2D Photothermal Materials

Chemical Engineering Journal 499 (2024) 156450
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Chemical Engineering Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cej
Review
The nexus of solar absorption and morphology designs based on 2D

photothermal materials: From rational design to advanced application of
water purification
Tingting Jiang a,1, Sihui Bian a,1, Yu Wang a , Xiaorui Fan a , Lin Zhu b , Xinyue Song a ,
Guanbo wang a , Tianhao Wang a,* , Haifeng Zhang a,*
a
School of Chemical Engineering, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin 132012, PR China
b
Air and Missile Defense College, Air force engineering university, Xi’an 710100, PR China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Water scarcity and energy crisis have forced people to urgently develop advanced water purification techniques
Photothermal with a sustainable energy source. Solar thermal conversion technology with a green, low-cost, and low carbon
Two-dimensional materials footprint attracts attention in the application of water treatment. Photothermal materials, which convert sunlight
Enhanced light absorption
into heat, are key to solar energy utilization. This paper reviewed the progress of the application and design
Water treatment
Morphology design
strategy of two dimensional (2D) photothermal materials, such as graphene, MXene, and transition metal
dichalcogenides, in water treatment and related fields. The evaluation criterions for light absorption and pho
tothermal conversion efficiency of materials were further described. Then, building different light-capture
structures (microscopic pore structure, hierarchical structure, and bionic structure) by morphology engineer
ing that solve the limitation of tightly stacked 2D photothermal materials with light reflection was the main
concern. Finally, the challenges and prospects toward 2D photothermal materials in the application were dis
cussed. This review aims to improve the understanding of the mechanism of thermal performance improvement
and the structure–activity relationship of materials by summarizing the effect of 2D photothermal materials
morphology regulation on enhanced light absorption.
1. Introduction biomedical [3–5], environmental [6,7] and energy-related fields [8].

Recently, photothermal materials have played a very prominent role in
Rising population, booming development of industry, climate the field of water purification [9–11]. For example, solar steam gener
change, global energy, and natural resource crises place growing stress ation (SSG) with low costs, convenient operation, effectiveness, and eco-
on potable freshwater sources on the earth. According to the report of friendliness is a very promising avenue for freshwater production
World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1.5 million people die [11,12]. Photothermal sterilization technology with nearly no byprod
from diarrhoea every year owing to a lack of safe drinking water, and ucts, high penetration depth, and strong efficiency has significant ad
most of them are infants and children [1]. Tremendous water treatment vantages over traditional disinfection treatments [13–15]. In addition,
technologies are capable of effectively treating seawater or wastewater numerous meaningful applications with photothermal materials in the
but are still limited by their high energy consumption, expensive cost, water environment [16], including seawater desalination [17–19],
and large area, especially in remote and offshore regions. Sunlight, a heavy metal removal, crude oil purification [20,21], power generation
source of clean and renewable energy, radiates its energy by emitting [22], photothermal collaborative photocatalytic pollutants degradation
ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) light that carries photons with [23–25], lithium/uranium extraction from seawater [26] and photo
different vibrational frequencies [2]. Photothermal materials act as light thermal film crystallization, have been demonstrated.
absorbers and can transfer energy from light to heat, which has attracted 2D photothermal materials, a class of similar sheet-like topographi
enormous research interests for a wide range of applications in cally planar materials, with a relatively novel arrangement of atomic
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: 20202940@neepu.edu.cn (T. Wang), zhfeepu@163.com (H. Zhang).
1
Tingting Jiang and Sihui Bian made equal contribution to this work.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.156450
Received 23 July 2024; Received in revised form 23 September 2024; Accepted 3 October 2024
Available online 5 October 2024
1385-8947/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
T. Jiang et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 499 (2024) 156450
level thickness less than 5 nm [27]. 2D nanomaterials have extraordi photothermal materials like graphene, MXene, and transition metal
narily high specific surface areas due to their huge transverse size and dichalcogenides (TMDs) in water environment. It also discussed evalu
incredibly thin atomic thickness. As a result, the unique structural ation criterions of light absorption and photothermal conversion effi
properties are beneficial to improve planar carrier mobility, increase the ciency of materials. The light absorption effects of planar structures and
exposed surface area and the number of active sites, shorten the transfer micro-nano structures were simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics 6.1
distance of charge carriers, enhance the light-harvesting ability and software. The structure of enhancing light capture and reducing incident
improve the light-to-heat conversion efficiency [28]. In consequence, light loss on materials was analyzed in detail. This review offers valuable
research on the 2D materials-based photothermal conversion process insights and guidance for controlling the photothermal active sites and
has garnered extensive attention in water treatment. Top-down (me strengthens the in-depth understanding of the mechanism of photo
chanical exfoliation and liquid phase exfoliation) and bottom-up thermal performance improvement.
