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Motivation

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Motivation

Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or drives
within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals. In the
work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behaviour can be -

 desire for money


 success
 recognition
 job-satisfaction
 team work, etc

One of the most important functions of management is to create willingness amongst the employees
to perform to the best of their abilities. Therefore the role of a leader is to arouse interest in
performance of employees in their jobs. The process of motivation consists of three stages:-

1. A felt need or drive


2. A stimulus in which needs have to be aroused
3. When needs are satisfied, the satisfaction or accomplishment of goals.

Therefore, we can say that motivation is a psychological phenomenon which means the needs and
wants of the individuals have to be tackled by framing an incentive plan.

Classical Theories of Motivation


The motivation concepts were mainly developed around the 1950's. Three main theories were made
during this period. These three classical theories are-

 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory


 Herzberg’s Two factor theory
 Theory X and Theory Y

These theories are building blocks of the contemporary theories developed later. The working
managers and learned professionals till date use these classical theories to explain the concept of
employee motivation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs


Theory
Abraham Maslow is well renowned for proposing the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in 1943. This theory
is a classical depiction of human motivation. This theory is based on the assumption that there is a
hierarchy of five needs within each individual. The urgency of these needs varies. These five needs
are as follows-

1. Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and shelter. In
other words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.
2. Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety and
protection. For instance- Job security, financial security, protection from animals, family
security, health security, etc.
3. Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, and
friendship.
4. Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect,
confidence, competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs
(recognition, power, status, attention and admiration).
5. Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of
becoming / what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth and self-
contentment. It also includes a desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity
and being aesthetic. The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual
grows psychologically, opportunities keep cropping up to continue growing.

According to Maslow, individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs is
significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped the five needs
into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order needs. The physiological and the safety
needs constituted the lower-order needs. These lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally.
The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs constituted the higher-order needs. These higher-
order needs are generally satisfied internally, i.e., within an individual. Thus, we can conclude that
during the boom period, the employees' lower-order needs are significantly met.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model


Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers

As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give employees
appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and eating opportunities
should be given to employees.

As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the employees job
security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement benefits so as to retain them.

As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork and
organize social events.

As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward employees on
accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can give the deserved employee
higher job rank / position in the organization.

As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the employees
challenging jobs in which the employees’ skills and competencies are fully utilized. Moreover,
growth opportunities can be given to them so that they can reach the peak.

The managers must identify the need level at which the employee is existing and then those needs
can be utilized as a push for motivation.
Limitations of Maslow’s Theory

 It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by the same set of needs. Different
individuals may be driven by different needs at the same point of time. It is always the most
powerful unsatisfied need that motivates an individual.
 The theory is not empirically supported.
 The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist as even if the artist’s basic needs are not
satisfied, he will still strive for recognition and achievement

Herzberg’s Theory:
In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-
hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while
there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite of
“Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for the existence
of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for the long-term. But if these
factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at the workplace, then they lead to
dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when adequate/reasonable in
a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work.
Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are required to
avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene factors
symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene
factors include:
Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal and
competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should not be too rigid.
They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks,
vacation, etc.
Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim), benefits for the
family members, employee help programmes, etc.
Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic. The
work equipment should be updated and well-maintained.
Status - The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors and
subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or humiliation
element present.
Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees.
a. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as
motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work.
These factors motivate the employees for superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers.
These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding.
The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived as an additional benefit.
Motivational factors include:
 Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
 Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This
depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
 Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and advancement
opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
 Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The
managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control but
retain accountability.
 Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and
challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory


The two factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.


2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters may
spoil the findings by analyzing the same response in different manners.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job
acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object to part of his job.
5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of employees
when they are enquired about the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work. They will
blame dissatisfaction on external factors such as salary structure, company policies and peer
relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor at
work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-Factor
theory is acceptable broadly.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy
of the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure
that the work is stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and
perform harder and better. This theory emphasizes job-enrichment so as to motivate the
employees. The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum.
Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work-quality.

Theory X and Theory Y


In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human
behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one of which is
negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y. According to McGregor,
the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various assumptions.
Assumptions of Theory X

 An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever possible.
 Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned with
punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close supervision is required on part of
managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style.
 Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition.
 Employees generally dislike responsibilities.
 Employees resist change.
 An average employee needs formal direction.

Assumptions of Theory Y

 Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical and
mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
 Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they can
use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the
organizational objectives.
 If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and commitment
to organization.
 An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he can even
learn to obtain responsibility.
 The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully utilized. In
other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of the employees can
be utilized to solve organizational problems.

Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and behaviour at
work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’ nature and behaviour at work. If
correlated with Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that the
employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is based on
the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs dominate the
employees.
McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he encouraged
cordial team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in the decision-making
process.
Implications of Theory X and Theory Y

Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages use of tight control and
supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organize changes. Thus, it does not
encourage innovation.

Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the managers should
create and encourage a work environment which provides opportunities to employees to take
initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given opportunities to contribute to
organizational well-being. Theory Y encourages decentralization of authority, teamwork and
participative decision making in an organization. Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in
which an employee can make significant contributions in an organization. It harmonizes and
matches employees’ needs and aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations.

Modern Theories of Motivation


We all are familiar with the classical theories of motivation, but they all are not empirically supported.
As far as contemporary theories of motivation are concerned, all are well supported with evidence.
Some of the contemporary / modern theories of motivation are explained below:

 ERG Theory
 McClelland’s Theory of Needs
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

ERG Theory of Motivation


To bring Maslow’s need for hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronization with empirical research,
Clayton Alderfer redefined it in his own terms. His rework is called the ERG theory of motivation. He
recategorized Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three simpler and broader classes of needs:

 Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an
individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.
 Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individual’s have for maintaining significant
interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting public fame and
recognition. Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this
class of need.
 Growth needs- These include need for self-development and personal growth and
advancement. Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall
under this category of need.

