 = 𝑅 2 is

a constant that can be taken out of the integral hence

This result makes sense because all the material contained in the hoop lies
at the same distance 𝑅 from the rotation axis.

Therefore the rotational inertia of the hoop is the same as that of a particle of
inertia m located a distance 𝑅 from the rotation axis, which I know from
earlier definition of a particle’s rotational inertia 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑅 2 44
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
Calculating rotational inertia requires us the know the inertia
(mass) as a function of space, so that we can evaluate the 1D 2D 3D
integral in either Cartesian or Polar coordinates.

If the mass is however uniformly distributed, then we

simplify the maths a lot. We the introduce a quantity: inertia
per unit length 𝜆 ≡ 𝑑𝑚/𝑑𝑥. Thus for each small segment
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥. Thus the integral becomes:

for a 1D object. inertia per unit length

𝜆 ≡ 𝑑𝑚/𝑑𝑥

Th 3D d
and
ese
are nsitie
Likewise, for a 2D and 3D object we get that

e
als s.
inertia per unit area

oc
for a 2D object. 𝜎 ≡ 𝑑𝑚/𝑑𝐴

alle
the d
inertia per unit volume

1D
for a 3D object.
𝜌 ≡ 𝑑𝑚/𝑑𝑉

, 2D
Note, the integrals are carried out over the object space, i.e. in 1D it is the length of
the object, 2D it is the area of the object, and in 3D it is the volume. 45
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
Calculate the rotational inertia of a uniform
solid rod of inertia 𝑚 and length ℓ about an
axis perpendicular to the long axis of the rod
and passing through its center.

I choose the 𝑥 axis that lies along the rod’s long axis, I choose
the middle of the rod to be my origin as that is the axis of If I approximate each half of the rod
rotation. as a particle located a distance ℓ/4
I determine that the inertia per unit length to 𝜆 = 𝑚/ℓ (mass per from the origin I chose, the rotational
inertia of the rod would be, from the
unit length). Then I integrate from 𝑥 = − ℓ/2 until 𝑥 = ℓ/2.
definition 𝐼 ≡ 𝑚𝑟 2,
1 1 2 1
Then using the integral for a uniform 1D object we get that 2 𝑚 ℓ = 𝑚ℓ2
2 4 16

This is not too far from the value I

obtained, so my answer appears to be
reasonable.

46
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
Calculate the rotational inertia of a uniform hollow-core cylinder of inner radius
Rinner, outer radius Router, length ℓ, and inertia m about an axis parallel to the
cylinder’s length and passing through its center, as in the figure on the right.
Simplify the integration by exploiting the cylindrical symmetry. Split in to
individual shells and move from 𝑅 inner and move to 𝑅 outer.
Uniformly distributed inertia 𝑚 hence 𝜌 = 𝑚/𝑉 for volume 𝑉. We also
know the volume going to be 𝑉 = 𝜋(𝑅2outer − 𝑅2inner )ℓ.
Each shell has an outer surface area of 2𝜋𝑟ℓ and thickness 𝑑𝑟, and so
its volume is 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟ℓ𝑑𝑟. The rotational inertia of the entire cylinder is

Then we re-write and

then obtain:

In the limit that we have a solid cylinder, 𝑅 inner = 0, then we get the
same result as the table from a few slides back
47
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
In the previous slide we saw that and
Does that mean that you can increase the rotational inertia of cylinder by drilling a hole in?

No, because drilling a hole removes material

and its contribution to the rotational inertia,
without changing the contribution of the
remaining material:
𝐼 solid = 𝐼 removed + 𝐼 remaining > 𝐼 remaining

There is different masses 𝑚 in these two cases.

For the 𝑚 hollow = 𝜌𝜋ℓ(𝑅2outer − 𝑅2inner ) and for 𝑚 solid = 𝜌𝜋ℓ𝑅2outer .

Putting these into their respective expressions gives

𝐼 hollow = 1 𝜌𝜋ℓ 𝑅2outer − 𝑅2inner 𝑅2outer + 𝑅2inner 𝐼 solid = 1 𝜌𝜋ℓ 𝑅2outer 𝑅2outer
2
= 1 𝜌𝜋ℓ 𝑅4outer − 𝑅4inner < 2
= 1 𝜌𝜋ℓ 𝑅4outer
2 2

48
 Rotational inertia of extended objects
We saw that the inertia of an object is

Thus the rotational inertia of the object about axis at its center of mass is

where 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑦 𝑛 are defined in the middle figure on the right.

So for the rotational inertia about a parallel axis at point 𝑃 that is a

distance 𝑑 away from the center of mass, we have that

If we put out center of mass at the origin, then from its definition 𝑟 cm ≡
∑ 𝑚 𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 = 0. Or in our expressions ∑ 𝛿𝑚 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 =∑ 𝛿𝑚 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 = 0, thus
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

The factor 𝑑 2 can be pulled out of the summation, and so we see that
the rotational inertia about the parallel axis is

This relationship is called the parallel-axis theorem. 49

50
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 12
Code:
PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Motion in a Circle

Angular momentum

2
 Torque

To study the causes of the changes in rotational motion

using the concepts of torque and angular momentum.
3
 Torque and Angular momentum
If you apply a tangential force to some circular object, it will
rotate. For example when you open a jar of pickles.

Consider pushing a person on seesaw. Work done needed to

raise person ∆𝑦 is 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦. Due to rotation, your end and the
person’s end of the seesaw change heights by the same
magnitude. (your end lowers by the same theirs increases).

Work done by me pushing is going to be 𝐹∆𝑦 𝐹, and these must

equal each other 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 = 𝐹∆𝑦 𝐹.

If I push close to the pivot (rotational axis), then my ∆𝑦 𝐹 becomes

smaller, so I need to apply a bigger force 𝐹 (it’s harder).

Work done is actually the dot product 𝑊 = 𝐹∙∆𝑟 𝐹, so if I apply

the force at an angle, then I also need apply a larger force.

4
 Torque and Angular momentum
The ability of a force to rotate an object about an
axis is called torque. It is the rotational analogue to
force. Forces cause (translational) acceleration;
torques cause rotational acceleration about an axis

If we draw a diagram of the rod (seesaw), we can

see that pushing at ℓ/4 will result in a force
1
displacement of Δ𝑦 𝐹 compared to pushing at ℓ/2
2
which results in a displacement of Δ𝑦 𝐹.

If we draw the forces we apply a point, then we

can see that 𝐹 ⊥ is the only force component that
causes any rotation.

5
 Torque and Angular momentum
We can do an experiment: put two unequal weights
on the ends of a rod and find the point where they
are balanced.

The forces on each end must equal each other,

otherwise the rod would rotate and be unbalanced.
However the weights are not equal.
In maths 𝐹 1 = 𝑚 1 𝑔 and 𝐹 2 = 𝑚 2 𝑔 where 𝑚 1 ≠ 𝑚 2

However, we know the torques must have the same

magnitude and opposite direction. This allows us to
see that 𝐹 1 𝑟 1 = 𝐹 2 𝑟 2.

Torque = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹

If 𝑟 1 = 𝑟 2, why would the equilibrium be found when

the seesaw is at an angle?

Gravity always acts downwards, which is not always

perpendicular to the seesaw. The seesaw will keep
rotationally accelerating until the torques balance out.

6
 Torque and Angular momentum
Torque = 𝑟𝐹 ⊥ = 𝑟(𝐹 sin 𝜃 )
Torque is the product of the magnitude of the force and
its lever arm distance. There are two ways in which we
can calculate the torque (see on the right)

The effectiveness of a force to rotate an object about

an axis depends on:
⇒ The magnitude of the applied force (𝐹)
⇒ The distance from the pivot to the point force is
applied (𝑟) Torque = 𝑟 ⊥ 𝐹 = (𝑟 sin 𝜃 )𝐹
⇒ The angle at which the force is applied (𝜃)

Torque has a sign. The sign of the torque depends on

the choice of direction for increasing 𝜗.

In the figure below, torque from 𝐹 1 is positive and from

𝐹2 it is negative.
Thus the sum of torques is 𝐹1 𝑟1 − 𝐹2 𝑟2.

For stationary objects, the sum of torques is zero. 7

 Torque and Angular momentum
In the figure below rank, from greatest to smallest, the magnitudes of the torques
about the wrench head caused by exerting the same force at the different
positions shown.

Greatest → → → Middle → → → Smallest

These two actually depend on the

angle and distance...

8
 Torque and Angular momentum
Consider again the rod on the right. Calculate the sum
of the torques about the left end of the rod.

We start by drawing a sketch with all the forces

showing their point of application.

The lever arm distances must now be determined

relative to the left end of the rod.

We now see that level arm distance to 𝐹 1 is zero, so

no torque from this force.

𝑐
Next we see that 𝐹pr causes a positive rotation
about the left end and 𝐹 2 causes a negative rotation.

𝑐
It follows that 𝐹pr has lever arm distance of 𝑟 1 and
that 𝐹 2 has a lever arm distance of 𝑟 1 + 𝑟 2.
You can see that the sum of torques about
different points is the same. This is only for
So finally the sum of torque is stationary object. It means we can choose
𝑟1 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 − 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝐹2 = 𝑟1 𝐹1 − 𝑟2 𝐹2 any reference.
which is the same result as before.

9
 Torque and Angular momentum
You are trying to open a door that is stuck by pulling on the doorknob in a direction
perpendicular to the door. If you instead tie a rope to the doorknob and then pull with the
same force, is the torque you exert increased?

1. Yes

2. No

You are using a wrench and trying to loosen a

rusty nut. Which of the arrangements shown is
most effective in loosening the nut?
List in order of descending efficiency the
following arrangements:

2>1=4>3

10
 Torque and Angular momentum
Three forces are exerted on the lever of the figure on the right. Forces
𝐹1 and 𝐹3 are equal in magnitude, and the magnitude of 𝐹2 is half as
great. Force 𝐹 1 is horizontal, 𝐹 2 and 𝐹 3 are vertical, and the lever
makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal. Do these forces cause the
lever to rotate about the pivot? If so, in which direction?

Question tells me 𝐹 1 = 𝐹 3 = 2𝐹 2

From my sketch I can see that

𝑟1⊥ = (ℓ/3) sin 45°
𝑟2⊥ = (2ℓ/3) cos 45°
𝑟3⊥ = (3ℓ/3) cos 45°

Now I can see that 2𝑟 1⊥ = 𝑟 2⊥ because sin 45° = cos 45°.

Therefore 𝑟 1⊥ 𝐹 1 = 𝑟 2⊥ 𝐹 2, but they have opposite directions thus
they cancel out.

Sketch, with clockwise rotation So the only force that causes a rotation is 𝐹 3, which is in the
being the positive rotation direction. counter-clockwise direction.

Can now determine the signs of This makes sense because there is two larger forces
each torque and find their combined pulling in the counter-clockwise direction.
effect. 11
 Torque and Angular momentum
(a) Without changing the magnitude of any of the forces in the
previous example, how must you adjust the direction of 𝐹 3 to prevent
the lever from rotating?

The torques caused by 𝐹 1 and 𝐹 2 cancel each other, so we

must make the torque caused by 𝐹 3 be zero.

Thus we do this by aligning 𝐹 3 along the long axis of the rod,

either straight toward or straight away from the pivot.

(b) If, instead of adjusting the direction of 𝐹 3, you adjust the

magnitude of 𝐹 2, by what factor must you change it?

The torque caused are from

𝐹1 is + 𝑟1⊥ 𝐹1,
𝐹2 is − 𝑟2⊥ 𝐹2 = − 2𝑟1 𝐹2 and
𝐹3 is + 𝑟3⊥ 𝐹3 = 3𝑟1⊥ 𝐹1

Therefore the sum of torque is + 𝑟1⊥ 𝐹1 − 2𝑟1 𝐹2 + 3𝑟1⊥ 𝐹1

which means that to have no rotation 𝐹 2 = 2𝐹 1.

So I need to increase the magnitude of 𝐹 2 by a factor of 4.

12
Free rotation
This figure shows the free rotation of a wrench thrown vertically
upward with a clockwise spin.

Notice that the center of mass of the wrench executes a nearly

vertical trajectory as it rises.

But also notice that the motion of a point near the handle of the
wrench is somewhat complicated; it is neither circular nor linear.

The center of mass motion of the wrench is consistent with free fall.
Notice how the spacing of the center of mass location decreases
slightly as it rises.
It is the same as one would expect for a point particle launched
upward under the influence of gravity.

But, notice that the motion of the dot on the wrench about the
center of mass is that of uniform circular motion.
This is consistent with the wrench having no external rotational
influences after it is launched.

Objects that are made to rotate without external

constraints always rotate about the center of mass.

13
 Free rotation
As the wrench in the previous slide moves upward, the upward
translational motion of its center of mass slows down.
Does the rotation about the center of mass also slow down?

If we neglect the very small effect of air resistance, the rotation of the
wrench remains constant.

Which way does the wrench rotate when it falls back down after
reaching its highest position?

As you can verify by launching a stick or any other object, the object rotates
in the same direction when it comes down.

This shows that the rotational and translational motions are not coupled.

The upward motion slows down because of the force of gravity, but this
force does not affect the rotational motion because it does not cause a
torque about the center of mass.

14
 Free rotation
A very thin bar of length ℓ and negligible inertia connects two blocks A and B that have
inertias 4m and m, respectively (figure on on the right). When this rod-block system is
made to spin with no translational motion and no mechanical pivot, each block moves
through a circular path in space, with circumferences CA and CB.
Determine the ratio CA/CB.

The object will spin about the center of mass, so need to find 𝑥 cm.

Let’s say block A is that the origin then

4𝑚 × 0 + 𝑚 × ℓ
𝑥cm = = ℓ/5
4𝑚 + 𝑚

So we know that block will spin with a radius of 𝑟 A = ℓ/5 and then block B will
spin with a radius 𝑟 B = 4ℓ/5. Therefore we get that
𝐶A 2𝜋𝑟A 1
= =
𝐶B 2𝜋𝑟B 4

15
 Extended free-body diagrams
Earlier we in (week 7, Free-body diagrams), we learned how to create
free-body diagrams that account for all the forces on an object.
Now we need to create a diagram that shows the location of the point of
application relative to a chosen point. This is to determine all the toques.

Procedure for extended free-body diagrams.

1. Make a standard free-body diagram for the object of interest (the system) to
determine what forces are exerted on it and the the acceleration of the center of
mass of the object.

2. Draw a cross section of the object in the plane of rotation (that is, a plane
perpendicular to the rotation axis) or, if the object is stationary, in the plane in
which the forces of interest lie.

3. Choose a reference point and mark it with . If the object is rotating about a
hinge, pivot, or axle, choose that point. If the object is rotating freely, choose the
center of mass. If the object is stationary, you can choose any reference point.

4. Draw force vectors that are exerted on the object and that lie in the plane of the
drawing. Place the tail of each force vector at the point where the force is exerted
on the object. Place the tail of the gravitational force exerted by Earth on the
object at the object’s center of mass. Label each force.

5. Indicate the object’s rotational acceleration in the diagram (for example, if the
object accelerates in the positive  direction, write 𝛼 𝜗 > 0 near the rotation axis).
If the rotational acceleration is zero, write 𝛼 𝜗 = 0. 16
 Extended free-body diagrams
You hold a ball in the palm of your hand, as shown on the
right. The bones in your forearm act like a horizontal lever
pivoted at the elbow. The bones are held up by the biceps
muscle, which makes an angle of about 15° with the vertical.
Draw an extended free-body diagram for your forearm.

Make a free-body diagram for the forearm:

Contact force with the upper-arm bone (humerus) 𝐹𝑐hf,
the biceps muscle 𝐹𝑐mf (up-left), and the ball 𝐹𝑐bf (down).
Downwards gravitational force 𝐹𝐺 Ef

To find direction of 𝐹𝑐hf I know 𝑎 cm = 0 because arm is

at rest, so 𝐹𝑐hf must balance out all other forces.

Next I draw the forearm as a horizontal rod, with the

pivot on the left. It makes sense to choose reference
point as the pivot location.

No acceleration of center of mass hence 𝛼 𝜗 = 0.

𝐹𝑐mf causes positive torque, 𝐹𝑐bf and 𝐹𝐺 Ef cause

negative torque and 𝐹𝑐hf creates zero torque because
its lever arm distance is zero.
17
 Extended free-body diagrams
(a) If the biceps muscle was attached farther out toward the
wrist, would the torque generated by the muscle about the pivot
get greater, get smaller, or stay the same?

(b) As the hand is raised above the level of the elbow, so that the
forearm makes an angle of 15° with the horizontal, does the
arm’s capacity to lift objects increase, decrease, or stay the
same?

(a) you can see from the diagram below that the (b) As the forearm lifts up, 𝐹𝑐mf becomes more
level arm distance 𝑟 ⊥ increases. perpendicular to the forearm (see below), so torque
from 𝐹𝑐mf increases and thus can lift heavier
objects.