(chemical vapor deposition, wet-chemical synthesis) approaches can
be used to directly synthesize 2D materials, with the former involving 2. Photothermal mechanism and categories of 2D materials
breaking the weak van der Waals forces between the layers and the latter
involving precursor reactions [29,30]. 2.1. Photothermal mechanism of 2D nanomaterials
Photothermal materials with 2D structure has a significant impact on
wastewater purification. Enhancing the photothermal performance of In recent years, the extensive search for 2D photothermal materials
2D photothermal materials is the core and common issue in the appli has intrigued the investigation of photothermal mechanisms. Photo
cation of water environment. Light absorption significantly affects the thermal conversion involves to the process of light-havesting and light-
photothermal conversion of materials, and thus considered as one of the to-heat conversion. According to the light-matter interaction mecha
key factors for the design of materials with high photothermal perfor nisms in electromagnetic radiation, three kinds of photothermal mech
mance. However, the issue of tight stacking of 2D nanomaterials, which anisms are proposed, including localized plasmonic heating,
will result in light reflection when the incident light is irradiated, nonradiative relaxation mechanisms and thermal vibrations of
severely limits the light absorption [31]. The design and preparation of molecules.
the light-trapping structure and the modification of the propagation
direction of light can result in thwarted total internal reflection, thus 2.1.1. Plasmonic localized heating in 2D photothermal materials
enhancing the light absorption. By lengthening the inside optical path, Metallic nanostructures (e.g., Au, Ag and Cu) as classic plasmonic
energy loss from the reflected light can be minimized. The summary of photothermal materials, exhibit distinctive colors due to the inherent
enhancing light absorption through morphology design is still empty localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) of metals. When the inci
right now. dent photon frequency matches the natural frequency of metallic surface
Herein, this study summarized the research progress of typical 2D electrons [32], the LSPR effect appears with the photon-induced
Fig. 1. (a) Demonstration of localized plasmonic heating in 2D metallic heating [11]. (b) LSPR-based photothermal conversion mechanism in 2D MXenes [38]. (c)
Schematic illustration of LSPR effect in non-stoichiometric semiconductor [40].
2
coherent oscillation and redistribution of electrons. The electrons in the from the ground state with the highest occupied molecular orbital
plasmonic metal are elevated from the Fermi level to higher energy (HOMO) to a higher energy orbital with the lowest unoccupied molec
levels by light irradiation, generating hot electrons (charge carriers) ular orbital (LUMO), and heat can be released as the excited electron
[33,34]. Electron-electron scattering redistributes energy, causing relaxes back to its ground state [2,42]. Apart from carbon-based mate
localized surface temperature of the metal to rise rapidly as illustrated in rials, some organic polymers can also generate heat through lattice vi
Fig. 1a [35,36]. Changes in localized temperature cause equilibrium brations (Fig. 2b) [43].
cooling, which is due to the energy conversion of electron–phonon
scattering, and the lattice then cools down and releases heat to the
2.2. Graphene-based nanomaterials
surrounding medium through phonon–phonon coupling [35,37].
Emerging 2D plasmonic materials, such as MXene and its composites,
Graphene is a 2D sheet of sp2-hybrid carbon with a honeycomb
present semimetal behavior with strong LSPR effect and optical ab
network structure and zero band gap [44]. Its long-range π-conjugation
sorption, as shown in Fig. 1b and optical absorption [38].
gives rise to extraordinary thermal, mechanical, and electrical proper
Non-stoichiometric transition metal sulfides or oxides are another
ties [45]. From UV through NIR light, the material demonstrates the
important category of 2D photothermal materials with the LSPR effect.
ability of light absorption that correlates with the quantity of layers
Wherein, Cu2-xS nanomaterials, which were firstly reported in 2009,
[46]. Graphene sheets tend to restack owing to the strong π-π interaction
have obtained widespread attention since they have the NIR absorption
[47]. Zhong et al. [19] deposited few-layer graphene on non-woven
[39]. The NIR absorption can be interpreted as LSPR effect caused by the
masks and used a dual-mode laser fabrication method to create reus
collective oscillation of free charge carriers (i.e. positive holes) created
able masks with superhydrophobic and photothermal performances.
in the valence band, as shown in Fig. 1c [40]. LSPR refers to collective
Under sunlight illumination, the high surface temperature can sterilize
oscillations of high-density free electrons, as distinct from plasma noble
the surface viruses. The mask has the potential to be applied to solar-
metals.
driven desalination with salt-rejection performance for long-term usage.