The significance of the three classes of needs may vary for each individual.

Difference between Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Theory

ERG Theory states that at a given point of time, more than one need may be operational.

ERG Theory also shows that if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is subdued, there is an
increase in desire for satisfying a lower-level need.

According to Maslow, an individual remains at a particular need level until that need is satisfied.
While according to ERG theory, if a higher- level need aggravates, an individual may revert to
increase the satisfaction of a lower- level need. This is called the frustration- regression aspect of
ERG theory. For instance- when growth needs aggravate, then an individual might be motivated
to accomplish the relatedness needs and if there are issues in accomplishing relatedness needs,
then he might be motivated by the existence needs. Thus, frustration/aggravation can result in
regression to a lower-level need.

While Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is rigid as it assumes that the needs follow a specific and
orderly hierarchy and unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot proceed to the
higher-level need; ERG Theory of motivation is very flexible as he perceived the needs as a
range/variety rather than perceiving them as a hierarchy. According to Alderfer, an individual can
work on growth needs even if his existence or relatedness needs remain unsatisfied. Thus, he
gives an explanation to the issue of “starving artists” who can struggle for growth even if he is
hungry.

Implications of the ERG Theory


Managers must understand that an employee has various needs that must be satisfied at the same
time. According to the ERG theory, if the manager concentrates solely on one need at a time, this will
not effectively motivate the employee. Also, the frustration- regression aspect of ERG Theory has an
added effect on workplace motivation. For instance- if an employee is not provided with growth and
advancement opportunities in an organization, he might revert to the relatedness need such as
socializing needs and to meet those socializing needs, if the environment or circumstances do not
permit, he might revert to the need for money to fulfill those socializing needs. The sooner the
manager realizes and discovers this, the more immediate steps they will take to fulfil those needs
which are frustrated until such time that the employee can again pursue growth.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs


David McClelland and his associates proposed McClelland’s theory of Needs / Achievement
Motivation Theory. This theory states that human behaviour is affected by three needs - Need for
Power, Achievement and Affiliation. Need for achievement is the urge to excel, to accomplish in
relation to a set of standards, to struggle to achieve success. Need for power is the desire to
influence other individual’s behaviour as per your wish. In other words, it is the desire to have control
over others and to be influential. Need for affiliation is a need for open and sociable interpersonal
relationships. In other words, it is a desire for a relationship based on co-operation and mutual
understanding.
The individuals with high achievement needs are highly motivated by competing and challenging
work. They look for promotional opportunities in their jobs. They have a strong urge for feedback on
their achievement. Such individuals try to get satisfaction in performing things better. High
achievement is directly related to high performance. Individuals who are better and above average
performers are highly motivated. They assume responsibility for solving the problems at work.
McClelland called such individuals as gamblers as they set challenging targets for themselves and
they take deliberate risk to achieve those set targets. Such individuals look for innovative ways of
performing job. They perceive achievement of goals as a reward, and value it more than a financial
reward.
The individuals who are motivated by power have a strong urge to be influential and controlling. They
want their views and ideas to dominate and thus, they want to lead. Such individuals are motivated by
the need for reputation and self-esteem. Individuals with greater power and authority will perform
better than those possessing less power. Generally, managers with a high need for power turn out to
be more efficient and successful managers. They are more determined and loyal to the organization
they work for. Need for power should not always be taken negatively. It can be viewed as the need to
have a positive effect on the organization and to support the organization in achieving its goals.
The individuals who are motivated by affiliation have an urge for a friendly and supportive
environment. Such individuals are effective performers in a team. These people want to be liked by
others. The manager’s ability to make decisions is hampered if they have a high affiliation need as
they prefer to be accepted and liked by others, and this weakens their objectivity. Individuals having
high affiliation needs prefer working in an environment providing greater personal interaction. Such
people have a need to be in the good books of all. They generally cannot be good leaders.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of
Motivation
The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale School of Management in 1964.
Vroom stresses and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs unlike Maslow and Herzberg. The
theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular manner is dependent on the
intensity of an expectation that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the
appeal of the outcome to the individual.
The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of how much an individual
wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected
performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to reward (Instrumentality). In
short, Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the expected outcome. It is an
expected and not the actual satisfaction that an employee expects to receive after achieving the
goals. Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance. Expectancy is
influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for performing the job, availability of
right resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required support for completing the
job.
Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there. Instrumentality
is affected by factors such as belief in the people who decide who receives what outcome, the
simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of relationship between
performance and outcomes. Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates on the following three
relationships:

 Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the individual’s effort be


recognized in his performance appraisal?
 Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee believes that
getting a good performance appraisal leads to organizational rewards.
 Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the
potential reward to the individual.

Vroom was of the view that employees consciously decide whether to perform or not at the job. This
decision solely depended on the employee’s motivation level which in turn depends on three factors
of expectancy, valence and instrumentality.
Advantages of the Expectancy Theory

 It is based on self-interest individuals who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and who
want to minimize dissatisfaction.
 This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and actual is
immaterial.
 It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs.
 It focuses on psychological extravagance where the final objective of an individual is to attain
maximum pleasure and least pain.

Limitations of the Expectancy Theory

 The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive high
degree correlation between performance and rewards.
 The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly correlated with performance in
many organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as position, effort,
responsibility, education, etc.

Implications of the Expectancy Theory

The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance levels.
The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels.

The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance.

The reward system must be fair and just in an organization.

Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs.

The employee’s motivation level should be continually assessed through various techniques
such as questionnaires, personal interviews, etc.

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