18
 Extended free-body diagrams
You are moving a large crate mounted on swivel wheels, exerting an off-
𝑐
center force 𝐹pc as shown on the right. Draw an extended free-body
diagram for the crate. You can ignore any friction in the wheels.

We begin by drawing a free-body diagram.

Downwards gravity force 𝐹𝐺 Ec , upwards contact force from the
𝑐
floor 𝐹𝑐fc , leftwards force from person pushing 𝐹pc

Crate is not constrained by a pivot, but contact with Side view (left
floor means it can rotate horizontally. So draw of the person) View from above
diagram from above in the horizontal plane.

Draw the outline of the crate, and choose the center

of mass as the reference point (no pivot constrains).

𝑐
The only force that lies in this plane is 𝐹pc so the
extended free-body diagram has only this force.
Remember to draw 𝑟 ⊥ .

We can now see that there will be a positive rotation

(my choice of axis) hence we write 𝛼 𝜗 > 0.

19
 Extended free-body diagrams
A 1-kg rock is suspended by a massless string from one end
of a 1-m measuring stick. What is the mass of the measuring
stick if it is balanced by a support force at the 0.25-m mark?
Assume the stick has uniform density.

1. 0.25 kg

2. 0.5 kg
Hint: where is the center of mass of
3. 1 kg the stick?

4. 2 kg

5. 4 kg

6. Impossible to determine

20
 Conservation of angular momentum
Consider the situation shown in the figure on the right: A force
𝐹 is exerted on a particle constrained to move in a circle. The
tangential force component contributes to the torque

where 𝜃 is the angle between the force 𝐹 and the position

vector 𝑟 and 𝐹 ⊥ is the magnitude of the tangential component.

We now proceed to relate torque to the tangential acceleration

from 𝐹 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑡, then we get

where the subscript 𝜗 tells you that 𝜏 𝜗 is a +/- quantity. Next

we use from (week 11, rotational kinematics) 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼 𝜗 to get
Torque has units of N∙m

The term 𝑚𝑟 2 is just the rotational inertia hence:

This equation is sometimes called the rotational equation of

motion due to its similarity with 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.
21
 Conservation of angular momentum
Now we are going to consider an extended object, as illustrated on the
right. Imagine splitting the object into small particles of inertia 𝛿𝑚 𝑛. For
each particle we have

Then the sum of all torques is then

where all particles on a rigid rotating object must have the same
2
rotational acceleration 𝛼 𝜗. The term of Σ𝛿𝑚 𝑛 𝑟𝑛 is the total inertia hence

The sum contains all the torques from internal and external forces. We
consider the contributions from torques caused by internal forces.

Particles 1 and 2 interact with each other and have forces 𝐹 12 = − 𝐹 21,
so the torques they cause a equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. Therefore their sum is zero:

This cancellation holds for all the particles in our object, hence the only
torques that remain are those caused by external forces.

22
 Conservation of angular momentum
Now we can obtain a useful expression inputting the angular acceleration
𝛼𝜗 = 𝑑𝜔 𝜗 /𝑑𝑡 along with the definition of angular momentum 𝐿𝜗 = 𝐼𝜔𝜗 into
to the previous torque expression to get that

where we have used the fact that the rotational inertia 𝐼 of a rigid object is
constant. So torque is the time differential of angular momentum.

Whenever an object’s angular momentum is constant, the object is said to be

in rotational equilibrium. Earlier we learned about translation equilibrium,
where the momentum is constant. Now we also extend to the idea that
momentum and angular momentum are constant: mechanical equilibrium

23
 Conservation of angular momentum
For a system not in rotational equilibrium, we have that

where 𝐽 𝜗 is the rotational impulse, the transfer of angular

momentum from the environment to the system.

We can calculate the rotational impulse by considering the

change of angular momentum over a time interval ∆𝑡, which is
just the sum external torques (see previous slide)

𝐽𝜗 has units of kg∙m2 /s

Now we can see from the two equations on the slide that

This equation is sometimes called the rotational impulse

equation, and we use it to calculate the change in angular
momentum for a constant torque. 24
 Conservation of angular momentum
A motor exerts a constant force of 120 N tangential to the rim of a 20-kg cylindrical
flywheel of radius 0.50 m. The flywheel is free to rotate about an axis through its center
and runs perpendicular to its face. If the flywheel is initially at rest and the motor is
turned on for 2.0 s, how much work does the motor do on the flywheel?
Step 1, Draw a sketch Step 3, Solve
Now we can calculate the change in momentum from torque
𝐹 = 120 N
𝑅 = 0.5 m
𝑚 = 20 kg
Initially at rest, so I have that ∆𝐿 𝜗 = 𝐼𝜔 𝜗,f = + 𝐼𝜔 f, therefore
∆𝑡 = 2 s

→
Then the final rotational kinetic energy is
Step 2, Translate to maths
Motor causes the flywheel to spin, so
change in energy ∆𝐸 = 𝑊 = ∆𝐾 rot.
Flywheel is initially at rest for So the work done is
∆𝐾rot = 𝐾rot,f = 1 𝐼𝜔2f .
2
Calculate change in momentum from
rotational impulse.
Step 4, Evaluate
This corresponds to a 1.4 kW motor, which is
Solid cylinder, so I know that 𝐼 = 1 𝑚𝑟2 normal amount for many motors.
2 25
(see slides from WK11).
 Conservation of angular momentum
When you load a compact disc into a drive, a spinning conical shaft rises
up into the opening in the center of the disc, and the disc begins to spin.
Suppose the disc’s rotational inertia is 𝐼 d, that of the shaft is 𝐼 s, and the
shaft’s initial rotational speed is 𝜔 i. Does the rotational kinetic energy of
the disc-shaft system remain constant in this process? Assume for
simplicity that no external forces cause torques on the shaft.

I know the change in angular momentum has to be zero in the

closed system, hence

For simplicity we will let 𝜔 𝜗,i = + 𝜔 i and so

I can then use this equation to find the 𝜔𝜗,f is positive.
ratio of final and initial rotational speed
The spinning up of the disc is like an
Since the initial and final rotational kinetic energies are 𝐾 i = inelastic “rotational collision”: The disc
1
𝐼 𝑠 𝜔2i and 𝐾f = 1 𝐼 s + 𝐼 d 𝜔2f , I can now get their ratio initially at rest comes in contact with the
2 2 spinning shaft, and the two reach a common
rotational speed.

While the disc is spinning up, some of the

system’s initial rotational kinetic energy is
converted to thermal energy because of
so 𝐾 i > 𝐾 f meaning that the rotational kinetic energy is not friction between disc and shaft.
constant.
26
 Conservation of angular momentum
Consider the situation in the example on the previous slide

Is the vector sum of the forces exerted by the shaft on the

compact disc nonzero while the disc is spinning up?

No. The sum of forces are zero.

A nonzero vector sum of forces would cause the

disc’s center of mass to accelerate, and we know
that the disc remains in the same place, so 𝑎cm = 0

27
 Rolling motion
So far, we considered rotations about a fixed axis (pivot) and free
rotations. The translational and rotational motions are independent of
each other.
The rolling motion is an intermediate case between fixed and free
rotations because rolling puts a constraint on the relationship between Example of free rotation:
the translational and rotational motions, for example a wheel. throw a frisbee, it can rotate
and move independently.
We will restrict to symmetric objects for which center of mass is at the
geometric center, so circles.
What about a car wheel?
If the wheel does not slip (static friction), its center advances a distance
equal to its circumference 2𝜋𝑟. Hence its center of mass displacement is

28
 Rolling motion
The previous equation can be divided by ∆𝑡, so ∆𝑥cm /∆𝑡 = 𝑅 ∆𝜗/∆𝑡 and
then taking the limit ∆𝑡 → 0 yields

This condition describes the kinematic constraint for an object rolling

without slipping, for example a car whose wheels are not skidding has
speed proportional to the rotational speed of its wheels.

This equation is similar to tangential velocity 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑟𝜔 𝜗. The equations are

very different. This 𝑣 𝑡 equation gives the speed of any point on the wheel
in a reference frame moving with the center of mass.

From the Earth’s frame of reference, each point travels along a cycloid.
A point of the rim of a wheel that is in contact with the surface when
rolling without slipping has zero instantaneous velocity.

29
 Rolling motion
Now let’s consider the dynamics of rolling motion. Consider an
object rolling down a ramp without slipping. Ball rolling down a ramp

Rolling rather than sliding occurs in this case because the force of
static friction exerts a torque about the center of the object.

The vector sum of the forces and the center-of-mass acceleration

are related by 𝑥

s Free-body diagram Extended free-body diagram

Need to find 𝐹ro and 𝑎 cm,𝑥, so we draw extended
𝑛
free-body diagram. Can see that 𝐹𝐺
Eo and 𝐹 ro do not
𝑠
apply any torque on the ball. Only 𝐹ro causes a
torque, thus

where the 𝛼 𝜗 is another unknown, the rotational

acceleration.

30
 Ball rolling down a ramp

Rolling motion
If we differentiate w.r.t. to 𝑡 both side of the velocity condition for
rolling without slipping, 𝑣 cm,𝑥 = 𝑅𝜔 𝜗, then we get that 𝑥

So now if plug this into the torque equation on the previous slide, we
s
can solve for 𝐹ro to get
We can see that the force and
acceleration of an object sliding
down a hill depends on the shape
𝑐, not on 𝑚 or 𝑅.
Now we input this expression of 𝐹ro into to the 𝛴𝐹 𝑥 equation from the
s

previous slide, then we can solve for 𝑎 cm,𝑥 to get

Notice that the static friction plays
a dual role in this analysis:
1. It decreases the center-of-
mass speed and acceleration
of the rolling object, and
2. It also causes the torque that
gives the rotational
where 𝑐 ≡ 𝐼/(𝑚𝑅 2 ) is the shape factor (see WK11, Rotational inertia acceleration.
s
of extended objects). This allows us to also get 𝐹ro

31
 Rolling motion
As you accelerate from rest on a bicycle. Ignore air resistance, assume both wheels
have the same inertia mw and the same radius R, and let mcomb be the combined inertia
of you and your bicycle (including both wheels).
How does the magnitude of the force of friction exerted by the road surface on the rear
wheel compare with the magnitude of the force of friction exerted by the road surface
on the front wheel?
Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

Object is accelerating so I will need

𝛴𝐹ext = 𝑚𝑎cm

There is also a torque applied by me pushing

the pedals hence

There is rolling motion, hence we can relate

center of mass acceleration to the rotational
acceleration
Pushing on pedals creates Gravity force, normal
torque on wheel, this rotates and surface contact
making me move forward. force from floor.

32
 Rolling motion
As you accelerate from rest on a bicycle. Ignore air resistance, assume both wheels
have the same inertia mw and the same radius R, and let mcomb be the combined inertia
of you and your bicycle (including both wheels).
How does the magnitude of the force of friction exerted by the road surface on the rear
wheel compare with the magnitude of the force of friction exerted by the road surface
on the front wheel?

Step 3, Solve

The equation of motion in 𝑥 is

I know the front wheel force 𝐹𝑠sf must create a torque. If I say the
wheel is a thin hoop then it inertia is 𝐼 = 𝑚 w 𝑅 2 (WK11 slides).

Thus the torque on the front wheel is 𝜏 𝜗 = 𝑚 w 𝑅 2 𝛼 𝜗, but I also

know 𝜏 𝜗 = 𝐹𝑟 ⊥ = 𝐹𝑠sf 𝑅. Further from 𝑎 cm,𝑥 = 𝑅𝛼 𝜗 gives

Or simply

Now we have the magnitude of the static frictional force

needed to make the front wheel roll with 𝑎 cm,𝑥.
33
 Rolling motion
As you accelerate from rest on a bicycle. Ignore air resistance, assume both wheels
have the same inertia mw and the same radius R, and let mcomb be the combined inertia
of you and your bicycle (including both wheels).
How does the magnitude of the force of friction exerted by the road surface on the rear
wheel compare with the magnitude of the force of friction exerted by the road surface
on the front wheel?

Step 3, Solve
Now putting this expression of 𝑎 cm,𝑥 into to the equation
of motion yields

Or re-arranged to

Step 4, Evaluate

Thus the static friction force on the rear wheel has a 𝑚comb > 𝑚w so the rear wheel experiences
magnitude larger than the front wheel by a factor of as larger static friction. I expect this all the
force to move the whole system is from
(𝑚comb + 𝑚w )/𝑚w.
there.

34
 Torque and energy
Torques causes objects to accelerate rotationally and thus
cause a change in their rotational kinetic energy.
To calculate this energy change, consider the object shown
on the right. A force 𝐹 is exerted at point P on the object, a
distance 𝑟 from the axis of rotation. Earlier we saw how a
torque causes rotational acceleration, we apply the chain rule
(WK2, Derivatives) to this equation:

So we get:

Integrating the left side of this equation yields A rigid object subject to a constant
torque caused by a force 𝐹 exerted on
it undergoes a rotational displacement
Δ𝜗.
Now integrating the right-hand side gives

35
 Torque and energy
So what we can see now from ∆𝐾 rot ≡ 𝐾 rot,f − 𝐾 rot,i

The change in an object’s rotational kinetic energy is equal to

the product of the sum of the torques on the object and the
object’s rotational displacement.

Very similar to the change to an object’s center of mass kinetic

energy (WK8, Work done on a many-particle system)

The kinetic energy of an object or system that is in both

translational and rotational motion is equal to the sum of its Note, these expressions are for
center-of-mass and rotational kinetic energies constant torques and constant forces.

and the change in this kinetic energy is given by the sum of the
changes thus:

36
 Torque and energy
Two cylinders of the same size and mass roll down an incline.
Cylinder A has most of its weight concentrated at the rim, while
cylinder B has most of its weight concentrated at the center. Which
reaches the bottom of the incline first?

1. A

2. B

3. Both reach the bottom at the same time.

Cylinder B has a lower rotational inertia, just like the diver

putting his hands in to spin faster.
So cylinder B spins faster but they have the same radius.

37
 Torque and energy
A solid cylindrical object of inertia 𝑚, rotational inertia 𝐼, and radius 𝑅 rolls
down (static friction) a ramp that makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal. By
how much does the cylinder’s energy increase if it is released from rest
without spinning and its center of mass drops a vertical distance ℎ?

Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

Frictional force from rolling motion

No slip condition.
I know the initial energies, rotational
inertia, radius and shape.

Cylinder rolls down ramp, so increase Change in kinetic energies

in kinetic and rotational kinetic
energy.

Downwards gravity force 𝐹𝐺 Eo , and

𝑐
contact force from ramp surface 𝐹ro .
𝑠
Can see friction 𝐹ro applies torque to
the cylinder.
38
 Torque and energy
A solid cylindrical object of inertia 𝑚, rotational inertia 𝐼, and radius 𝑅 rolls
down (static friction) a ramp that makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal. By
how much does the cylinder’s energy increase if it is released from rest
without spinning and its center of mass drops a vertical distance ℎ?

Step 3, Solve
The equation of motion in 𝑥 is

s
Using 𝐹ro from rolling motion eq. gives

From our sketch we see that ∆𝑥 cm = ℎ/ sin 𝜃 therefore

So now we have to find out how the rotational kinetic energy

changes.
39
 Torque and energy
A solid cylindrical object of inertia 𝑚, rotational inertia 𝐼, and radius 𝑅 rolls
down (static friction) a ramp that makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal. By
how much does the cylinder’s energy increase if it is released from rest
without spinning and its center of mass drops a vertical distance ℎ?

Step 3, Solve
The no slip condition gives us that

Next, from the extended body-diagram we see

s
that Σ𝜏 ext,𝜗 = + 𝑅𝐹ro , therefore

So thus the total energy change is

Step 4, Evaluate
This result implies that only gravity does work on the system. Makes
sense because the normal force does no work from 𝑊 = 𝐹∙Δ𝑟, and no
slip so only static friction (point of force application does not move). 40
 Torque and energy
In the figure on the right, does the force exerted on the
rigid object do work on the object? Note, the object rotates
around a pivot.

Yes. The component 𝐹 ⊥ does work on the cylinder

because its point of application is displaced along the
circular arc.

The arc length displacement is ∆𝑠 𝐹 = 𝑟∆𝜗, and so the

work done on the cylinder is 𝐹 ⊥ ∆𝑠 𝐹 = 𝐹 ⊥ 𝑟∆𝜗 = 𝜏Δ𝜗.

This is equal to the change in the rotational kinetic

energy this is the same energy as

So, for a rigid object subject to a constant torque, the

quantity t∆q is equal to the work done on the object.

41
 The vectorial nature of rotation
Translational motion in 1D
So far we’ve treated all rotational quantities as if they were
scalars. This cannot be complete
1) Rotations have direction,
2) The rotation axis has a definite orientation in space.

For rotations that lie in a single plane, an algebraic sign is Rotational motion in a plane
sufficient to indicate the direction of rotation in the same way
that an algebraic sign indicates direction in 1D translational
motion, as shown on the right.

An algebraic sign is not sufficient for rotations in 3D-space.

The way a disk is spinning depends on your point of view.

The plus/minus changes if you rotate in 3D.