Graphene oxide (GO), an oxidized form of graphene, also has
2.1.2. Non-radiative relaxation phenomena in 2D photothermal materials
excellent photothermal performance. GO has higher solubility and can
For stoichiometric semiconductors, nonradiative relaxation of pho
be functionalized compared to graphene. GO has a variety of oxygen-
togenerated electron-hole pairs can also display the photothermal effect.
containing functional groups, in which epoxy and hydroxyl groups on
The optical absorption occurs when the photon energy accords with or
the basal planes and carbonyl and carboxyl groups at the edges are
larger the band gap energy of nanomaterials. For 2D photothermal
beneficial to interact with organic and inorganic materials in non
nanomaterials, the bandgap varies with species, the thickness and size of
covalent, covalent, and/or ionic ways [48,49]. However, the presence of
2D nanosheet, which can be utilized to capture broad solar spectrum.
plentiful oxygen-containing functional groups makes GO susceptible to
Electron-hole pairs are formed inside the semiconductor which can be
assembling into membranes [50] and 3D macroassemblies [51] through
interpreted electron at valance band (VB) jumps to the conduction band
hydrogen bonding or dehydration, which decrease the utilization of
(CB) after absorbing photon energy, leaving electronic vacancies or
light. Ma et al. [10] designed graphene-based photothermal aerogel
holes. Once the excited electrons drop down to the ground state, the
using Enteromorpha as a strong network structure, which successfully
energy dissipation either radiative relaxation by releasing of photons, or
prevented the excessive aggregation of graphene sheets and contributed
nonradiative relaxation in the form of phonons. In nonradiative mode,
to light energy capture.
the electrons and holes then relax to the edges of the conduction and
Reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which has the same atomically thin
valence bands, respectively, before recombining, converting the irradi
structural framework as graphene, can be made by reducing GO [52].
ative energy into heat (Fig. 2a) [33,41].
Since the structure of rGO resembles graphene more than GO, it exhibits
excellent electrical conductivity, photothermal effect, and mechanical
2.1.3. Thermal vibrations of molecules
properties [4]. Nevertheless, abundant Van der Waals force and π-π in
In carbon-based materials, thermal vibrations of molecules can
teractions in rGO sheets cause the sheets to reaggregate, resulting in low
induce the photothermal effect. Loose electrons are easily excited from π
surface area and poor charge transfer performance. Yan et al. [23]
orbital to π * orbital, under incident light irradiates [32]. When the
developed a holey reduced graphene oxide/polypyrrole (GR/PPy) aer
photon energy of the incident light coincides with the potential elec
ogel, the self-stacking of rGO nanosheets was effectively restrained after
tronic transition in the molecule, the excited electron will be promoted
the addition of PPy, and the functional synergy between photocatalysis
Fig. 2. (a) Illustration of non-radiative relaxation in 2D semiconducting heating. (b) Thermal vibrations of molecules.
3
and photothermal effect achieved the removal of volatile organic com heterostructure with facet-to-face contact through in situ coupling that
pounds (VOCs) in water. facilitate the photothermal aided photocatalytic degradation of
Quantum dots (QDs) can promote heat confinement at the nanoscale amoxicillin.
due to quantum confinement, increasing photo-to-thermal conversion
efficiency and full spectrum utilization of sunlight. Saleque et al. [53] 2.4. 2D transition metal dichalcogenides
fabricated novel TiTe2 QDs decorated rGO for efficient photothermal
conversion and solar evaporator. This hierarchical structure demon There are roughly 60 transition metal dichalcogenides, of which two-
strate a broad-band absorbance of approximately 92 % over the entire thirds have layered structures [66]. The general formula for TMD is
solar spectrum (250–2000 nm), which was attributed to the rGO as solar MX2, where M stands for a transition metal element from groups (4), 5 or
absorber layers and the confinement of heat by the quantum confine 6 in the periodic table (for instance, Ti, Zr, V, Hf, Nb, Mo, and W), and X
ment effect of TiTe2 QDs at the nanoscale. The evaporator achieve a stands for a chalcogen (S, Se, or Te) [66,67]. These materials can form
superior evaporation efficiency and rate of 87.79 % and 2.09 kg m-2h− 1, layered structures in the form of X-M− X [67]. Van der Waals in
respectively, under 1 sun radiation. teractions generally cause these 2D layers to stack together to form
Another important research presented TaTe2 QDs-rGO coated bio- three-dimensional (3D) crystals [68]. The properties and applications of
hydrogel (QDs-rGO@BH) with light rapping texture that improved the nanomaterials are vitally influenced by their phases. A single layer of
average absorption to about 90 % throughout the whole solar spectrum TMDs can have 1 T phase and 1H phase [69]. 2D transition metal
[54]. The excellent absorption was attributed to the strong absorbance dichalcogenides with photothermal conversion properties such as VS2,
of TaTe2 QDs and rGO, and the light-trapping texture contributed to MoSe2 and Bi2S3 can be used for various applications in water.
effectively reducing the reflection of the incident solar irradiation. The One of the typical 2D transition metal dichalcogenides is molybde
solar evaporator based on the QDs-rGO@BH reached a superb evapo num sulfide (MoS2). MoS2, a semiconductor with a narrow band gap,
ration rate and efficiency of 2.851 kg m− 2h− 1 and 91.17 % for seawater, effectively absorbs light over the full solar spectrum [70]. The number of
respectively. The evaporator also presented remarkable anti-biofouling layers and lateral size deeply affect the electronic structure of 2D MoS2
and antibacterial properties with 96.49 and 97.58 % reduction rates of [71]. For solar thermal water purification, Ghim et al. [72] employed
S. aureus and E. coli bacteria, respectively, which helped to enhance the bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) as a polymer matrix and chemically
long-term stability of the evaporator. Moreover, QDs derived from 2D exfoliated (ce) MoS2 as a photothermal material. Bulk-MoS2 particles
materials exhibit different properties compared with 2D materials, such exhibit multiple-stacked sheets that have large lateral dimensions. The
as abundant active edge sites, energy band broadening, better disper exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets, with an average thickness of 1.5 ± 0.7 nm,
sion, luminescence properties, and better scalability in application [55]. have only one monolayer or two layers of MoS2 at most. The transition of
MoS2 from 2H (trigonal prismatic coordination) phase to 1 T (octahedral
2.3. Mxene-based nanomaterials coordination) phase during the exfoliation process increases the light
absorption of ce-MoS2, since the 1 T phase has the lower bandgap
MXene, one of the typically 2D nanosheets, was first reported by structure. MoS2 with high light absorption capacity and stability plays
Gogotsi et al. in 2011 [56]. The Mn+1AXn formula stands for the ternary an important role in photothermal seawater desalination. Zhang et al.
carbides and nitrides, where n = 1, 2 or 3 (as in M2AX, M3AX2), “M” is an [17] fabricated Zn dopped 1 T-MoS2 (Zn-MoS2). Then they used Zn-
early transition metal, “A” mainly stands for an A-group (mostly groups MoS2 modified bio-waste sorghum straw (ZnMoSSE) to fabricate three-
13 and 14) element, and “X” stands for C and/or N [56]. The general dimensional solar evaporators with different structures.
formula for these compounds is Mn+1XnTx, where Tx, the terminal WS2 is also a photothermal material with a sheet structure and large
groups produced in the synthesis, are typically F, O, and/or OH [57]. surface area. Wei et al. [18] prepared PVDF/WS2 membrane and then
The size, degree of defects, and surface chemistry of the nanosheets are combined it with non-woven fabric wrapped polystyrene foam (PE
affected by different etchants. There will be groups such as –OH, − F, and foam) to obtain a solar evaporator with porous structure. Santoro et al.
− O on its surface when the A layer is selectively etched from the MAX [26] utilized WS2 nanosheets to fabricate a nanocomposite membrane
phases using HF or a fluorine salt, giving MXenes good hydrophilicity for the crystallization of the sunlight-driven photothermal membrane
and surface structural tunability [58]. MXene has abundant active sites, and the efficient extraction of lithium from Li-rich brines. Yuan et al.
large surface area and metallic conductivity that can be effectively uti [73] co-assembled WS2 nanosheets with biomass chitosan for solar
lized in different applications, such as catalysis energy storage and water desalination. Composite aerogels with anisotropic micro-channels
photothermal antimicrobial. However, similar to other 2D materials, were produced by the 2D morphology of WS2 nanosheets and their non-
MXene also tends to stack or aggregate [59]. When using MXene in covalent interactions with chitosan. Under various sunlight oblique
water for long periods, it is important to take into account that MXene is angles (15–90◦ ), anisotropic micro-channels in CS/WS2 (10 %) aerogels
susceptible to oxidation and degradation in the air–water environment could enhance the light absorption efficiency.
[60].
Ti3C2 is a typical MXene. Li et al. correctly measured that the internal 2.5. Other 2D photothermal materials
light-to-heat conversion efficiency of Ti3C2 is 100 % [61]. The excellent
photothermal conversion capability originated from its metallic prop Black phosphorus (BP) is connected by intralayer P-P bonding and
erties owing to local surface plasma resonance (LSPR) effect [62]. The weak interlayer Van der Waals force to form a honeycomb structure
excellent photothermal conversion capability of MXene has made it [74]. BP contained in-plane anisotropy in the physical and electronic
prominent in emerging water treatment, such as peroxydisulfate acti structure due to its puckered lattice, including “armchair” and “zig-zag”
vation [7], membrane separation techniques [63], cleanup of crude oil directions [75]. Additionally, it possesses tunable band gap [76], high
[20] and photodegradation [64]. Song et al. [16] created iron carrier mobility, and biocompatibility [77]. Due to its biocompatibility
nanoparticles/MXene-coated polyurethane sponge module (Fe NPs/ and biodegradability, BP can be used in different applications, for
MXene@PU) in photothermal activation of PDS process for treatment of instance, biomedical science [5]. Under oxygen and/or water condi
landfill leachate and recovery of recycled water. tions, BP is prone to degradation to generate phosphorus oxide species
Moreover, strategies with 2D/2D configuration show rapid electron- (PxOy) and even salts (such as PO3- 3-
3 or PO4 ) [78]. Chen et al. [13]
hole mobility across the heterojunction interfaces. Face-to-face contact modified layered black phosphorus (LBP) with low toxicity and high
is more effective than point-to-face contact in 0D/2D and line-to-face physiological compatibility zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 (ZIF-67)
contact in 1D/2D ensembles [65]. Take advantage of this issue, Xu as well as PVP to enhance the stability of layered BP in water environ
and colleagues [24] designed 2D/2D Bi2WO6/Ti3C2 MXene ment. LBP/PVP-ZIF-67 presented excellent photothermal performance.