42
 The vectorial nature of rotation
The vectors 𝑎, 𝑣, 𝑟 cannot be associated the
direction of rotation. They all lie in the plane of the
trajectory, so no sense to create a vector in this
plane that describes the rotation.
So we need to create a vector that represents the
rotation. For this we have the right-hand rule:

When you curl the fingers of your

right hand along the direction of
rotation, your thumb points in the
direction of the vector that specifies
the direction of rotation.

I was taught it slightly

differently, but it is
𝜗
equivalent to rotating
your hand. 𝑟

𝑣
43
 The vectorial nature of rotation
The right-hand rule can be used to determine the vector
directions for the rotations of two spinning disks with
their edges in contact.

The rotation vector for disk A points in the z-direction

and has vector components (0, 0, A), where A is a
positive number.
The rotation vector for disk B points in the negative y-
direction and has components (0, –B, 0) where B is a
positive number.

You can also use this rule to find out which to tighten and
loosen bolts. Positive rotations tighten and negative
rotations loosen it.

This bolt example also shows you how the rotation

direction changes depending your orientation.

44
 The vectorial nature of rotation
Sometimes you need to use the right-hand rule in This allows us to create a rotational velocity
reverse to determine the corresponding rotation for a vector 𝜔 whose direction is given by the right
rotational vector hand and has magnitude 𝜔.

Vectors associated with a direction of rotation

are called axial vectors.
Vectors derived from the displacement vector
are called polar vectors.
45
 The vectorial nature of rotation
Displacement vectors for motion commute. That
means that the sum of several displacements is
independent of the order added.

However, rotational displacements do not

commute.
See how the orientation of the ball is different
depending on the order of rotation!

46
 The vectorial nature of rotation
Consider the uniformly rotating object shown below. If the object’s angular
velocity is a vector (in other words, it points in a certain direction in space) is
there a particular direction we should associate with the angular velocity?

1. Yes, ± 𝑥

2. Yes, ± 𝑦

3. Yes, ± 𝑧

4. Yes, some other direction

5. No, the choice is really arbitrary.

47
 The vector product
We saw how to describe a rotation with a 𝜔 vector via the right hand rule.

As a result the angular momentum is also a vector 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 as well as

torque 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 which all point in the same direction as 𝜔.

The figure below shows how to find the vector product of two vectors 𝐴
and 𝐵. The vector product is a mathematical operation that combines two
vectors to obtain a third vector. The magnitude of the vector product is
defined as

where 𝜃 ≤ 180° is the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵 when they are placed tail to
tail, see part (c). The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors is
equal to the area of the parallelogram defined by them.

48
 The vector product
A few rules about the vector product.

The magnitude of the vector product is greatest when the two

vectors are perpendicular to each other and sin 𝜃 = sin 90° = 1.
Further, vector product of a vector with itself is zero

Another property is that 𝐵 × 𝐴 and 𝐴 × 𝐵 have the same magnitude

but opposite directions

49
 The vector product
Using this vector product we can now define the torque
caused be force 𝐹 as

Torque is the time derivative of angular momentum (slide 23)

and force is the time derivative of momentum (WK7,
equations of motion), we get that

We can do further simplification of this expression. For this we

use the product rule (WK2, derivatives rules) on the time
derivative of 𝑟 × 𝑝

This equation applies to any type of

The first term of this equation is zero from 𝐴 × 𝐴 = 0 motion and not just rotational motion, the
expression 𝐿 = 𝑟 × 𝑝 is much more
general than 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔.

For example consider an isolated particle

Hence we get
as shown above. It has a straight line
trajectory and constant momentum.
→
50
 The vector product
This table summarizes the results obtained in this chapter and the
remarkable parallels between the equations that describe the dynamics of
translational and rotational motion.

The two sets of equations are

mathematically identical given the
correspondences in the table on the left

51
52
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 13
Code:
PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
 Previously, Torque
Torque is the application of a
force to cause a rotation.

Rolling motion, no slip condition.

𝑥 Right hand rule to determine the

vector of rotation

Rotation as vector 𝜔

2
 Gravity

Develop the tools that allow us to understand the universal nature of

gravitational interaction. This concept unifies the kinematics and
dynamics of objects on Earth and celestial objects.
 Universal gravity
Astronomical observations show that the Moon
revolves around Earth and that Earth and other
planets revolve around the Sun in roughly
circular orbits and at roughly constant speeds.

As we saw in WK11, any object that is in

circular motion at constant speed has a
centripetal acceleration.

4
 Universal gravity
The orbital period of the Moon around Earth is 27.32 days; that of Earth around the Sun is 365.26 days.
(a) Which has the greater rotational speed: Earth or the Moon? Are the rotational speeds of Earth and the
Moon around the Sun great or small relative to the rotational speeds you encounter in daily life?
The moon takes less time to complete one revolution, so it has faster
rotational speed. Daily objects take seconds or minutes to complete
one rotation, so they have faster rotational speeds.

(b) The radius of the Moon’s orbit around Earth is RM = 3.84×108 m; that of Earth’s orbit around the Sun is
RE = 1.50×1011 m. Which has the greater speed?
𝑣moon = 2𝜋(3.84 × 10 8 m)/(27.32 days)/(24 × 60 2 s/day) = 1022 m/s The Earth, larger
radius of rotation.
𝑣Earth = 2𝜋(1.50 × 10 11 m)/(365.26 days)/(24 × 60 2 s/day) = 29864 m/s

(c) Calculate the centripetal acceleration of Earth in the reference frame of the Sun and the centripetal
acceleration of the Moon in the reference frame of Earth.

𝑎moon = 𝑣2moon /𝑟moon = (1022 m/s)2 /(3.84 × 10 8 m) = 0.00271 m/𝑠 2

𝑎Earth = 𝑣2Earth /𝑟Earth = (29864 m/s)2 /(1.5 × 10 11 m) = 0.00595 m/𝑠 2

(d) How do these accelerations compare with the acceleration due to gravity near Earth’s surface?

They are very small compared to the gravitational acceleration near the Earth’s
surface of 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s 2. 5
 Universal gravity
There is centripetal acceleration, but there is
nothing connecting the Earth and the Moon. So
we know the force pulling them together is a
field force.

In the late 17th century, Isaac Newton

postulated that the gravitation force is a
universal attractive force between all objects in
the universe.
⇒ The force that holds celestial bodies in orbit
is the gravitational force.
⇒ This is the same force that causes objects
near Earth’s surface to fall.

The invisible string/tether that holds the Moon in orbit is,

in reality, the same kind of gravitational interaction that
causes a ball to fall near Earth’s surface.
*The Moon’s orbit is not to scale.

6
 Universal gravity
Newton also postulated that the effect of gravity
weakens with distance, like a magnet. If gravity
spreads out uniformly from an object, like the rays from
a light source, then gravitational force should decrease
as 1/𝑟 2—the inverse of the square of the distance.

The Moon’s orbital radius is 60 times larger than the

Earth’s radius. Therefore, at the Moon’s surface an
object will experience gravity from the Earth that is 602
time weaker.

Or in numbers 𝑔/60 2 = 0.00272 m/s 2 which is the

Light that strikes a surface area 𝑎 2 at a
centripetal acceleration of the Moon towards the Earth.
distance 𝑟 from the source strikes a surface
of area 2𝑎 × 2𝑎 = 4𝑎 2 at a distance 2𝑟 and
a surface of area 3𝑎 × 3𝑎 = 9𝑎 2 at 3𝑟.

The intensity—the amount of light per unit

area—decreases with distance r as 1/𝑟 2.

7
 Universal gravity
One issue in the reasoning: The reduction of
the gravitational force by a factor of 1/𝑟 2
assumes that the object near Earth’s surface
is one Earth radius away from the point of
attraction.

Yet if all matter interacts gravitationally with a

1/𝑟2 dependence, so a clump of matter near
the surface attracts the balls more strongly
than the same matter near the Earth’s core.

However, Newton was able to mathematically

prove that:
A uniform solid sphere exerts a
gravitational force outside the
sphere with a 𝟏/𝒓 𝟐 dependence as
if all the matter in the sphere were
concentrated at its center.

We will look at this proof later in the slides.

8
 Universal gravity
If the force of gravity decreases with the inverse square of the
distance, why were we allowed in our earlier work on the gravitational
force, to say that an object sitting in a tree 10 m above the ground,
and an object flying at an altitude of 10 km all experience the same
9.8-m/s2 acceleration due to gravity?

The Earth’s radius is about 6400 km, it is the force outside of

the surface of the sphere that has a 1/𝑟 2 dependence.

So the ratio of the gravitational force is going to be

1 1
/ = 0.9968
6400 km + 10 km 2
6400 km + 10 m 2

9
 Universal gravity
There is further evidence for the 1/𝑟 2 dependance of
the gravitational force. It comes from the observed
periods of the planetary orbits 𝑇 and their radii 𝑅.

As a planet orbits the Sun, centripetal acceleration is

given 𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑣 2 /𝑅, where 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑅/𝑇 is the planet’s
linear speed at its orbital radius 𝑅. So 𝑎 𝑐 = 4𝜋 2 𝑅/𝑇 2
or put differently 𝑎 𝑐 ∝𝑅/𝑇 2.

If this centripetal acceleration is provided by gravity

and it falls off as 1/𝑟 2, then this means means that this
acceleration will also follow 𝑎 𝑐 ∝1/𝑅 2.

Combining these two results gives us that 𝑅/𝑇 2 ∝1/𝑅 2

or that 𝑅 3 ∝𝑇 2.
This is what we observe, and it was first discovered by
Kepler from astronomical data in 1619. Newton was
The ∝ means means “is proportional to”,
later able to use this data as support for his theories.
meaning if 𝑎 𝑐 ∝𝑅/𝑇 2 then there is exists a
number 𝑘 such that 𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅/𝑇 2
10
 Universal gravity
Newton further postulated: The strength of the gravitational force
We denote both quantities by the
on an object is proportional to the quantity of material in it, a
same symbol 𝑚 and express each
quantity called the mass of the object.
in kilograms.
The gravitational pull exerted by Earth on an object is
proportional to the object’s mass.
We know the acceleration of a freely falling object does not
depend on type of material (in the absence of air resistance).
Therefore, inertia of an object is proportional to the force of
gravity.

Further, with the idea that an object’s mass is proportional to the

force of gravity, we can say that:
The mass of an object is equal to the object’s inertia.
𝑚1 |𝛥𝑣 2,𝑥|
In a collision we can determine the ratios of the inertias =
𝑚2 |𝛥𝑣 1,𝑥|

From a balancing two weights on a lever with a pivot (WK12), we get

𝐹𝐺 𝑟2 𝑚1 𝑟1 𝐹𝐺 𝑚
that E1 = but we also know that = therefore E1 = 1.
𝐹𝐺 𝑟1 𝑚2 𝑟2 𝐹𝐺 𝑚2
E2 E2

In words, the ratio of the gravitational forces two objects experience is equal to
the ratio of their inertias. Why? The collision involves no gravitational forces,
and the balancing experiment involves no motion. 11
 Universal gravity
Because the gravitational force exerted by Earth on an
object is proportional to that object’s mass, so we can
expect the gravitational force exerted by Earth on the Moon
to be proportional to the Moon’s mass: 𝐹𝐺EM ∝𝑚 M.

From symmetry, the gravitational force the Moon exerts on

the Earth has the following relationship: 𝐹𝐺
ME ∝𝑚 E.

We also know this is an interaction pair so 𝐹𝐺 ME = 𝐹EM ,

𝐺

which means the force must be proportional to the product

𝑚E 𝑚M. Combined with the 1/𝑟2 dependance we get

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝐺12∝
𝑟2
This is Newton’s law of gravity. It applies to all the mass
in the universe: Every piece of matter attracts every other
piece of matter in the universe according to this law.

12
 Universal gravity
The gravitational force’s 1/𝑟 2 dependence also explains the
shape of the planetary orbits.
Using conservation of energy and momentum, we can show
that the orbit of a body moving under the influence of gravity
must be an ellipse, a circle, a parabola, or a hyperbola.

13
 Universal gravity
The wikipedia diagram is much better than
the book!

The equation of an ellipse is

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

Eccentricity of an ellipse with 𝑎 > 𝑏

𝑐 𝑏 2
𝑒 = = 1−
𝑎 𝑎

𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2

14
 Universal gravity

The elliptical orbits of the planets and the Moon are specified by their semimajor axis 𝑎
(half the major axis) and eccentricity 𝑒; see previous slide.

15
 Universal gravity
Compare the gravitational force exerted by Earth on you with
(a) that exerted by a person standing 1 m away from you and
(b) that exerted by Earth on Pluto.

When I (with 70 kg mass) stand on the Earth’s surface, 𝑟 = 𝑅 E and the

factor is 𝑚 1 𝑚 2 /𝑟 2 so I get

(a) (b)
So for two 70-kg people separated by 1m I get For Earth and Pluto I have

4.9×10 3 kg2/m2 2.3×10 21 kg2/m2

Thus this is = 4.9 × 10−10 Thus this is = 2.3 × 108 times
1 ×10 13 kg2/m2 1 ×10 13 kg2/m2
times smaller than the gravity force on me from bigger than the gravity force on me from the Earth.
the Earth.
16
 Gravitational Constant
We have Newton’s law of gravity 𝐹𝐺12∝𝑚1 𝑚2 /𝑟2 for two objects
of masses 𝑚 1 and 𝑚 2. If their positions are 𝑟 1 and 𝑟 2
respectively then the distance between them is 𝑟 12 = |𝑟 2 − 𝑟 1 |,
as shown on the right. Then the gravitational law becomes

where the proportionality constant 𝐺 is called the gravitational

constant. The force is attractive and directed along the straight
line joining the objects.

For an object with mass 𝑚 o on the Earth mass 𝑚 E it becomes

It the object is a height ℎ above the ground, then 𝑟 Eo = 𝑅 E + ℎ. 𝑅E = 6378 km is the

Near the ground ℎ ≪ 𝑅 E, hence 𝑟 Eo ≈ 𝑅 E , thus we get Earth’s radius

From this equation we get the acceleration due to gravity near

the surface:

17
 Gravitational Constant
Working in about 1677, Newton knew the radius of Earth
but not its mass, and so he could get only a rough value of
𝐺 by estimating 𝑚E.
He did this by saying the Earth is a sphere that is only rock
with a mass density of 5 × 10 3 kg/m 3, then you get that
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = (5 × 10 3 kg/m3 )(4𝜋𝑅3E/3) = 5.4 × 10 24 kg.
The current measurement is 5.9736 × 10 24 kg.

The magnitude of 𝐺 was determined experimentally by

Henry Cavendish in 1798. The basic principle of
Cavendish’s measurement is shown on the right.

Two small lead spheres connected by a light rod are

suspended from a long thin fiber. Then two large lead
spheres are placed near the small spheres, and
gravitational attraction between the spheres causes a
torque. By measuring how much twisted the fiber is, you
can obtain how much torque it need to apply to counteract You can see how weak gravity is, you
gravitational force between the lead spheres. need to an object of mass 1011 kg for
it to start applying a force noticeable
by you.
Modern day value:

18
 Gravitational Constant
For an object released from a height ℎ ≈ 𝑅 E above the ground, does the acceleration
due to gravity decrease, increase, or stay the same as the object falls to Earth?

It increases because the gravitational force increases with decreasing

distance 𝑟 12

Does a planet that has a greater mass than Earth necessarily have a greater
acceleration due to gravity near its surface? (Saturn, for example, has about a
hundred times the mass of Earth.)

1. Yes

2. No

3. More information is needed to say.

𝐺 also depends on the radius, so if the radius is really large then you the
acceleration due to gravity can be small.

19
 Gravitational Potential energy
Say we fix object 1 at the origin, then the
gravitational force from object 1 onto object 2 with
𝑚1 ≫ 𝑚2 is going to be

Work done by a variable force is an integral (WK8.7), therefore the

System = object 2
work done is

Evaluating this integral with the force expression on the top gives

If object 2 was initially stationary, we have positive work (force

System = both objects

displacement and force point in the same direction). Or if we
consider system of both objects, then because ∆𝑈 𝐺 = − ∆𝐾 we get

This is the gravitational potential of a two object system.

20
 Gravitational Potential energy
System = both objects
We usually say 𝑈 𝐺 ∞ = 0 meaning the potential at infinite
separation is zero. Substituting this into ∆𝑈 𝐺 gives

so the gravitational potential energy as as function of 𝑥 is

which is zero at 𝑥 = ∞. So as object 2 moves from a very

large distance away, its kinetic energy will crease. So a
consequence of 𝑈 𝐺 ∞ = 0 is that the gravitational potential
energy is negative for all 𝑥 < ∞.

21
 Gravitational Potential energy
The equation on the previous slide can be easily generalized to
more dimensions. Suppose object 2 moves from P to Q, figure on
the right, along some part of an elliptical orbit.

We split the motion in two displacements: a radial one from P to R

and another circular displacement from R to Q.
Work done in more than 1D is given by the scalar product of the
force and force displacement (WK10.8), hence there is no work
done along the circular path:

So we only need to consider the radial component.

Better approximation by breaking down the motion into small

segments and approximating each segment. We see that only the
change in radial distance that matters:

We can then say that gravitational potential energy of the system is

where 𝑟 is the distance between the two objects. 22

 Gravitational Potential energy
The previous results holds any path that leads from P to Q. Any
path can be broken down into radial and circular segments. So
only the start and end points relative to 𝑚 1 matter.

The work done by both paths on the right is the same.

This is a characteristic of non-dissipative interactions (WK5.4)

We also know that changing the direction, moving from Q to P,

just reverses the sign of the work done:

Therefore if an object moves from P to Q and then back to P,

then there is no work done by gravity.

This type of path is called a closed path, because the object

returns to its original position.

23
 Gravitational Potential energy
The distance between Earth’s surface and an object of mass 𝑚 is
changed by an amount ∆𝑥. Show that when 𝑥 ≈ 𝑅 E and ∆𝑥 ≪ 𝑅 E, where
𝑅E is the radius of Earth, the general expression for gravitational potential
energy reduces to the expression ∆𝑈 𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑥
Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 3, Solve
The equation becomes

The second term can then be expressed as via the

binomial expansion

Step 2, Translate to maths Then our expression becomes

Equation is already given. I just need to
show how it simplifies to 𝑚𝑔∆𝑥.
I also know that 𝑥 i = 𝑅 E and 𝑥 f = 𝑅 E + ∆𝑥
On slide 16, we had 𝑔 = 𝐺𝑚 E /𝑅2E , therefore we get that
Δ𝑈 𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔Δ𝑥.
I will need the binomial expansion:
Step 4, Evaluate

I derived the final equation so hopefully I am

In homeworks, I will give you maths such right...
24
this if you need it in the question
 Weight
A space shuttle typically orbits Earth at an altitude of about 300 km.
(a) By what factor is the shuttle’s distance to the center of Earth increased
over that of an object on the ground?

𝑅E = 6400 km, so distance to the Earth’s center is increased by

(6400 km + 300 km)/(6400 km) = 1.05

(b) The gravitational force exerted by Earth on an object in the orbiting

shuttle is how much smaller than the gravitational force exerted by Earth on
the same object when it is sitting on the ground?

Gravitational force changes by 1/𝑟 2, therefore the force decreases by a

factor of 1/ 1.05 2 = 0.91.

(c) What is the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude of about 300 km?

The acceleration decreases by the same factor hence 0.91(9.8 m/s 2 ) =

8.9 m/s 2.
(d) While in orbit, the shuttle’s engines are off. Why doesn’t the shuttle fall to
Earth?

The shuttle travels at such a high speed that the gravitational acceleration
provides the centripetal acceleration making it fly in orbit: 𝑔 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟

25
 Weight
An object can be weightless in space, so what do we mean by
weight? How do we weight things?

When a load is put on a spring scale, the load either

compresses or stretches a spring inside the scale (figure on
the right). The change in the spring’s length is proportional to
the force exerted on it by the load: 𝐹𝑐𝑙𝑠 = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑥 0 (WK7.8),
so we can weight an object.

Another weighing device is the balance, shown bottom-right.

Weighting a brick mass 𝑚 b is done by is suspending it from
one end of a rod pivoted about its center, and objects of known
masses are suspended from the other end until the rod is in
mechanical equilibrium. Then the torques equal each other,
and so 𝑚 b must be equal to the sum 𝑚 k of the known masses.

A spring scale measures the downward force

exerted on it by its load, but a balance compares
gravitational forces and measures mass.

26
 Weight
The spring scale gives an answer that depends on
the Earth’s mass, but the balance does not.

Imagine doing these experiments on the Earth and

on the Moon (much smaller weight).

27
 Weight
The reading on the spring scale depends not only on the
gravitational pull but also on the acceleration of the scale.

As illustrated by the free-body diagrams, a spring scale in

a downward-accelerating elevator gives a smaller scale
reading.

How does the reading of a scale in an elevator that has

upward acceleration 𝑎 = 0.5𝑔 compare with the reading
obtained in a stationary elevator?

To accelerate upward, the vector sum of the forces

exerted on the object must be nonzero and point upwards.

We know 𝑎 𝑥 = 0.5𝑔, so therefore the equation of

motion is Σ𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑥 = 0.5𝑚𝑔.
𝑐
Consequently Σ𝐹 𝑥 = 𝐹so,𝑥 + 𝐹𝐺
Eo,𝑥 = 0.5𝑚𝑔, or
𝑐
rearranged 𝐹so,𝑥 = 0.5𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹𝐺
Eo,𝑥 = 1.5𝑚𝑔

The scale is 1.5 times larger than in a stationary

elevator

28
 Weight
What if the elevator has downward acceleration 𝑎 = 0.5𝑔?

𝑐
Then after doing the same thinking, we get 𝐹so,𝑥 = 0.5𝑚𝑔.

The object feels lighter, it has less weight. You can try this
in a lift; notice the weight of an object in your hand during
the acceleration and deceleration stages of the motion.

What if the elevator has downward acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑔?

𝑐
Then we get 𝐹so,𝑥 = 0. The object is weightless according
to our scale.

Any object in free fall—that is, any object

subject to only a force of gravity—
experiences weightlessness.

29
 Weight
Zero gravity flights.

Physicists study the effects of no gravity in

what is called zero-gravity flights. Here, an
airplane that is flying horizontally, is suddenly
put into free-fall.

Weight is often defined as the force of gravity

exerted on an object. However, because
spring scale readings depend on acceleration,
however, spring scale readings are then
called effective weight.

You can see on this zero-gravity flight a

spring scale will be useless.

30
 Weight
As a spacecraft orbits Earth a distance ℎ above the
ground, it falls a distance ∆ℎ. Because the craft moves
so fast in a direction tangential to the (curved) ground,
the ground “falls away” at the same rate, and the
distance between the craft and the ground remains
constant.

How far does the space shuttle in Figure 300 km above

Earth, fall in 1.0 s?

Earlier we showed that at 300 km above the

ground 𝑔 = 8.9 m/s 2.
So the distance it falls through in time ∆𝑡 is going
1 1
to be ∆ℎ = 𝑔𝑡 2 = 8.9 m/s 2 1 s 2 = 4.5 m
2 2

If the radius of Earth is 6400 km, what is the shuttle’s

speed?

For circular motion we have centripetal acceleration 𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟, and in this

case the acceleration is provided by gravity hence: 𝑔 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟, where 𝑔 =
8.9 m/s 2.
We get 𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅E = (8.9 m/s 2 ) (6.7 × 10 6 m) = 7.5 × 10 3 m/s
31
 Principle of Equivalence
Mass and inertia have an equality. We know all objects
under gravity accelerate at the same speed. More mass in
the object, the larger the gravitational force. However, it
also means larger inertia so it does not accelerate faster.
This equality has been tested to 1 in 1012.

Another link is the spring scale from earlier; it depends on

the gravitational pull and also the acceleration of the scale.

Can we create an experiment that distinguishes between

an accelerating frame of reference or gravity?

Inside the rocket, the brick is not accelerating.

One cannot distinguish locally between

the effects of a constant gravitational
acceleration of magnitude 𝒈 and the
effects of an acceleration of the reference
frame of magnitude 𝒂 = 𝒈.

This statement is called the principle of equivalence.

32
 Principle of Equivalence
Our inability to distinguish between gravity and
acceleration is exploited in aircraft simulators and motion
simulators at amusement parks.

The simulator just tilts, and because of gravity you think

you are accelerating a certain way.

33
 Principle of Equivalence
The figure shows a light pulse entering the
accelerating elevator.

Light pulse travels in a straight line in the Earth’s

reference frame.

Viewed from inside the elevator, the light pulse travels

along a curved path.

This effect is purely kinematic, and, given the principle

of equivalence, the bending should also occur if the
elevator was resting on a large mass. In other words
gravitational acceleration causes the bending.

34
 Principle of Equivalence
Light travels at approximately 3×108 m/s.
(a) How long does it take for a light pulse to cross an elevator 2.0 m wide?

∆𝑡 = ∆𝑥/𝑣 = (2.0 m)/(3 × 10 8 m/s) = 6.7 × 10 −9 s

(b) How great an acceleration is necessary to make the pulse deviate from
a straight-line path by 1.0 mm?
1
In the y direction we have ∆𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑦 ∆𝑡 2 , 𝑎 𝑦 = 2Δ𝑦/ Δ𝑡 2
2
2
so thus 𝑎 𝑦 = 2(1 × 10 −3 m)/ 6.7 × 10 −9 s = 4.5 × 1013 m/s 2

(c) If light is bent by the gravitational pull of an object, light should “fall”
when traveling parallel to the surface of Earth. How far does a beam of
light travel in 0.0010 s, and how much does it fall over that distance? Is it
likely that this effect can be observed?

In 0.0010 s, a light beam travels (3 × 10 8 m/s)(0.001 s) = 3 × 10 5 m

During that time interval it will be displayed downwards by gravity by

∆𝑦 = 1 (− 9.8 m/s 2 ) 0.001 s 2 = − 4.9 × 10−6 m.
2

This means it has been displaced by a fraction of the diameter of a hair

over a distance of 300 km.
35
 Principle of Equivalence
What would the scale reading be if the container in the
figure on the right were traveling at constant speed
instead of accelerating?

Zero. In the absence of both gravity and

acceleration, the container and everything inside it
are weightless.

36
 Gravity and angular momentum
The force of gravity is a central force:
⇒ The line of action of a central force lies along a
straight line that connects the two interacting objects.

Consider an isolated system of two gravitationally

interacting stars of masses 𝑚 1 and 𝑚 2. Their center
of mass remains fixed (isolated system).

We choose the origin to their center of mass, so

𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 0, 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 = 0, thus we get 𝑟1 /𝑟2 =
𝑚1 /𝑚2.
So the ratio of their orbital radii remains constant.

The force always points to the center of mass, where

they are rotating, hence angular momentum does not
change.

In an isolated system of two objects interacting

through a central force, each object has a
constant angular momentum about the center of
mass.

37
 Gravity and angular momentum
Often we consider situations in which one of the two not to scale
interacting objects is much more massive than the other,
as shown on the right.

Then we can say that the massive object is fixed at the

origin. Further, because the massive object contains
most of the mass, the center of mass in very close to it.

We therefore say the Earth orbits around the center of

the sun, and ignore the small difference between the
actual center-of-mass and the center of the Sun.
If we consider the orbit to be circular, the center of mass
also coincides with the center of the orbit.

Because the force is central and because the center of

mass is at the Sun, the angular momentum of each of the
orbiting objects about the Sun is constant.
So for a circular orbit is simple: If the angular momentum
is constant, then the object’s speed must be constant

38
 Gravity and angular momentum
For other types of orbits (say ellipses), we introduce a
geometric interpretation of angular momentum.
In (WK12.8), we saw a particle has angular momentum
𝐿 = 𝑟 × 𝑝 where 𝑟 is the position of the particle. We also
saw that |𝑟 × 𝑝| is equal to the area of the parallelogram
defined by them.

In time 𝑑𝑡, a particle’s position vector 𝑟 will sweep out an

area of the shaded triangle on the right. We can see that
this area is doing to be 𝑑𝐴 = |𝑟 × 𝑑𝑟|.
1
2

Because 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡, the area can be written as 𝑑𝐴 =

1
|𝑟 × 𝑑𝑣|𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝐿/𝑚 𝑑𝑡. The rate at which the area A is
2 2
swept out by the position vector is thus 𝑑𝐴/𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿/𝑚:
1
2

The angular momentum of a particle about an

origin is proportional to the rate at which area is
swept out by the particle’s position vector.

So in an elliptical orbit speed is not constant, but area

swept out by a straight line from the Sun to each planet is.
39
 Gravity and angular momentum
Figure below shows three types of motion with constant angular momentum:

1. motion at constant speed along a straight line (no force; constant velocity),

2. circular motion at constant speed (central force; constant speed),

3. elliptical motion (central force; constant rate of area swept).

40
 Gravity and angular momentum
About 70 years before Newton created the idea of angular momentum, Kepler
actually deduced these from astronomical observations. Here are his three laws:

41
 Gravity and angular momentum
Of all the objects in the Table on slide 14, Pluto has the orbit with the
greatest eccentricity.
(a) What is the ratio of the orbit’s semiminor axis b to its semimajor axis a?
(b) What is the ratio of Pluto’s speed at perihelion to its speed at aphelion?

(b) At perihelion, the Sun-Pluto distance is (𝑎 − 𝑎𝑒), and

the angular momentum is 𝐿 peri = 𝑚 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑣 peri

At aphelion, the Sun-Pluto distance is (𝑎 + 𝑎𝑒), and

the angular momentum is 𝐿 aph = 𝑚 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑒 𝑣 aph

Conservation of angular momentum means that 𝐿 aph =

𝐿peri, so I get
𝑣 peri 1 + 𝑒 1 + 0.25
= = = 1.7
𝑏
2 𝑣 ap 1 − 𝑒 1 − 0.25
(a) We know that 𝑒 = 1−
𝑎
we can re-arrange to get
𝑏
= 1 − 0.25 2 = 0.97
𝑎

42
 Celestial mechanics
Consider a system consisting of two objects (star and a satellite as shown
in figure) with masses 𝑀 and 𝑚, where 𝑀 ≫ 𝑚. We can consider the
center of mass of the system to be fixed at the center of the large object.
If the system is closed and isolated

The energy of the system consists of the gravitational potential energy and
the kinetic energy. Because only the satellite is in motion, we have

where 𝑣 is the speed of the satellite and 𝑟 is the distance between the
satellite and the star.
Because the force of gravity is central, the angular momentum of each
object is constant. For the satellite we have

These equations allow us to determine the shape of the satellite’s

orbit given the values of 𝑟 and 𝑣 at any given instant.

43
 Celestial mechanics
(b) If an object of mass 𝑚 is released from rest a distance 𝑟 from a star of mass 𝑀 ≫ 𝑚 and radius 𝑅 𝑠,
is the mechanical energy of the star-object system 𝐸 mech positive, negative, or zero?

Gravitational potential energy is -ve. Initially at rest, 𝐸 mech = 𝐾 + 𝑈 𝐺 = 0 + 𝑈 𝐺 < 0,

so it is negative

(b) Determine the maximum and minimum values of its kinetic energy during its motion (no collision).

Minimum kinetic energy is 0, and here 𝑈 𝐺 = − 𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑟 is maximum. Maximum kinetic energy is
going to be at the lowest potential energy; this is on the surface of the star at radius 𝑅 s.
Total mechanical energy is constant 𝐸 mech,i = 𝐸 mech,f, so − 𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑟 = 𝐾 f − 𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑅 s, therefore
maximum kinetic energy is 𝐾 f = 𝐺𝑀𝑚(𝑟 − 𝑅 s )/(𝑟𝑅 s ).

(c) Suppose the object is now launched with nonzero velocity in a direction perpendicular to the
straight line joining it and the center of the star. Is 𝐸 mech positive, negative, or zero?

It depends on the launch velocity.

If 𝐾 i < |𝑈 𝐺 | then 𝐸 mech < 0
If 𝐾 i > |𝑈 𝐺 | then 𝐸 mech > 0
If 𝐾 i = |𝑈 𝐺 | then 𝐸 mech = 0

44
 Celestial mechanics
The mechanical energy, 𝐸 mech = 𝐾 + 𝑈 𝐺, of a star-satellite system
can be negative because of 𝑈 𝐺 ∞ = 0.

If the energy 𝐸 of the system is negative, then there is a value 𝑟 =

𝑟max for which 𝑈 𝐺 = 𝐸mech —all of the mechanical energy is in the
form of potential energy, and thus the satellite’s kinetic energy is zero.

Because the kinetic energy cannot be negative, the satellite’s motion

for negative values of 𝐸 mech is restricted to values of 𝑟 < 𝑟 max for
which 𝑈 𝐺 < 𝐸 mech. When 𝑟 = 𝑟 max then we get 𝑈 𝐺 = 𝐸 mech,so :

In words, we say that for negative 𝐸 mech < 0, the satellite is bound to
the star: It cannot escape to infinity because it does not have enough
kinetic energy. For positive 𝐸 mech > 0, then the object has enough
kinetic energy to escape the pull of gravity it is unbound.

45
 Celestial mechanics
(a) If our satellite of mass 𝑚 were to reach the position 𝑟 max given
the equation of right, what would its angular momentum be?

𝐺
At 𝑟 max we have 𝐸mech = 𝑈 + 0, meaning 𝐾 = 0 thus 𝑣 = 0. Therefore the angular
momentum is 𝐿 = 𝑟 ⊥ 𝑚𝑣 = 0.

(b) What would its trajectory have to be to satisfy conservation of

angular momentum?

So since 𝐿 = 0, then the angular momentum has remain zero. This can only happen
if 𝑟 × 𝑚𝑣 = 0, which means either 𝑣 = 0 and that requires something to hold the
satellite at rest, or 𝑣 and 𝑟 point in the same direction and that means 𝑣 travels in a
straight line.