4
BP nanosheets can be used for water photothermal sterilization. Li et al. the energy of water and containers under simulated light irradiation, I is
[79] designed a sandwich-structured filter system (CSBPP) for NIR power intensity of incident light, and Aλ is absorbance of the sample at
triggered photothermal point-of-use (POU) water disinfection using wavelength λ.
chitosan hydrogel, BP nanosheets, and chitosan hydrogel by stacking
them layer by layer. It is possible to repeat removal-disinfection process 3.2. Strength strategies
at least ten times.
Molybdenum oxide has good biocompatibility and photothermal Surface light adsorption efficiency is primarily influenced by the
properties. Yin et al. [14] designed plasmonic MoO3− x nanosheets sup chemical composition and physical texture of materials. Materials can
ported Ag nanocubes with high-efficient photothermal-photocatalytic be constructed in accordance with its intrinsic characteristics, which
sterilization under NIR irradation. MoO3-x nanosheets sterilized through include high absorbance, minimal transmittance, and reflectance over
photothermal effect, triggered Ag+ release and enhanced bactericidal the entire solar spectrum range of 300–2500 nm. to achieve better
effect. Moreover, the MoO3-x-Ag interface facilitated the generation and photothermal performance [86]. Many strategies have been utilized to
separation of hot electrons and holes under NIR, which made the MoO3- enhance the light absorbance, such as plasmonic metals modification,
x-Ag exhibit photocatalytic activity. defect control and hybrid materials design.
Plasmonic metals modification. The nanostructure, morphology
3. Light absorption and photothermal conversion efficiency and size of plasmonic metals can be changed to adjust the bandwidth of
resonance absorption [87]. Te nanomaterials were developed for pho
3.1. Evaluation criterions tothermal conversion to harvest solar energy [88]. The Te nanoparticles
with a wide size distribution exhibited perfect absorption (more than 85
Photothermal conversion is influenced critically by the light har %) through the entire spectrum of solar irradiation, which was attrib
vesting ability and conversion of light-to-heat energy of materials [32]. uted to the unique optical response. When the size of the Te nano
There are some relevant evaluations and basic mathematical de particles was less than 120 nm, the nanomaterials showed a plasmonic-
scriptions. These mathematical descriptions contribute to comprehen like resonance. When the size of the Te nanomaterials was in the range
sion of the photothermal properties of materials. of 120–340 nm, the nanomaterials exhibited a Mie-type resonance, with
The solar absorption A(λ) of materials can be evaluated by the the resonance shifting from visible to NIR region as the size increased.
following expression [80]: Defect control. The photoelectrochemical properties of semi
conductors can be altered by introducing defects or vacancies [89,90].
A(λ) = 1 − R(λ) − T(λ) (1)
The oxygen vacancies could give rise to the LSPR effect and form the
Where R(λ) and T(λ) represent the reflectance and transmittance of impurity level that reduces the band gap [90]. For instance, TiO2 has a
the material at different wavelengths (λ), respectively. wide optical bandgap of 3.2 eV, which make it only absorb about 4 % of
When the incident angle is θ, the overall absorptance A(θ) of a light light in solar spectrum. Introducing oxygen vacancies in TiO2 can cause
absorber can be expressed as the energy ratio of the total absorbed light the local states below the conduction band edge, which extends the light
to the incident radiation, integrating the absorption intensity of the absorption from the UV to the visible ranges [91] Chen et al. prepared
absorber over the spectral range [43]: black TiO2 with a narrowed bandgap of 1.5 eV by introducing surface
∫ λmax disorders, which expanded the full spectrum sunlight absorption up to
[1 − R(θ, λ) − T(θ, λ)]P(θ, λ)dλ 800 nm. The presence of oxygen vacancies and Ti3+ defects in black TiO2
A(θ) = min (2)
λ
∫ λmax
λmin
P(λ)dλ can act as traps for enhancing the photothermal effect [92]. Red phos
phorous owns attractive semiconducting characteristics. Uniform,
Where P(λ) is the radiated power at λ wavelength, λmax and λmin are defect-enriched red phosphorous nanosheets were prepared by Cho’s
the maximum and minimum wavelengths of the incident light, respec team as a novel photothermal absorber material. The sub-micron red
tively, and R(θ,λ) and T(θ,λ) are the total reflectance and transmittance phosphorous exhibited greatly reduced bandgap (1.44 eV), strong light-
of the photothermal material at the wavelength λ, respectively. absorption, and low thermal conductivity than bulk red phosphorous,
For the light absorption ability of materials, the extinction coefficient which was ascribed to the surface defects or disorder and the decrease of
(k) can also be characterized by the Lambert-Beer law [81]: size [93]. Oxygen or molybdenum vacancies may induce gap states in
k = A(λ)/LC (3) the MoOx bandgap [94]. For oxygen-deficient transition metal oxides,
such as MoO3-x, whose stoichiometric compositions are changed, the
Where A is the wavelength (λ)-dependent absorbance, L is the generated gap states and defect structures exhibit strong LSPR absor
traversing length of light (the unit is cm), and C is the concentration of bance [94,95]. Semiconductor nanostructures with non-stoichiometry
2D nanomaterials (the unit is g/L). could tune plasmon resonance peaks by changing free charge carrier
When light travels from one medium to another one, the reflectivity concentration [96,97]. Copper sulfides, such as Cu9S5 and Cu7.2S4
(R) at the interface can be expressed according to the Fresnel equation nanocrystals, were demonstrated to exhibit superior NIR photothermal
[82,83]: conversion efficiencies of 25.7 % and 56.7 %, respectively [98,99].