46
 Celestial mechanics
We need to discuss the shape of the orbits. They are
derived from conic sections. They have the equation:
𝐸mech < 0: Elliptical orbit (includes circle).
Object is bound.

𝐸mech = 0: Parabolic orbit. Just enough

or kinetic energy to escape gravity
where 𝑎 is the semimajor axis
𝐸mech > 0: Hyperbolic orbit, unbound object
and 𝑒 is the eccentricity.
(just has it motion affected by star)

𝑒 =0 0 <𝑒 <1 𝑒 =1 𝑒 >1

47
Section from the book
in case anyone wants
to read it on their own.

48
 Celestial mechanics
A satellite of mass msat is in an elliptical orbit around a star of mass mstar >>
msat. If the mechanical energy of the star-satellite system is Emech and the
magnitude of the angular momentum of the satellite about the star is L, what
are the semimajor axis a and the eccentricity e of the satellite’s orbit?

Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 2, Translate to maths

Conservation of angular momentum
𝐿 = 𝑟⊥ 𝑚𝑣

Conservation of energy, 𝐸 = 𝑈 𝐺 + 𝐾
𝐾 = 1 𝑚𝑣 2, 𝑈 𝐺 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑟
2

From the drawing (and ellipses in general) I can see that

2𝑎 = 𝑟𝑝 + 𝑟𝑄,
I can also see 𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑒)
and also 𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑒)
I know the orbit will have a maximum
and minimum radius, and there the star
velocity is perpendicular to the radius.

I also know conservation of momentum

and conservation of energy.

49
 Celestial mechanics
A satellite of mass msat is in an elliptical orbit around a star of mass mstar >>
msat. If the mechanical energy of the star-satellite system is Emech and the
magnitude of the angular momentum of the satellite about the star is L, what
are the semimajor axis a and the eccentricity e of the satellite’s orbit?

Step 3, Solve
I know conservation of angular momentum holds so This equation is then re-arranged to
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑝 𝑣 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑄 𝑣 𝑄
So the satellite’s kinetic energy at P is going to be
Next I use relationships from an ellipse 2𝑎 = 𝑟𝑝 +
𝑟𝑄, 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑒), 𝑟𝑄 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑒) to get

Then the energy at point P is going to be

Now I can put this expression of 𝐿 2 into the
energy at point P to get

Doing the same for point Q and equating the two

energies (conservation of energy) gives
Step 4, Evaluate
The orbit being elliptical means that 𝐸 mech is
negative, and so 𝑎 is positive and 𝑒 is smaller
than 1, as they should be for an ellipse. 50
 Celestial mechanics
The figure shows five orbits with the same fixed energy 𝐸 mech = 𝑈 𝐺 + 𝐾
but different values of 𝐿.

Because the mechanical energy 𝐸 mech of the system is always the same,
the length 2𝑎 of the orbit’s major axis (dashed line) is constant.

51
 Celestial mechanics
The figure shows the orbit of an object launched multiple times from a fixed
location that is a distance 𝑟 i from Earth’s center.

If 𝑣 i exceeds 𝑣 esc such that 𝐸 mech > 0, then the satellite is unbound.
𝑣 esc is the object’s escape velocity given by

where 𝑚 is the mass of the launched object, 𝑚 E is Earth’s mass, and

𝑟i is the distance from the launch point to Earth’s center. 52
 Celestial mechanics
If E > 0 for a system that consists of an object orbiting a
much more massive object, is the orbit bound or unbound?

1. Bound

2. Unbound

3. More information is needed to say.

53
 Gravitational force exerted by a sphere
Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 outside a spherical shell of
mass 𝑀 and radius 𝑅.
First let us look at a vertical ring-shaped piece of the shell,
as shown on the right. The force in 𝑥 exerted by a small
segment 𝑑𝑚 of the ring on the particle is

The vector sum of the forces exerted by the whole ring is

where 𝑑𝑀 is the mass of the entire ring (the sum of the

masses of all the segments).

The width (arc length) of the ring is 𝑅𝑑𝜃, thus the area of the
ring (length×width) is 2𝜋𝑅 sin (𝜃) 𝑅𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑅 2 sin (𝜃) 𝑑𝜃.

If the mass in the shell 𝑀 is uniformly distributed, then

54
 Gravitational force exerted by a sphere
Combining these two equations gives

Now we need to integrate over all 𝜃. However, we need to

reduce 𝛼, 𝑠 and 𝜃 to one variable as they are all related.

From the figure on the bottom right we can see

and from the law of cosines (if you need mathematical

identities in homework, I will give them to you)

We can differentiate both sides of this equation w.r.t. 𝑠 to get 2𝑠 on

one side and on the other

Use of chain rule

Equating the two derivatives gives us or 55

 Gravitational force exerted by a sphere
Now I can use this is expression along with the cos 𝛼
expression and the law of cosines, to get

To obtain the force exerted by the entire shell, we must

integrate this expression from 𝑠 = 𝑟 − 𝑅 to 𝑠 = 𝑟 + 𝑅 (or
equivalently from 𝜃 = 0 to 𝜃 = 𝜋)

Now this is integral is

so

This is for a single spherical shell, so we can calculate a sphere by

adding all of these shell together:
This equation says a spheres exerts
a force as if the entire mass 𝑀 as a
point particle at the center.
56
57
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 14
Code:
PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
Previously, Gravity

𝑐 𝑏 2
𝑒 = = 1−
𝑎 𝑎

𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2

2
 Periodic motion

Study the kinematic and dynamics of periodic motion, i.e.,

motion that repeats itself at regular intervals.
3
Periodic motion and energy
Any motion that repeats itself at regular time intervals is called
periodic motion.
The figure shows the periodic motion of a spring-cart system.
So we need to look at the energy of the system.

List the forces exerted on the spring-cart system on the right after it
is released (spring is weightless), draw a free-body diagram for
each object.

Spring: Force from cart and

force from the post.

Cart: Gravity, contact from

force from floor and force
from spring.

Which of these forces do work on the system as it oscillates?

None, only the internal forces have non zero displacements so no work.

As the hand pushes on the cart and compresses the spring, is the
work done by the cart on the spring positive, negative, or zero?

Positive, because the force displacement and is in the same direction

as the force.
4
Periodic motion and energy
Hand compressing spring increases elastic potential energy is stored
in the system. Before the cart is released, the system is at rest, so the
mechanical energy of the system consists only of potential energy.

At 𝑥 = 0, the potential energy is zero so only kinetic energy. Thus the

cart overshoots the zero position due to its kinetic energy. Then It
reverses as the spring starts to exert a force on the cart.

It repeats this motion over and over again. This is periodic motion.

⇒ The time interval it takes to complete a full cycle of the motion is the
period T.
⇒ The inverse of the period is called the frequency f = 1/T
⇒ The object’s maximum displacement from the equilibrium position is
called the amplitude A.

In practice, periodic motion in mechanical systems will die out due to

energy dissipation.

If we ignore these damping effects, we find that:

Periodic motion is characterized by a
continuous conversion between potential
and kinetic energy in a closed system.
5
 Periodic motion and energy

For each of the systems above, identify the restoring force and
the type of potential energy associated with the motion.

a) Tangential component of gravitational force,

Gravitational potential energy

b) vertical component of elastic force in ruler,

Elastic potential energy
All systems here exhibit periodic motion and they
c) tangential component of gravitational force, have one common feature: a restoring interaction
Gravitational potential energy that tends to return the system to equilibrium.

d) vertical component of elastic force in string,

Elastic potential energy

6
 Periodic motion and energy
An object hangs motionless from a spring. When the object is
pulled down, the sum of the elastic potential energy of the spring
and the gravitational potential energy of the object and Earth

1. increases.

2. stays the same.

3. decreases.

7
 Simple harmonic motion
Investigation of oscillating systems reveal that, when
the amplitude is not too large, the period is independent For example, the spring is oscillating
of the amplitude. between its elastic range (not beyond
the damaging stage)
An oscillating system that exhibits this property is called
isochronous.

8
 Simple harmonic motion
The x(t) curve of an isochronous oscillation is A object executing simple harmonic
sinusoidal. motion is subject to a linear restoring
force that tends to return the object to its
Periodic motion that yields a sinusoidal x(t) curve is equilibrium position and is linearly
called a simple harmonic motion (SHM), and an proportional to the object’s displacement
object that exhibits this type of motion is called from its equilibrium position.
simple harmonic oscillator.

9
 Simple harmonic motion
Suppose the spring in the figure on the right is compressed twice as much
as compared to before.
(a) By how much does the mechanical energy of the spring-cart system
increase?

By a factor of 4, the potential energy of a spring is (WK8.7)

1
𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑥0 2
2

(b) What is the relationship between the amplitude of the oscillation and the
mechanical energy in the oscillating system?

The initial compression determines the amplitude,

and so the energy in the oscillator is proportional to
the square of the amplitude.

10
 Simple harmonic motion
Simple harmonic motion is closely related to circular
motion.
The figures shows the shadow of a ball projected
onto a screen.
As the ball moves in circular motion with constant
rotational speed 𝜔, the shadow moves with simple
harmonic motion.
The ball sweeps out at an angle 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 in time 𝑡.
Then the position of the ball’s shadow is described
by 𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑡), where 𝐴 is the radius of the circle.

11
 Simple harmonic motion
Correspondence between circular motion at constant speed and simple harmonic motion for
(a) an object suspended from a spring and (b) a pendulum.

12
 Simple harmonic motion
On the screen in the figure on the right,

(a) what is the direction of the velocity of the

shadow

Upwards, see drawing on the bottom right

(b) what is the direction of the shadow’s

acceleration?

Downwards. In the drawing on the bottom

right, the two shaded regions ∆𝑥 1 and ∆𝑥 2
indicate show that ∆𝑥 2 is smaller even though
∆𝑡 is the same.

13
 Simple harmonic motion
A mass attached to a spring oscillates back and forth as indicated in the position
vs. time plot below. At point P, the mass has

1. +ve 𝑣 and +ve 𝑎.

2. +ve 𝑣 and -ve 𝑎.

3. +ve 𝑣 and 𝑎 = 0.

4. -ve 𝑣 and +ve 𝑎.

5. -ve 𝑣 and -ve 𝑎.

6. -ve 𝑣 and 𝑎 = 0.
14
 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
You saw that there is a correspondence between simple If the phasor completes one revolution in a
harmonic motion and circular motion at constant speed. period 𝑇, then

A phasor is a rotating arrow whose tip traces a circle

called the reference circle.
As the phasor rotates counterclockwise at a constant and the frequency of the corresponding SHM is
rotational speed 𝜔, its vertical component varies
sinusoidally and thus describes a simple harmonic motion. →

The derived SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz) In oscillations, 𝜔 is often called the angular
after the 19th-century German physicist Heinrich frequency, remember this distinction from
Hertz, who produced the first radio waves: the normal frequency.
15
 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
The rotational position of the tip of the phasor is called the phase
of the motion and for constant angular frequency it is given by

Then, the vertical component of the phasor can be written as

𝐴 is the amplitude of the phasor and 𝜙i is phase at 𝑡 = 0 s. This

is simple harmonic motion

16
 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
Consider the spring-cart system of the figure on the right again. The cart
is pulled away from its equilibrium position in the positive 𝑥 direction and
then released at 𝑡 = 0.
(a) What is the initial phase of the cart’s oscillation?

The cart is pulled away to start at maximum amplitude in the

positive 𝑥 direction, so the phasor is pointing straight up and
the initial phase of the cart’s oscillation is 𝜙 i = 90° = 𝜋/2

(b) What is the phase of the cart’s oscillation half a period later

Half a period later means traversed 180° so the phase is 𝜙 i +

180° = 270° = 3𝜋/2

(c) one period later?

One period later means traversed 360° so the phase is 𝜙 i +

360° = 450° = 5𝜋/2.

17
 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
This is the displacement of the phasor

Therefore its velocity and acceleration are

We can see that the acceleration and displacement are linked by

This is a second order differential equation

It is called the simple harmonic oscillator equation because

any system that satisfies this equation undergoes simple
harmonic motion.

If we know the acceleration 𝑎 𝑥 = − 𝜔 2 𝑥, then we can get the forces acting

from the equation of motion by just multiplying by 𝑚:

→ for simple harmonic motion.

Since 𝑚 and 𝜔 are positive constants, an object in simple harmonic motion is

subject to a force that is always opposite to the object’s displacement and
linearly proportional. This a linear restoring force. 18
 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
Now we can examine the mechanical energy using the equations on the
previous slide. From (WK8.7) we have

as the work done by forces on the object undergoing simple harmonic motion.
This is then equal to the change in the kinetic energy ∆𝐾

This oscillation is reversible, so no dissipation of energy. If we consider a

closed system of spring+object, then ∆𝐸 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0 → ∆𝐾 = − ∆𝑈,
hence we get

If we let 𝑈 𝑥 0 = 0, then the energy for the whole system is

We already know what 𝑣 is from previous slide hence:

19
Note cos 2 𝜙 + sin 2 𝜙 = 1 for all 𝜙
 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
What are the algebraic signs of 𝑥, 𝑣 𝑥 and 𝑎 𝑥 when the
phase 𝜙 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 i is between 0 and 𝜋/2?

𝑥 positive, 𝑣 𝑥 positive, 𝑎𝑥 negative

Repeat for 𝜋 < 𝜙 𝑡 < 3𝜋/2

𝑥 negative, 𝑣 𝑥 negative, 𝑎𝑥 positive

Use the equation to the right to determine the

maximum potential energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator.

Maximum displacement is at 𝑥 = 𝐴, so putting this into the

1
equation and 𝑈 𝑥 0 = 0 yields 𝑈 𝑥 = 𝑚𝜔 2 𝐴 2 as the
2
maximum potential energy.

Does your answer to the previous agree with 𝐸 = 1 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2

2
Yes, at maximum displacement we have 𝐾 = 0 and thus 𝐸 =
𝑈. We can see they are the same equation.
20
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Periodic motion requires a restoring force that tends to
return the object to the equilibrium position.
Consider, for example, an object moving along an 𝑥 axis
and subject to the vector sum of forces whose 𝑥
component is shown graphically on the right

You can see that the sum of forces is zero at 𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 and

for all 𝑥 > 𝑥 3.

Inside the hole, the forces push the ball to 𝑥 1. This is a

stable equilibrium.
On top of the hill, the force push the ball away from 𝑥 2 so
this is an unstable equilibrium.
Nothing happens at 𝑥 > 𝑥 3 so neutral equilibrium.

A consequence of the restoring force about a stable

equilibrium position is:
In the absence of friction, a small displacement Whenever the vector sum of the forces exerted
of a system from a position of stable on an object is zero, the object is in translational
equilibrium causes the system to oscillate. equilibrium. This graph shows stable, unstable,
and neutral equilibria.
21
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
(a) Are there any equilibrium positions in the force-versus-
distance graph in the figure on the right? If so, is the
equilibrium stable, unstable, or neutral?
At 𝑥 = 𝑥 0 and for large 𝑥, ∑ 𝐹 𝑥 = 0, and so these are
equilibrium positions.

The position at 𝑥 0 is a stable equilibrium position.

At very large 𝑥, the equilibrium is unstable because the
object will tend to accelerate in the negative 𝑥 direction.

(b) Compare the magnitude of the restoring force for equal

displacements on either side of 𝑥 0 in the figure.

The shape of the curve tells you that the magnitude of the
restoring force is greater for a negative displacement from
𝑥0 than for a equal positive displacement.

As illustrated in the figure:

For sufficiently small displacements away from the equilibrium
position 𝒙 𝟎, restoring forces are always linearly proportional to
the displacement.

Consequently, for small displacements, objects execute simple

harmonic motion about a stable equilibrium position. 22
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Figure on the right shows a string displaced from its
equilibrium position. Each part of the stretched string is
subject to elastic (contact) forces exerted by the parts
immediately adjacent to it.

Part 2 in the middle of the string in the middle figure is

subject to a force exerted by part 1 and a force
exerted by part 3.
In the equilibrium position, when the string is straight,
the elastic forces exerted by parts 1 and 3 on part 2
add to zero.

As the string is displaced, however, the elastic forces

exerted by the two neighboring parts no longer line
up (bottom figure) and their vector sum provides a
restoring force that tends to return the string to its
equilibrium position.

The same line of reasoning applies to the restoring

forces that arise when materials are twisted or bent

23
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
The same line of reasoning applies to the restoring forces
that arise when materials are twisted or bent.

Figure on the right shows that bending an object

compresses the material on the inside of the curve and
stretches the material on the outside of the curve.

The resulting internal elastic forces cause torques on

each part of the object, torques that tend to return the
object to its equilibrium shape.

For small displacements, the internal elastic forces are

linearly proportional to the displacement, and
consequently the restoring torque, too, is linearly
proportional to the (rotational) displacement.

24
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Let us next examine a pendulum, where the restoring
force is due to gravity.

Figure on the right shows a pendulum ball of mass 𝑚

suspended from a string of length ℓ. The mass of the
string is negligible (we assume) and much longer than the
radius of the ball, we can ignore the mass of the string
and treat the ball as a particle.
Such a pendulum is called a simple pendulum.

The restoring force for a simple pendulum is provided by

the component of the gravitational force perpendicular to
the string.

From the free-body diagram we can see that the

magnitude of the restoring force on the ball is
𝑚𝑔 sin (𝜃) = (𝑚𝑔/ℓ)𝑥

25
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Show that for small displacements the restoring force exerted on
part 2 of the displaced string on the right is linearly proportional to
the displacement of that part from its equilibrium position.

We can see that part 2 has forces exerted by parts 1 & 3 when
displaced. I also assume gravity is much weaker than these forces.

Draw a free-body diagram and a sketch

Since 𝐹𝑐12,𝑦 and 𝐹𝑐32,𝑦 have equal magnitudes,

then 𝐹 restoring = 2𝐹𝑐12,𝑦 = 2𝐹𝑐12 sin (𝜃) ≈
1
2𝐹𝑐12 Δ𝑦/ ℓ therefore we get that:
2
𝐹restoring ≈ 𝐹𝑐12Δ𝑦/ℓ
The restoring force is 𝐹𝑐12,𝑦 + 𝐹𝑐32,𝑦 . These two forces have
equal magnitudes dependent on the displacement ∆𝑦. This is indeed linearly proportional to the
Note the string has new length ℓ′ when displaced. displacement.

We see that 𝐹𝑐12,𝑦 = 𝐹𝑐12 sin (𝜃).

1 1
Further sin (𝜃) = ∆𝑦/ ℓ′ ≈ Δ𝑦/ ℓ because for
2 2
≈ℓ
26
small displacements ℓ′
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Using a calculator, determine the percent error in
the approximation sin (𝜃) ≈ 𝜃 for polar angles of
1°, 5°, 10°, and 20°.

sin (𝜃) ≈ 𝜃 holds if and only if 𝜃 is expressed in

radians, we need to convert from degrees to
radians first.

You can see that it is an ok approximation up-to 10°

27
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Another way to look at oscillations is to say
Oscillations arise from interplay between inertia
and a restoring force.

Using this interplay between inertia and a restoring force we

can predict that
The period of an oscillating object increases when
its mass is increased and decreases when the
magnitude of the restoring force is increased.

However, this relation does not hold for pendulums:

The period of a pendulum is independent of the
mass of the pendulum.

28
Restoring forces in simple harmonic motion
Which of the three types of equilibrium allow
periodic motion? Answer all that apply.

1. Stable

2. Unstable

3. Neutral

A child and an adult are on adjacent swings at the playground. Is the

adult able to swing in synchrony with the child?

1. No, this is impossible because the inertia of the two are

different.

2. Yes, as long as the lengths of the two swings are adjusted.

3. Yes, as long as the lengths of the swings are the same.

29
 Simple harmonic motion and springs
Consider the spring-cart system shown. Let 𝑥 0 = 0,
the force exerted by the spring on the cart is

Using we can find the equation of motion for the car to be

Or put another way

This is the simple harmonic oscillator equation and its

solution is has angular frequency 𝜔 = + 𝑘/𝑚.
Remember that angular frequency is always positive!

The motion of the cart is then given by

Figure on the right shows different sinusoidal functions of

the form given by the above equation. All complete one
cycle in period 𝑇. So they have same angular frequency,
by they have different amplitude 𝐴 and phase 𝜙 i.
30
 Simple harmonic motion and springs
A cart of mass m = 0.50 kg fastened to a spring of spring constant k =
14 N/m is pulled 30 mm away from its equilibrium position and then
released with zero initial velocity. What are the cart’s position and the
x component of velocity 2.0 s after being released?

Step 1, sketch the problem Step 3, Solve

I can get the angular frequency of oscillation

Then I can get the position and velocity since I know 𝜙 i

Initially at rest 𝑣 i = 0, and start a
maximum displacement 𝜙 i = + 𝜋/2.

Step 2, Translate to maths

Step 4, Evaluate
|𝑥| < 𝐴 as it should be. Cart moves 4𝐴 = 0.12 m in one
cycle, which takes 2𝜋/𝜔 = 1.2 s, so average speed is
(0.12 m)/(1.2 s) = 0.1 m/s which is reasonable.

31
 Simple harmonic motion and springs
Cart 1 of mass m = 0.50 kg fastened to a spring of spring constant k = 14 N/m
is pushed 15 mm in from its equilibrium position and held in place by a ratchet,
see figure on the bottom. An identical cart 2 is launched at a speed of 0.10 m/s
toward cart 1. The carts collide elastically, releasing the ratchet and setting cart
1 in motion. After the collision, cart 2 is immediately removed from the track.
Ignore the effect of the spring on the collision.

(a) What is the maximum compression of the spring?

(b) How many seconds elapse between the instant the carts collide and the
instant the spring reaches maximum compression?

32
 Simple harmonic motion and springs
(a) What is the maximum compression of the spring?
(b) How many seconds elapse between the instant the
carts collide and the instant the spring reaches maximum
compression?

Step 1, Sketch the problem

Step 3, Solve
I know the initial and kinetic energies

I choose 𝑥 = 0 to be the equilibrium position.

Elastic collision so carts interchange velocities
hence 𝑣 1𝑥,i = − 0.1 m/s Therefore the total mechanical energy is
Step 2, Translate to maths 𝐸mech = 0.0025 + 0.0016 = 0.0041 J

𝐸mech = 𝐾 + 𝑈
1 Maximum displacement occurs when 𝑣 = 0 hence
𝐾 = 1 𝑚𝑣 2, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2 1
then 𝑘𝐴 2 = 0.0041 J.
2 2 2

33
 Simple harmonic motion and springs
(a) What is the maximum compression of the spring?
(b) How many seconds elapse between the instant the
carts collide and the instant the spring reaches maximum
compression?

Step 3, Solve

I now know that 𝐴 = 24 mm and also at 𝑡 = 0 I have

𝑥i = − 15 mm, thus I get that

Step 4, Evaluate

𝐴 > |𝑥i | as expected.

2𝜋
I see that one cycle takes 𝑇 = = 1.2 𝑠,
𝜔
There is actually two values of 𝜙 that satisfy this condition,
so my value for maximum compression at
𝜙i = − 0.68 or 𝜙i = − 𝜋 + 0.68 = − 2.5.
𝑡 = 0.17 s is about 1/8 so it makes sense.
Only the second solution gives a negative 𝑣 𝑥 at 𝑡 = 0 as
required by the initial condition.

At maximum compression sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 i ) = − 1, which means

1
that 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 i = − 𝜋. Solving for 𝑡 yields
2
1
𝑡 = − 𝜋 − 𝜙i /𝜔 = 0.17 s
2 34
 Fourier’s theorem
Fourier’s theorem: Any periodic function with period T can
be written as a sum of sinusoidal functions of frequency fn =
n/T, where n ≥ 1 is an integer.
ℎ𝑛 𝑡 = sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑛 𝑡) 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑛/𝑇

f1 = 1/T is called the fundamental frequency or the first

harmonic.

All other components, called higher harmonics, are integer

multiples of the fundamental frequency:
𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 = 𝑛/𝑇
According to Fourier’s theorem, any periodic motion can be
treated as a superposition of simple harmonic motions.

This is the idea behind spectrum analysis in

music. However, Fourier theory is used in so
many more applications.
Telecommunications is based on the Fourier
theory,.
Even CPU manufacturing uses Fourier theory.
JPEG image compression is also related to
Fourier theory.

35
Fourier’s theorem
The figure illustrates the application of Fourier’s theorem. By
adjusting the amplitude 𝐴 𝑛 of each harmonic, we can make the sum
of harmonics fit the original nonsinusoidal periodic function.

36
 Fourier’s theorem
The breaking down of a function into harmonic components
is called Fourier analysis, and the resulting sum of
sinusoidal functions is called a Fourier series.
Figure on the right shows one way of graphically
representing the Fourier series: The amplitudes 𝐴 𝑛 of all the
harmonics are plotted against the frequencies of the
harmonics.
As you saw on slide 10, the energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
2
For this reason, it is customary to plot 𝐴𝑛 as a function of
frequency, as shown on the bottom figure.
Such a plot is called the spectrum of the periodic function.

What does the spectrum of a single sinusoidal function of

period 𝑇 look like?
A pure sinusoidal function requires just a single term in
the Fourier series, so its spectrum is a single peak at
𝑓 = 1/𝑇 with peak height 𝐴2 for amplitude 𝐴

As 𝑇 is increased, what change occurs in the spectrum?

As 𝑇 increases the frequency 𝑓 = 1/𝑇 decreases, so

its spectrum shifts to a lower frequency.
37
 Restoring torques
Some simple harmonic oscillators involve rotational motion.
The torsion oscillator shown is an example of this type of
oscillator. Due to the torques involved, the equation of motion
for the disk is

We must relate the torque to the rotational displacement. For a

rotating disk, the torque is caused by the twisted fiber. For
small rotational displacements; rotational displacement and
torque are linearly related:

where 𝜅 is torsional constant which depends on the properties

of the material being twisted.
If we let the rotational position at equilibrium be zero, 𝜗 0 = 0,
then we get that
Note: 𝜅 is the greek letter kappa
which is different to 𝑘.
→

We can then find that the rotational displacement for a torsional Notice how similar this is to
𝑑 2𝑥
oscillator is given by = − 𝑘 𝑥 from slide 30.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

where 𝜗 max is the maximum rotational displacement (amplitude

of rotational oscillation), and 𝜔 is the angular frequency not 38
rotational speed.
 Restoring torques
For the torsional oscillator shown in on the right, what effect, if any,
does a decrease in the radius of the disk have on the oscillation
frequency 𝑓? Assume the disk’s mass is kept the same.

1
The disc’s rotational inertia is 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2, then the angular
2
𝜅
frequency becomes 𝜔 = = 2𝜅2.
𝐼 𝑚𝑟

𝜔
Therefore the oscillation frequency 𝑓 = increases with
2𝜋
decreasing radius since the mass is constant.

39
 Restoring torques
The pendulum is another example of a rotational oscillator. However, the
restoring torque is not caused by an elastic force but by gravity.
So we must write an expression for the restoring torque and relate the
magnitude of this torque to the rotational displacement of the pendulum.

Consider an object mass 𝑚 suspended about a rotation axis located a

distance ℓ cm from the object’s center of mass, shown on the right.

The force from the gravity is 𝐹𝐺 𝐸𝑜⊥ = − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜗 and the lever arm
distance is ℓ cm, thus torque from gravity about the pivot axis is
𝜏𝜗 = − ℓcm 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜗 ≈ − 𝑚ℓcm 𝜗,
where we have used sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 for small angles to simplify.

Then using 𝜏 𝜗 = 𝐼𝛼 𝜗 = 𝐼 𝑑 2 𝜗/𝑑𝑡 2 we get that

And the so the angular frequency of oscillation is

40
 Restoring torques
Suppose a simple pendulum consisting of a ball of mass
𝑚 suspended from a string of length ℓ is pulled back and released.
What is the period of oscillation of the bob?

We sketch the problem We can assume the string has This result says that the period is
negligible mass, and thus the center- independent from the mass of the
of-mass is at the ball which we treat ball 𝑚. This is what we said on slide
as a particle. 28.

For a point particle, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 with 𝑟 = ℓ It also says increasing ℓ increases

for our case. Further, we have that the period of oscillation. This makes
ℓcm = ℓ. Therefore we have sense as larger ℓ means greater the
distance the ball has to move.

𝑚ℓcm 𝑔 𝑚ℓ𝑔 𝑔
𝜔= = = .
𝐼 𝑚ℓ 2 ℓ

From 𝜔 ≡ Δϑ = 2𝜋 thus get that

Δt 𝑇
ℓ
𝑇 = 2𝜋 . Remember, this is for the small
Vertical dashed line indicates 𝑔 angle approximation.
the equilibrium position.

41
 Restoring torques
The oscillations of a thin rod can be used to determine the value of the
acceleration due to gravity. A rod that is 0.800 m long and suspended
from one end is observed to complete 100 oscillations in 147 s. What is
the value of 𝑔 at the location of this experiment?

2
From (WK11.6) we use the parallel-axis Solving for 𝑔 gives 𝑔 = 𝜔 2 ℓ.
3
theorem
𝐼 = 𝐼 cm + 𝑚𝑑 2
and for a uniform thin rod rotated about The period of oscillations is
its center (147 s)/(100) = 1.47 s,
1 so the angular frequency is 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝐼 cm = 𝑚ℓ2
12 2𝜋 1 = 2𝜋 = 4.27 s−1.
𝑇 1.47 𝑠
The distance from the center of mass
and rotation axis is ℓ/2, hence we get This gives us a value of
ℓ 2 2
that 𝐼 =
1
𝑚ℓ2 + 𝑚 = 1 𝑚ℓ2. 𝑔 = 2 4.27 𝑠 −1 0.8 𝑚
12 2 3 3
= 9.74 m/𝑠 2
1
Since we have ℓ cm = ℓ, then we
2
substitute these values into the equation
from two slides ago to get

42
 Damped oscillations
Mechanical oscillators always involve some friction that causes
the energy of the oscillator to convert to thermal energy.

Therefore the oscillator will slow down. Such a system is said to

execute a damped oscillation. On the right are two examples
of damped oscillations with their free-body diagrams
Each object is subject to two forces in the horizontal direction: a
restoring force exerted by the spring and a damping force that
dissipates the energy of the oscillation.

For the block, kinetic friction is the damping force 𝐹𝑘fb = 𝜇 𝑘 𝑚𝑔.
For the cart, we have air resistance (or drag forces) and they
𝑑
are proportional to the velocity so 𝐹ac = − 𝑏𝑣 for low speed,
where 𝑏 is called the damping coefficient.

For most oscillators, such drag forces are the main cause of
energy dissipation.

The damping coefficient depends on

the objects shape and properties of the
gas/liquid.

43
 Damped oscillations
Now we can analyze the equation of the motion for the cart with
𝐹𝑑ac = − 𝑏𝑣. In the 𝑥 direction we have

This is re-written with time-derivative definitions of velocity and

acceleration as

As long as the damping is not too great, the solution to this

differential equation is a sinusoidally varying function whose
amplitude decreases with time:

where 𝜔 𝑑 is angular frequency of the damped oscillator:

44
 Damped oscillations
We can compare the equations for a simple harmonic oscillator
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙i ) and for the damped oscillator
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒−𝑏𝑡/2𝑚 sin (𝜔d 𝑡 + 𝜙i ).
It is clear to see that 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡/2𝑚 is the only extra term (and the modified
angular frequency), however for 𝑏 = 0 for no damping, then
𝑒−𝑏𝑡/2𝑚 = 1 and 𝜔d = 𝜔, hence the damped oscillator reduces to
the simple harmonic oscillator.

The ratio 𝑚/𝑏 has unit of time, and this is called the time constant
𝜏 ≡ 𝑚/𝑏. We can then write the amplitude as

The mechanical energy of the oscillator, which is proportional to the

square of the amplitude (slide 19) thus decreases with 𝑡 as

1
where 𝐸 0 = 𝑚𝜔 2 𝐴20 is the initial mechanical energy of the system.
2
Oscillation frequencies vary a lot, so we define the quality factor,
which tells you how many cycles are needed for the energy to crease
by a certain amount:

When 𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 ≥ 0, then 𝜏 = 𝑛𝑇, so it takes 𝑛 cycles for the

45
energy to decrease to 𝑒 −1 ≈ 0.37.
 Damped oscillations
A tuning fork that sounds the tone musicians call middle C oscillates at
frequency f = 262 Hz. If the amplitude of the fork’s oscillation decreases by a
factor of 3 in 4.0 s,
(a) what is the time constant of the oscillation

We have that 𝑥 max 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡/2𝜏, and we given that 𝑥 max (4 s)/

𝐴 = 1/3 , therefore we need to solve 𝑒−(4 s)/2𝜏 = 1/3.

To solve this we need to use natural logarithm

− (4 s)/2𝜏 = ln (1/3) → 𝜏 = − (4 s)/(2 ln (1/3) ) = 1.8 s

(b) what is the quality factor?

𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓𝜏 = 2𝜋 262 𝐻𝑧 1.8 𝑠 = 2963

46
47
General Physics (I) • 課號 Course

Week 15
Code:
PHY102F

Prof. Rayko Stantchev

rayko.stantchev@g-mail.nsysu.edu.tw
Previously, Periodic motion

2
 Waves in One dimension

Study the kinematic and dynamics of wave motion, i.e., the transport of
energy through a disturbance propagating through matter or empty space.
3
 Representing waves graphically
Waves are common in our surroundings and can be
seen on the surface of water, heard via sound, and travel
as light through space.

A wave is a disturbance 風波 that propagates through a

material (the medium) or through empty space.

A wave pulse is a single isolated propagating

disturbance.

According to the latest physics, we all waves. So we are

all disturbances that propagates through space.

4
 Representing waves graphically
Consider a stretched string tied on one side, shown on the right.

Raising one side of the string pulls up the neighboring part of the
string. Then that neighbor pull its neighbor and so forth. The
upward displacement of the end of the string is thus transmitted
along the string because neighboring pieces of the string pull on
each other.