( )2 Hybrid design. Heteroatom doping may transform the original
n1 − n2
R= (4) semiconductor band structure into a quasi-metallic structure, which
n1 + n2
enhances the LSPR property and extends the light absorption [95]. Huo
Where n1 and n2 represent the refractive index of media 1 and media et al. designed a 3D nitrogen-doped graphene/carbon hybrid aerogel
2, respectively. (3NGCA-600) for a solar evaporator. The 3NGCA-600 achieved 97.57 %
The photothermal conversion efficiency (η) at a specific wavelength, of averaged optical absorption across the entire solar spectrum from 200
such as the near-infrared wavelength at 808 nm, can be expressed as the to 2500 nm [100]. Combining different photothermal materials to form
following equation [84,85]: hybrid materials can also improve light absorption, such as bimetal
[101], metal–semiconductor, and metal–organic material composites
hs(Tmax − Tsurr ) − QDis
η= (5) [102]. Therein, van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures have been shown
I(1 − 10− Aλ )
considerable potential to synthetic 2D materials complex. Saleque et al.
Where h is heat transfer coefficient, s is the surface area of the proposed a vdW heterostructure consisting of 1D-2D metallic MWCNT
container, Tsurr is ambient temperature of the surroundings, Tmax is the and HfTe2 for medical sterilizing system. The vdW heterostructure of
highest temperature at which the dispersed liquid system rises, QDis is MWCNT-HfTe2@Cu foam realized superb broadband absorbance of
5
approximately 92 % over the full spectrum of solar radiation (250–2000 0.24–1.0 μm) in the material library. As depicted in Fig. 3a and b, after
nm), while the MWCNT@Cu foam showed an average integrated the incident light illuminates the planar structure, the reflected light
absorbance of only 42 % [103]. Compared with optical absorption of leaves the material. Conversely, the light is reflected several times inside
other 2D materials, the Ti3C2/MoS2 nanocomposite prepared by Xu et al. the micro-nano structure, as shown in Fig. 3c and d. It can be clearly
exhibited a high broad-band light absorption of 92.4 % from the ultra observed that micro-nano structures can capture more light than flat
violet to NIR range [104], and the vertically aligned MoS2 nanosheets structures.
formed several hundreds of nanometers porous structures that achieved
a solar absorptance of 94.7 % in the full solar spectrum [105]. From 4. Strategies of enhanced light absorption by structure
these light absorption values, it can be seen that the strategies of het engineering
eroatom doping (e.g. N-doped) or van der Waals heterostructures can
effectively enhance the light absorption capacity. In addition, the light Instead of enabling the light to reflect back, the surface structure
absorption is closely related to with the microstructure, surface state and could retain and redistribute the incident light [109]. Surface optical
defects, chemical composition, the intrinsic properties of the material structure was employed in 1986 to increase the efficiency of silicon cells
and so on. in light trapping [110]. Light beams can be absorbed at the first point of
In the physical texture of materials, the change in refractive index on contact in the majority of microscale and nanoscale sophisticated
the interface between smooth surfaces and air causes the typical Fresnel structures. The unabsorbed light is then captured by dense anfractuous
reflection, resulting in high reflectivity [106]. Although 2D materials surrounding structures and reabsorbed by the material, with only a
have high photothermal conversion efficiencies, they exhibit significant small portion of the incident light returning to the atmosphere as a result
reflected light and poor solar absorption when they are in planar form of multiple internal reflections [111]. High reflection due to Fresnel
[107]. Additionally, strong light reflection will be observed on the sur reflection results from smooth surfaces (Fig. 4a). However, micro-
face of planar materials that are densely stacked, which can be found in structured surfaces have a lower surface reflectance than planar sur
nature. Shi et al. [108] have shown that the top and sides of the Saharan faces. Because the incident light can be refracted and reflected between
silver ant’s body are covered with dense array triangular hairs, and the microstructures, and the transform of a sudden change to a gradient in
hairs that gradually taper off at the tip are locally aligned in the same the refractive index (as shown in Fig. 4b) [106].
direction. This raises the reflectivity of their body surface in the visible Furthermore, as Fig. 4c illustrates, the wall surface of the 3D cup-
and near-infrared spectral ranges, as well as their emissivity in the mid- shaped solar evaporator allows it to efficiently reabsorb the diffuse
infrared, and gives the ants the silvery appearance. It helps Saharan reflectance and thermal radiation from its 2D bottom part [112]. Pho
silver ants exist in the Sahara Desert, one of the hottest terrestrial en tothermal materials possessing multiscale surface structures (Fig. 4d)
vironments on Earth [82]. For the solar absorber, however, if the surface [109] and surface microstructures (Fig. 4e) [113] have the ability to
tends to be planar, the reflected light will enter the air and cannot be internally reflect incident light, amplifying the light capture effect. The
used effectively. Excessive reflection would not only result in a loss of origami structure of petal with internal light reflection paths is shown in
solar energy, but would also cause severe glare. Fig. 4f [114]. In a planar structure, incident light is reflected only once,
Materials that exist in the form of planar surface have the issue of but in a 3D folded petal structure, it can be reflected multiple times
high light reflection, which can be adjusted by macrostructure design [114]. As a result, materials with internal light reflection space have
and microscopic morphology regulation [107]. In order to further better light absorption performance than planar materials. Santoro et al.
demonstrate the mechanism of this phenomenon, COMSOL Multiphysics [115] prepared two-dimensional graphene thin films (2D-G) and 3D
6.1 software was used to simulate the trajectory of incoming light after vertically orientated graphene sheet arrays (3D-G). 2D-G exhibited
irradiation on planar structures and micro-nano structures. Using geo lower light absorption which presented a metallic grey appearance.
metric optics modules, material selection C (Carbon, diamond, graphite, However, the vertically arranged graphene sheet network, which
graphene, carbon nanotubes) (El-Sayed et al. 2021: Graphene; n, k resembled a forest, favored light trapping effects and appeared black as a
Fig. 3. The light path trajectory after the incident light illuminates the plane structure of 2D (a), 3D (b) and the micro-nano structure 2D (c) and 3D (d).
6
Fig. 4. (a-b) The diagram of fresnel reflection and incident light irradiation on the surface of materials with micro-nano structures [106]. (c) Incidental light
irradiation on 2D and 3D cup-shaped structures [112]. (d) The diagram of light absorption and capture on multi-scale surfaces and the solar evaporator [109]. (e) The
diagram of LIG/PI film interface evaporation solar desalination [113]. (f) Multiple reflections of parallel beams inside folded petals with different folds [114]. (g)
UV–Vis-NIR absorption spectra of 3D-G and 2D-G [115].
result. And the light absorption across the entire UV–Vis-NIR of 3D-G 4.1.1. Microscopic pore structure
was very close to 100 % (Fig. 4g). The porous structure has a higher light absorption than the planar
The surface micro-nano structure can also regulate the characteris structure, which enables multiple internal reflections of the incident
tics of materials with anti-icing [116], antibacterial [117], hydrophilic, light, as seen in Fig. 5a [119]. Photothermal materials with micro-nano
and hydrophobic performance [118], simultaneously improving light porous structures differ significantly from those that lack micro-nano
harvesting. By altering the morphology of nanomaterials with higher porous structures in terms of light absorption, heat conversion, and
light absorption, the characteristics of specific surface area [70], cata the transport of vapor or water.
lytic active site, water vapor transport, energy management, and ion Network pore structure. Dispersing 2D sheets in 3D networks can
selection were also improved. Morphological regulation frequently form connected porous structures. The little flakes in the network
contributes to increasing the specific surface area and light absorption, structure may form different orientations. The network with nanosheets
with the aim of reducing the load on the material while simultaneously inside can capture the sunlight with an ever-changing angle while
maintaining a particular photothermal efficiency, which helps reduce simultaneously enabling the transport of water and steam through
costs. The work gains a deeper understanding of the structure function suitable three-dimensional interweaving network structures, such as gel
relationship by considering this issue. networks [119] and carbonized wood [120]. These porous structural
Since morphology regulation is still in its early stages of develop components lengthen the multiple scattering light paths of the incident
ment, the morphologies are classified mostly based on their presented light and enhance light collection performance through multiple re
shapes. flections [121].
Hydrogels can be made of natural or synthetic materials, exhibiting
4.1. Microstructure 3D network geometry and high degree of flexibility. The controllable
porosity structure of gel decreases sunlight reflection and provides
The micro-morphology control of photothermal materials is essen adequate path for water transport, which improves salt-resistant [122].