This is an example of a wave pulse that travels along a string in a

horizontal direction while the particles that make up the string
move up and down.

A transverse wave is a wave in which the medium movement

is perpendicular to the wave pulse movement.

5
Representing waves graphically
(a) Using the choice of axes shown in the figure on
the left, draw a position-versus-time graph showing
how the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of the position of the
large bead change with time.

(b) Are the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of the velocity of the

large bead positive, zero, or negative while the bead
is on the leading edge of the pulse?

𝑣 𝑥 is always zero.
𝑣 𝑦 is positive before 0.18 s, and negative
after 0.18 s. Finally it becomes zero.

6
Representing waves graphically
Using a ruler, we can verify that the displacement of
the pulse from one frame to the next is constant.

Between 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 0.36 s we can see that peak

moves 16 beads.

If each bead is 5 mm in size, then this corresponds

to a speed of
𝑐 = (15 beads)(5 mm)/(0.36 s) = 0.21 m/s

The wave speed 𝒄 of a wave pulse along a

string is constant.

7
 Representing waves graphically
There are other types of waves, not just a sinusoidal one
like the previous slide.

On the right is a “snapshot” of a triangular pulse traveling

along a string.
The vector 𝐷 represents the displacement of one particular
particle located at a position 𝑥 along the string at a given
instant 𝑡.

The representation of all the particle displacements at a

given instant is shown the middle graph. The curve gives
the 𝑦 components of the displacements of the particles of
the string as a function of the position 𝑥 along the string.
This is called the wave function.

The wave pulse shown in the top part can also be

represented by plotting the displacement of one particle on
the string as a function of time 𝑡.

Such a plot gives us the displacement curve of the wave

pulse.

8
 Representing waves graphically
Mechanical waves are divided into two
categories, depending on how the medium moves
relative to the wave motion.
For a wave propagating along a string, the
medium movement is perpendicular to the pulse
movement. Such waves are called transverse
waves. See slide 5 for example.

In other type of waves, the medium movement is

parallel to the pulse movement, and waves that
behave this way are called longitudinal waves.

Here we see a longitudinal wave propagating

along a spring. If you rapidly displace the left end
of the spring back and forth, a disturbance travels
down the spring.

9
 Representing waves graphically
As shown in the figure on the right, a longitudinal
wave can also be represented by wave functions
and displacement curves.

When the left end is pulled back to its original

position, each coil pulls the next one back. The
result is again a wave pulse propagating to the right,
with each coil temporarily being displaced in the
direction of propagation of the wave pulse.

Wave-function

Displacement curve for coil located at 𝑥 = 0

10
 Wave propagation
A wave pulse is not an object—it has no mass—and so the
description of wave motion is very different from the description
of the motion of objects.
To study the propagation of a wave pulse along a string, let us
consider a collection of beads connected by short strings. The
mass of the strings is negligible relative to that of the beads.

Figure on the right shows the first ten of these beads as a

pulse travels along the string. The vertical gray lines show that
the motion of the beads is entirely vertical.

The string is taut (stretched), so there are only horizontal

forces on the 3rd bead (gravity is negligible compared to them).

This horizontal force interaction pair, 𝐹𝑐43,𝑥 and 𝐹𝑐23,𝑥 must

always be there, otherwise the string is not taut (stretched).

As the wave propagates, then the bead must move. Therefore

there are vertical forces that cause this acceleration.

11
 Wave propagation
(a) The displacement of bead 4 at 𝑡 4 in the figure on the right is the same as
that of bead 3 at 𝑡 3. How do the velocity and acceleration of bead 4 at 𝑡 4
compare with those of bead 3 at 𝑡 3?

The shape of the pulse does not change as it propagates along the string,
and so each bead executes the same motion as the pulse passes.
Therefore we have that 𝑣 3 𝑡 3 = 𝑣 4 (𝑡 4 ) and 𝑎 3 𝑡 3 = 𝑎 4 (𝑡 4 ).

(b) You move one end of two different strings, A and B, up and down in the
same way. Suppose the resulting pulse travels twice as fast on string A as on
string B. How does the velocity of a particle of string A compare with the velocity
of a particle of string B that has the same nonzero displacement?

For each string, the motion of each point along the string is
identical to the motion of the end you moved (provided the pulse
doesn’t change shape as it travels along the string).

Because the end of A and the end of B move in identical fashion,

all particles of both strings execute the same motion and so have
equal velocities at equal displacements.

12
 Wave propagation
(c) Sketch the pulses as they propagate along the two strings and point out any
differences between the two.

When the pulse on B has a displacement of ∆𝑥 B, the displacement ∆𝑥 A of the

pulse on A is twice as large because of the greater wave speed on string A.

In addition the pulse on A is twice as wide, for this reason: If, during the time
interval it took your hand to move from initial position to maximum
1
displacement, the pulse on A advanced a distance 𝑤 A (half the width of the
2
1 1
pulse), then the pulse on B advanced only half as much: 𝑤 B = 𝑤 A.
2 4
13
 Wave propagation
The example on the previous slide makes two important points:
1. When a particle of the string is displaced from its equilibrium position, its velocity
and acceleration are determined only by the initial disturbance and are
independent of the wave speed 𝑐.
2. For a given disturbance, high wave speeds yield wave pulses that are stretched
out and low wave speeds result in pulses that are more compressed.

Below are examples of how to get different wave speeds on beads on a string

Original wave String tension increased Bead mass increased

14
Wave propagation
If one end of a string is made to execute a periodic motion, the
resulting wave is called a periodic wave.
A harmonic wave, shown in the figure on the left, is a type of
periodic wave obtained by moving the end of the string so that it
oscillates harmonically.

Below is the displacement of the left end of the string as a function

of time. It is identical to the wave itself!

A periodic wave repeats itself over a distance called the

wavelength, denoted by 𝜆.
Each time one point on the string executes a complete
oscillation, the wave advances by one wavelength. Therefore
The wavelength of a periodic wave is equal to the product of
the wave speed and the period of the wave motion.

15
 Wave propagation
Contrary to what you may expect, moving your hand
up and down more quickly does not generate a
faster-traveling pulse.
Figure shows two pulses generated on identical
strings held under identical tensions.

The end of the string on the right is displaced up and

down more quickly than the left string. Both pulses
have the same displacement ∆𝑟 during a time interval
∆𝑡, so the wave speed 𝑐 is the same for both pulses.

To a good approximation, we determine that:

The speed 𝒄 of a wave propagating along a string
is independent of the velocities 𝒗 of the
individual pieces of string. The value of 𝒄 is
determined entirely by the properties of the
medium.

16
 Wave propagation
Waves carry energy with them. Here is an example ⇒

The figure on the right illustrates how a propagating

wave pulse carries two forms of energy along with it:

kinetic energy associated with the motion of individual

particles and elastic potential energy associated with
the stretching of the string as the pulse is passing
through.
In the next section we shall see that a mechanical wave
always carries equal amounts of these two forms of
energy.

Does the wave pulse in on the right also carry along

momentum? Justify your answer.

Yes.

Imagine putting some object in the path of the pulse.

When the pulse displaces the string so that the string
hits the object, the object is set in motion. So the
string has transferred momentum to the object.

17
 Wave propagation
A wave is sent along a long spring by moving the
left end rapidly to the right and keeping it there.
The figure shows the wave pulse at QR—part RS
of the long spring is as yet undisturbed.

Which of the graphs 1–5 correctly shows the

relation between displacement 𝑠 and position 𝑥?
(Displacements to the right are positive.)

18
 Superposition of Waves
Waves have a remarkable property: Two waves
can pass straight through each other without
changing each other’s shape.

The figure shows a series of snapshots of two

pulses propagating toward each other along a
string.
When the two pulses overlap, the displacements
caused by the two waves add algebraically,
provided the medium obeys Hooke’s law (WK7.8)
for the combined displacement (displacement is
not big enough to break the string for example).

This phenomenon is called the superposition of

waves:
If two or more waves overlap in a
medium that obeys Hooke’s law, then
the resulting wave function at any
instant is the algebraic sum of the
individual waves.

In this example, their displacements add

algebraically this gives a displacement greater
than that caused by either pulse individually. 19
 Superposition of Waves
The phenomenon of two waves overlapping is called
interference.

If two waves with the same sign overlap, the

resultant displacement is greater than that of either
wave.

This is called constructive interference.

See the figure on the previous slide for an example
of constructive interference.

If two waves with opposite signs overlap, the

resultant displacement is smaller than that of either
wave.

This is called destructive interference.

The figure on the right is an example of destructive
interference.

When the pulses cross, their displacements add

algebraically, giving rise to a decreased displacement.
After the pulses separate, their shapes are unaltered.

20
 Superposition of Waves
(a) Is the maximum displacement the same for all particles of the
string in with constructive interference? And for all particles of the
string with destructive interference?
No. Look at where the pulses overlap. There the pulses add and thus the
displacement will be larger than at regions where the pulses do not overlap.

(b) For each string, sketch a displacement curve for a point near the left
end of the string.

Constructive Destructive

(c) Repeat part b for the point of each string at which the pulses meet.

Constructive Destructive

You can now clearly see the answer to part a, the particles at the where
pulses meet are displaced once but the other particles are displaced at
two different times.
21
 Superposition of Waves
An extreme form of destructive interference occurs when
the two pulses crossing each other are the same size and
shape but of opposite algebraic signs, shown in the figure
on right.

At the instant the two pulses overlap, the displacements

cancel and the string is flat. Even though it appears as
though both pulses have disappeared, they continue
unchanged after the superposition.

Look at the point where the two pulses completely

overlap, it never moves up or down.
The point that remains stationary in a medium through
which waves move is called a node.

22
 Superposition of Waves
We can deduce a useful fact by examining what happens
to the energy in the pulses when they overlap exactly.
Because the two pulses are identical, each carries the
same amount of energy 𝐸 1 = 𝐾 1 + 𝑈 1, and thus the total
energy in the two pulses is thus 2𝐾 1 + 2𝑈 2.
When the two pulses cancel each other exactly (the
pulses interfere destructively), the string is straight so the
elastic potential energy is zero. The kinetic energy,
however, is not zero.

The upward-moving leading edge of pulse 1 adds to the

upward-moving trailing edge of pulse 2, and likewise for
the downward-moving edges.

In the overlapping regions, thus the particles moves twice

as fast than the other regions. Therefore, the particles
here must have 4𝐾1 kinetic energy.

Energy is conserved, therefore this must equal the initial

energy of 2𝐾 1 + 2𝑈 1. This is only true if 𝐾 1 = 𝑈 1.

A wave contains equal amounts of kinetic

and potential energy.

23
 Wave functions
The displacement of a medium caused by a traveling wave is a
function of both space and time, so the mathematical description
of a 1D traveling wave requires a function of two variables.

Figure below shows a transverse wave on a string at instant 𝑡 = 0

when the origins of the two reference frames coincide.

Stationary reference frame Moving reference frame

The wave has the same shape
when seen from either
reference frame.

The wave viewed from the

moving reference frame does
not change with time, thus this
is a time-independent wave.

If 𝐷 M is the displacement of
any particle on the string, then
we have
𝐷M,y = 𝑓 𝑥M ,
where 𝑓 𝑥M is a function
describing the curve of the
wave as seen from the moving
frame of reference.
24
 Wave functions
However, from the stationary reference frame, the displacements vary with
time so we need to use a time-dependent wave function to describe our
wave.

This means that the displacement of a particle 𝐷 on a string is described by

𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡). Below is a 3D visualization graph of such a function.

We can see that if the wave travels at speed 𝑐, then we get stationary and
moving reference frames 𝑥-coordinates are related by 𝑥 M = 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 where
𝑥M is the position in the moving frame. Therefore
𝑓 𝑥M = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 .

Since we know the particle displacement in the moving frame, we can get
the displacement in the stationary frame as
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 .

25
 Wave functions
Consider the time-dependent wave function

where 𝑏 = 0.8 and 𝑐 = 2 m/s. Plot the time-independent wave

function for 𝑡 = 0, 1, 2 s to verify that the function corresponds to a
wave traveling in the positive 𝑥 direction at a speed of 2 m/s.

First, for 𝑡 = 0 s I can see that the only non-zero region is 0 < 𝑥 −
0 < 1 m. So I can plot the wave for that region.

First, for 𝑡 = 1 s I can see that the only non-zero region is 0 < 𝑥 −
(2 m/s)(1 s) < 1 m, or alternatively 2 m < 𝑥 < 3 m. So I can plot
the wave for that region.

First, for 𝑡 = 2 s I can see that the only non-zero region 4 m < 𝑥 <
5 m, so we plot for that region.

My graphs show a triangular wave that is constant in shape and

displaced in the positive 𝑥 direction by + 2 m each second.

26
 Wave functions
Let the shape of the wave at 𝑡 = 0 be described by the function
𝑎
𝑓 𝑥,0 =
𝑥2 + 𝑏
If the wave travels with speed − 𝑐, what is the mathematical form of the
time-dependent wave function?

When viewed from a reference frame traveling along with the wave, the
wave function does not depend on time and has the form
𝑎
𝑓 𝑥M =
𝑥2M + 𝑏

I know that the positions of the moving frame of reference and stationary
frame of reference are related by 𝑥 M = 𝑥 − − 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡.

Hence the wave functions are related by 𝑓 𝑥 M = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡), thus

substitute this to get
𝑎
𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 = .
𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡 2
+𝑏

27
 Wave functions
Next we consider a transverse harmonic wave traveling along
a string aligned with 𝑥 axis. This wave is generated by making
the end of the string execute a simple harmonic motion.
The top figure on the right shows the shape of the string at a
moment we define at 𝑡 = 0 for which also the string at 𝑥 = 0 is
in the equilibrium position.

The time-independent wave function is

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥)
where 𝐴 is the amplitude and 𝑘 is a constant. The wave
repeats itself over a distance 𝜆 (the wavelength). The at these
points 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝜆 the displacement is the same:

𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥) = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝜆)

Because a sine function repeats itself when its argument is
increased by 2𝜋, it follows that 𝑘𝜆 = 2𝜋, or alternatively:
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
where 𝑘 is called the wave number of the motion. It has units
of inverse meters m −1.

28
 Wave functions
If the wave travels at speed 𝑐 in the positive 𝑥 direction, the
time-dependent wave function is obtained by replacing 𝑥 in the
previous slide by (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡):
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 .

The middle figure shows the wave function after the string end
at 𝑥 = 0 has executed one complete cycle at 𝑡 = 𝑇, where 𝑇 is
the period of the motion. In the time interval from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 𝑇,
this point of the wave has moved a distance 𝜆.

Due to the wave speed of 𝑐 this distance is actually

𝜆 = 𝑐𝑇 = 𝑐/𝑓,
where the frequency is 𝑓 ≡ 1/𝑇.

Because the period of the motion is 𝑇, at 𝑥 = 0 we get that

sin 𝑘𝑐𝑡 = sin 𝑘𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑇 . This is only true if 𝑘𝑐𝑇 = 2𝜋 or
2𝜋
𝑘𝑐 = ≡ 𝜔,
𝑇
where 𝜔 is the angular frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 from WK14.

We can then write our wave function as

𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) .
29
 Wave functions
We analyze the vertical displacement of the string as the wave
passes through. Let’s say at 𝑥 = 0, and using the identity sin (− 𝜃) =
− sin (𝜃), the previous equation becomes
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓 0,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin − 𝜔𝑡 = − 𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑡)

Then at point 𝑥 = 𝑑 and using the identity sin − 𝜃 = sin (𝜃 − 𝜋),

we get that
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑑,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑑 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑑 − 𝜋)

We now can see that 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑑 − 𝜋 = (𝜔𝑡 + constant) meaning

that all points on the string execute simple harmonic motion with a
period 2𝜋/𝜔 = 𝑇.

Therefore, a more general expression of the wave for non-zero initial

displacement is
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙i
where 𝜙 i is the initial phase.

Fourier’s theorem from (WK14.6) can be applied to waves. Any wave

can be expressed in terms of sinusoidally varying waves. The figure
shows a wave pulse obtained by adding together a set of harmonic
waves.

30
 Wave functions

What is the direction of travel of the wave represented by

the time-dependent wave function D(x, t) = 3 sin(5x – 2t)?

1. In the positive x-direction

2. In the negative x-direction

3. In a direction perpendicular to the x-direction

4. It is impossible to say.

31
 Boundary effects
When a wave pulse reaches a boundary where the
transmitting medium ends, the pulse is reflected, which
means that its direction of propagation is reversed.
Before the pulse reaches the boundary, it’s called incident
pulse; after reflection it is the reflected pulse. Whether or
not a reflected pulse has the same orientation as the
incident pulse depends on the properties of the boundary.

Consider the example on the right: as the leading edge of

the pulse reaches the fixed end, the pulse pulls the end
upward. The effect of this upward pull is that the fixed end
exerts a downward force on the string.
This downward force on the string produces an inverted
reflected pulse. If no energy is lost in the reflection, the
reflected pulse is identical in shape to the incident pulse.

Think of doing a pull up: a downward

force on the bar lifts you up. The bar is
fixed.

32
 Boundary effects
The string in the figure on the right is perfectly straight
at 𝑡 4. What has happened to the energy in the
incident pulse at that instant?

Because the string is straight, its elastic potential

energy is zero, which means all the energy is kinetic
energy.

As the figure shows, the pulse is in the process of

inverting itself and, although the string is
straight,every particle within the wave pulse is in
motion.

33
 Boundary effects
Notice the similarities between the pulse reflected from the
fixed end, and the left side of the graph showing to pulses
traveling in opposite direction is opposite amplitudes.

They are identical! This observation

then gives us a procedure of dealing
with reflections from the boundaries.

34
 Boundary effects
The correspondence between the two figures on
previous slide suggests a procedure for determining the
shape of a reflected wave pulse:
On the incident pulse put an identical, but inverted,
pulse that approaches from the opposite side of the
fixed end and reaches the fixed end at the same instant
as the incident pulse.
Figure on the right a triangular wave pulse approaching
the fixed end of a string. To construct the reflected pulse
we first draw an inverted triangular pulse on the opposite
side of the fixed point and moving in the opposite
direction.

This inverted “reflected pulse” reaches the fixed point at

the same instant as the incident pulse, and the two
interfere (middle two graphs).

While the two pulses overlap in space, the resulting shape

of the pulse is obtained by adding the incident and
reflected waves.

Once the reflected pulse separates from the fixed end, its
shape is the inverse of the incident wave pulse

35
 Boundary effects
Next we consider reflection from a free end. To maintain
the tension in the string at the free end, we connect the end
to a light ring that can slide freely along a vertical rod as
shown in the figure on the right.

When it reaches a height equal to the maximum height of

the pulse, however, the free end keeps moving upward. It
overshoots because there are no string particles to the
right of the free end exerting a downward force.

As it overshoots, the free end exerts an upward force on

the string to its left, pulling the string above the maximum
height of the pulse. After reaching its maximum height, the
ring moves back down to the equilibrium level.

This up and down motion of the ring creates a pulse

moving to the left in the string, and it is a reflection of the
original pulse however it is not inverted in amplitude (only
left-right reversed).

To construct the reflected pulse, we follow the same

procedure we used to construct a pulse reflected from a
fixed end, but we do not invert the reflected pulse. 36
 Boundary effects
Let the triangular wave pulse shown on the right approach the
free end of a string. Sketch the shape of the string:
(a) when a point halfway up the leading edge of the incident pulse
has reached the free end
(b) when the peak of the pulse has reached the free end.

Start by sketching the moments of time we want the incident pulse to be

(a) (b)

Then we draw a reflected pulse, which is left-right reversed by the same amplitude

(a) (b)

37
 Boundary effects
(a) When the free end of the string in the figure on the right
reaches its maximum displacement at 𝑡 5, what is the
kinetic energy in the pulse?

Following the procedure of

obtaining a pulse reflected
from a free-end, the reflected
pulse is traveling opposite to
the incident pulse, so pulse
has zero speed = no kinetic
energy.

(b) What is the potential energy in the pulse?

It has twice the displacement, so it has four times

the elastic potential energy (assume it follows
Hooke’s law), but pulse is half width so total energy
is twice its original potential energy.

(c) Is the energy in the pulse at this instant the same as

the energy at 𝑡 1?

Yes, at 𝑡 1 pulse has 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 2𝑈 because 𝐾 =

𝑈. At 𝑡5 we just saw it has twice its original potential
energy. 38
 Boundary effects
An intermediate case between a fixed-end and
free-end string boundary is when a pulse reaches
the boundary between two different mediums.

The pulse is partially transmitted to the second

medium and partially reflected. Figure (a) on the
right shows a heavy string connected to a lighter
string.

The mass per unit length of a string is called the

linear mass density μ. The wave speeds in each
string is 𝑐 1 and 𝑐 2

The reflected and transmitted waves depends on

whether 𝜇 1 is greater or smaller than 𝜇 2.

If 𝜇 2 → 0, then the boundary acts exactly like a

free end.

If 𝜇 2 → ∞, then the boundary becomes the same

as a fixed end.
If 𝜇 2 → 𝜇 1, then the boundary disappears
because there is no difference between the
mediums. It is the same string. 39
 Standing Waves
When a harmonic wave travels along a string that
has a fixed end, the reflected wave interferes with
the incident wave.

The figure shows the pattern that results from this

interference. Initially the wave travels to the right,
but as the reflected wave begins traveling back at
𝑡3, the two waves traveling in opposite directions
create a pulsating stationary pattern.

The points on the string that have zero

displacement are called nodes.

Halfway between the nodes are the antinodes

where the particles in the medium oscillate with
maximum displacement.

The pulsating stationary pattern caused by

harmonic waves of the same amplitude traveling
in opposite direction is called a standing wave.

40
 Standing Waves
Figure below illustrates how standing waves come about: a blue wave is
propagating to the right and a red wave propagating to the left. The two
waves have the same amplitude and wavelength. The wave speed is the
same as they travel along the same string (same material).

The bottom part of each diagram shows the sum of the two waves, obtained
1
by adding each value of 𝑥 for each wave. You can see at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑇, the wave
2
1 3
interfere constructively, or said to be in phase. At 𝑡 = 𝑇, 𝑇 they are out of
4 4
phase and interfere destructively.

41
 Standing Waves
(a) In the standing wave pattern below, how is the energy distributed between kinetic and
1 1
potential at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑇, 𝑡 = 𝑇?
8 4

At 𝑡 = 0 the string has zero velocity, so 𝐾 = 0 and the energy is stored as elastic potential.

1
At 𝑡 = 𝑇 the string is moving but not at the equilibrium position, so the energy is
8
distributed between kinetic and elastic potential energy.

1
At 𝑡 = 𝑇 the string is moving and at the equilibrium position, so it has only kinetic energy
4

42
 Standing Waves
(b) Is the energy in a the string of length one wavelength constant?

Yes.

Each particle of the string executes simple harmonic motion about its
equilibrium position. However different points have different
amplitudes—zero at the nodes, maximum at the antinodes.

Because the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is constant, the

energy of any particle or any length of string is also constant.

43
 Standing Waves
(c) Does the standing wave transport energy? If yes, in which direction? If not, why not?

No.

The amount of energy 𝑓 1 carries rightward is equal to the amount

𝑓2 carries leftward, so the combined flow of energy is zero.

44
 Standing Waves
We can analyze the situation quantitatively by writing the wave
traveling to the right as
𝐷1𝑦 = 𝑓1 𝑥,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
and to the left as
𝐷2𝑦 = 𝑓2 𝑥,𝑡 = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
Then the sum of these waves is
𝐷𝑦 = 𝐷1𝑦 + 𝐷2𝑦 = 𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + sin (𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
We can simplify this using trigonometric identities sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 =
2 sin 1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) cos 1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) and cos (− 𝛼) = cos (𝛼) to get that
2 2
𝐷𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥) cos (𝜔𝑡) .
So we can see that nodes with zero displacement occur at
sin (𝑘𝑥) = 0, but is true when 𝑘𝑥 = 𝜋𝑛 for 𝑛 integer, so using the
fact 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆 we get that the nodes occur at
2𝜋
𝑥 = 𝜋𝑛, for 𝑛 = 0, ± 1, ± 2,…
𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝑥= , for 𝑛 = 0, ± 1, ± 2,…
2
Similarly anti-nodes occur at
2𝜋 𝜋𝑛
𝑥= , for 𝑛 = ± 1, ± 3, ± 5,…
𝜆 2
𝑛𝜆
𝑥= , for 𝑛 = ± 1, ± 3, ± 5,…
4 45
 Standing Waves
A string is clamped at both ends and plucked so it vibrates in a
standing mode between two extreme positions 𝑎 and 𝑏. Let upward
motion correspond to positive velocities. When the string is in
position 𝑏, the instantaneous velocity of points along the string

1. is zero everywhere.

2. is positive everywhere.

3. is negative everywhere.

4. depends on location.
46
 Wave speed
To determine a quantitative expression for the wave speed 𝑐,
consider the situation shown on the right.

The end of a taut horizontal string is moved vertically upward at

a constant velocity 𝑣. The displacement of the end causes a
triangular wave pulse to propagate along the string.

The bend on the leading edge travels horizontally with wave

speed 𝑐. Each segment begins at rest and then moves
vertically up with speed 𝑣.

During time ∆𝑡, the bend has advanced a distance of ∆𝑥 = 𝑐∆𝑡,

so now another string segment of length 𝑐∆𝑡 moves vertically
upwards with speed 𝑣.

The mass of this segment is 𝜇(𝑐Δ𝑡) where 𝜇 is the mass per

unit length, or linear mass density, of the string. Defined as

𝑚
𝜇≡
ℓ
for a uniform linear object. It has SI units of kg/m.

47
 Wave speed
The change in the momentum of segment B is its mass times
the change in velocity ∆𝑣 B = 𝑣 − 0 = 𝑣. Its mass is 𝑚 B =
𝜇𝑐Δ𝑡. So the change of momentum in time ∆𝑡 is going to be

The rate of change in momentum of segment B of the string is

by definition equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted on it:

The 𝑥 components of the forces from segments A and C must

balance because segment B is not accelerating in 𝑥. This is the
tension 𝒯 in the string, so from comparing the triangles we get

and thus

Combining the change in momentum and this equation gives

𝜇𝑐𝑣 = 𝒯𝑣/𝑐, so we get the wave speed as
𝑐 = 𝒯/𝜇 . 48
 Wave speed
You use a hammer to horizontally hit a 10-kg lead brick suspended from
the ceiling by a wire that is 5.0 m long. It takes 70 ms for the pulse
generated by the sudden displacement of the brick to reach the ceiling.
What is the mass of the wire?
Step 1, Sketch the problem Step 4, Evaluate
See on the right. I also make a free body I get a the mass of a wire that is 5m
diagram. I see downwards gravity force long to be 0.1 kg. This is a
causes tension in the wire. reasonable answer.
Step 2, Translate to maths
Example of unreasonable answer:
𝑐 = 𝒯/𝜇 𝜇 = 𝑚/ℓ when I was writing this slide, I wrote
𝑐 = 𝑡/ℓ, so then in the end I got
Step 3, Solve 𝑚 = 2.5 × 106 kg, mass equal to
The speed of the wave is length of wire six 747-Boeing airplanes
divided by time taken to travel 𝑐 = ℓ/𝑡

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑚 B 𝑔
I know that 𝒯 = 𝐹𝐺

So now I can get that 𝒯/𝜇 = ℓ/𝑡, or

alternatively 𝜇 = 𝒯𝑡 /ℓ = 𝑚 𝐵 𝑔𝑡 2 /ℓ 2
2 2

So we can get that

𝑚 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑔𝑡2 /ℓ = 0.096 kg
49
 Energy transport in waves
Energy moves along with the wave, and so, as you shake the string
end, you must supply energy to the string. At what rate must you
supply this energy?
Let us consider the energy involved in generating a simple triangular
wave as shown on the right.
Work done by hand to raise the string in time ∆𝑡 is 𝐹𝑐ℎA ∙𝑑𝑟 𝐹, so we
see that

Ignoring gravity, from two slides ago we have that 𝐹𝑐ℎA,𝑦 = 𝒯𝑣/𝑐 and Segment A
that 𝒯 = 𝜇𝑐 , so in time ∆𝑡 work done is
2

From the energy law ∆𝐸 = 𝑊, so the rate at which we are supplying

energy (average power) is 𝑃 av ≡ 𝛥𝐸/𝛥𝑡 = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 2.

So now, the kinetic energy of segment A after time ∆𝑡 is going to be Segment B

1
𝑚A 𝑣 2 as segment A has velocity 𝑣 and mass 𝑚A. The original
2
length segment A is 𝑐∆𝑡, so its mass is 𝑚 𝐴 = 𝜇𝑐Δ𝑡. This gives

This is half of the energy we are supplying to the string. 50

 Energy transport in waves
The other half of the energy is stored as elastic potential energy
1
∆𝑈 = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 2 ∆𝑡
2
But this is in the small displacement limit with Hooke’s law still
holding true. These expressions are for a triangle pulse.

Next we consider the our energy for a harmonic wave 𝑦 𝑥,𝑡 =

𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡). The wave advances one wavelength 𝜆 in one
period 𝑇, thus if the energy in one wavelength of string is 𝐸 𝜆 the
average power we supply is:

Each small segment of length 𝑑𝑥 has a mass of 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑥. Then

1
from (WK14.3) each one has energy 𝑑𝑚 𝜔 2 𝐴 2. So integrating the
2
energy over one wavelength gives
This result makes sense: It takes more
effort to generate a wave of greater
The average power supplied is then (angular) frequency or amplitude (in
each case you must shake the end with
a greater velocity). Denser string also
requires more energy.
where we have used 𝜆/𝑇 = 𝑐.
51
 Energy transport in waves
A wire with linear mass density 𝜇 = 0.0500 kg/m is held taut
with a tension of 100 N.
At what rate must energy be supplied to the wire to generate
a traveling harmonic wave that has a frequency of 500 Hz
and an amplitude of 5.00 mm?
Equations I need to use are 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑐 = 𝒯/𝜇

Thus I get the final expression of

1
𝑃av = 𝜇 𝐴2 2𝜋𝑓 2
𝒯/𝜇 = 275 W
2
When you shake the end of a string to produce a wave,
What percentage of the energy you transfer to the string becomes kinetic
energy associated with the motion of the string? What percentage becomes
potential energy associated with the stretching of the string?

1. It is impossible to say.

2. 50% kinetic and 50% potential

3. 0% kinetic and 100% potential

4. 100% kinetic and 0% potential

52
 The wave equation
Linear restoring forces give rise to the equation of motion for a simple harmonic
oscillator, which in turn gives rise to sinusoidally oscillating solutions.
Waves occur because whenever a medium is disturbed it tends to oscillate
sinusoidally and the oscillation couples to neighboring regions of the medium.
Systems of coupled simple harmonic oscillators give rise to an equation called
the wave equation, whose solutions are traveling waves.
Here we derive this equation for the special case of a transverse wave traveling
along a string; we shall encounter the same equation again when discussing
electromagnetic waves.

53
 The wave equation
Top-right figure shows a piece of a string that has been displaced
from equilibrium by a passing wave. We focus on segment B
between the positions 𝑥 i and 𝑥 f = 𝑥 i + Δ𝑥 and write the equation
of motion for that segment.

We ignore gravity, so two forces, one from each adjacent

segment:

where 𝜃 i and 𝜃 f are the directions of the tangents to the string at

𝑥i and 𝑥f. In the small angle approximation tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, so this can
be written as

The equation of motion for segment B is

where 𝑚 B is the mass of segment B, 𝑎 B 𝑦 is the 𝑦 component of

the its acceleration and 𝜇 is its linear mass density.

So we can equate these two equations to get

54
 The wave equation
In the limit ∆𝑥 → 0, we have that ∆𝜃/∆𝑥 just becomes the
derivative of 𝜃 w.r.t. 𝑥.
Next, the angle 𝜃 is determined by the function 𝑓 that describes
the shape of the string. From trigonometry we can see that 𝑑𝜃/
𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝜃, however 𝑓 is a function of both 𝑥 and 𝑡, ie 𝑓(𝑥,𝑡). So
we need to take partial derivative of 𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 with respect to 𝑥.
Therefore we have that

For small 𝜃 we can approximate tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, so in the limit ∆𝑥 → 0

we get that To take the partial derivative of
𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 with respect to 𝑥 means we
differentiate w.r.t. 𝑥 as normal and
take 𝑡 to be a constant.

Next we consider the acceleration 𝑎 B 𝑦, which is given by the

second derivative w.r.t. 𝑡 of the vertical position 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥,𝑡).
Therefore the acceleration is the second partial derivative of 𝑓(𝑥,𝑡)
with respect to 𝑡:

55
 The wave equation
So now we can re-write our equation from the equations of
motion to get that
Visible light spectrum

using 𝑐 = 𝒯/𝜇 from slide 48 we get that

This is the 1D wave-equation. Any function of the form

𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) and 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) is a solution to this equation.

All waves, mechanical and non-mechanical, result from

equations like this one. However, only for a stretched string
do we get that 𝑐 = 𝒯/𝜇. For electromagnetic waves, 𝑐 = 1/
𝜀0 𝜇0 where 𝜀0 and 𝜇0 are vacuum permittivity and
permeability and 𝑐 is the speed of light.

56
 The wave equation
Show that sinusoidal traveling wave of the form 𝑓 𝑥,𝑡 =
a
𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 satisfies the wave equation for any value of 𝑘 and 𝜔.

First we find the second partial derivative of w.r.t. 𝑥.

Second we find the second partial derivative of w.r.t. 𝑡.

Now we can multiple this 2nd order derivative with 1/𝑐 2, and
with 𝑘 = 𝜔/𝑐 we get

We can then see that this indeed satisfies the wave equation

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