tially the transformation of the 2D optical absorption interface into a 3D Zhu et al. [123] dispersed photothermal components rGO and silver
interface. The theoretical limit of energy efficiency exists in 2D planar nanoparticles in a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) gel network to prepare 3D
structures due to diffuse reflection and thermal radiation. Therefore, the porous hydrogel DPFC. The arrays of micro-porous structure DPFCAg-0.16
construction of 3D micro-nanostructures breaks through the limits of have an average length of 30–40 μm and a width of 10–20 μm (Fig. 5b
energy efficiency and affords a light-trapping space that allows multiple and c). The numerous micro-pores, directional micron channels, and
reflections of incident light, enhancing light absorption and photo molecular grids enhance the incident light absorption that can improve
thermal conversion efficiency. Formation of “open 3D space” is vital to photothermal performance and water transport. The internal network
the morphology design. The 2D planar materials are endowed with 3D structure of PVA interact with water to form hydrogen bonds that
space with different degrees, referring to micropore structure, hierar contribute to capturing water molecules effectively, which conducted to
chical structures and bionic structure [112]. solar interfacial evaporation. The activation of some clusters during
evaporation results in low enthalpy of evaporation of water in the gel
[33]. Liu et al. [124] prepared a porous hydrogel (SMoS2-PH) with
7
Fig. 5. (a) The light capture ability of a flat surface and a porous structure[119]. (b-c) SEM image and magnified SEM image of three-dimensional porous DPFC
material [123]. (d) Illustration of SMoS2-PH; (e-f) SEM image of SMoS2-PH [124]. (g) Top-view SEM images of CMA; (h) Light absorption spectra and optical
photographs of GA and CMA samples; (i) Schematic illustration for photo-thermal conversion measurements of sample at different incident angles; (j) Schematic
diagram of multiple reflection in the porous structure, when light illuminates [131].
remarkable water transport and salt resistance using hydrophilic poly enthalpy of evaporation. They prepared hierarchical nanostructure
acrylamide and low bandgap MoS2 for interfacial photothermal-vapor, polymer gel and reported that the evaporation rate under one solar ra
as shown in Fig. 5d. As seen in Fig. 5e and f, SMoS2-PH contains 300 diation was up to 3.2 kg m-2h− 1, which was much higher than that re
μm large pores and 50 μm small pores inside, allowing incident light to ported in other studies in the same period.
be reflected internally. Lu et al. [125] designed Ti3C2Tx MXene/rGO Porous structures can also increase the surface area of materials,
hydrogels (MRHs) for SSG. Light absorption was improved by the thereby improving the contact area between photothermal conversion
introduction of surface architecture, and solar light could be “trapped” materials and water, and promoting the evaporation of water molecules.
in a quadrangular frustum-pyramid with various geometric parameters. Xu et al. developed an open network of self-assembled nanofiber
The concave pyramid-shaped surface patterns of the optimized Ti3C2Tx hydrogel solar evaporators with high porosity, which realized effective
MXene/rGO hydrogel could activate Marangoni convection, and as a mass transfer and continuous water channels, reduced evaporation
result solar evaporation was enhanced, realizing a high evaporation rate enthalpy, and improved evaporation efficiency [128]. In addition,
of 3.38 kgm-2h− 1. Zhang et al. [126] combined rGO with SP2-carbon theoretical analyses of evaporation enthalpy and various water activa
conjugated COF into the Konjac Glucomannan (KGM) hydrogel network tion mechanisms for reducing evaporation enthalpy in evaporators have
to generate a 3D porous hydrogel (KTG). The pore structure in the KTG been extensively reviewed by Wang et.al. [129].
had a diameter of about 50 μm, and the wall structure of the KTG Aerogel, whose porosity is more than 80 %, has low density (<100
showed a spherically connected surface, increasing the specific surface kg/m3) and high specific surface area (>800 m2/g) [130]. In aerogel
area. The porous and rough surface of KTG exhibited outstanding solar nano-porous materials, the nanoparticles randomly gather together to
absorption throughout the visible and infrared spectrum. The 3D compose chain skeletons, and then to compose 3D network [130]. Zhao
network structure of KTG improved water and uranyl ions transfer, as et al. [131] designed crosslinked MXene aerogels (CMAs) with 2D
well as uranyl ions adsorption sites. MXene and a small amount of GO (Fig. 5g). The CMA sample has a
The high enthalpy of evaporation of water results in a lower natural higher light absorption efficiency and appears darker compared to the
evaporation rate under sunlight. Water molecules escaping from liquid GA sample (the samples without MXene) (Fig. 5h). The porous structure
water should evaporate by overcoming the attraction of molecules on in the network created by the MXene and GO sheets improves light
the surface layer of the liquid, which is mainly the intermolecular force absorption by elongating the multi-reflected optical path (Fig. 5I and j).
of hydrogen bonds. During evaporation, water has different states and The CMA and solar cells-battery (SC-B) are combined to form an all-
requires different energy. In recent years, it has been reported that by weather-available steam generation system based on synergistic pho
adjusting the state of water in porous networks, the behavior of water tothermal and electro-thermal conversion. Chen et al. [132] assembled
during evaporation can be changed and the energy required for evapo MXene nanosheets on Kapok fibers aerogels (KFs) to produce composite
ration can be reduced. Yu et al. were the first to study this aspect of aerogel (KFs-MXene), which could be employed in the solar steam
water evaporation. [33,127] Water molecules in porous materials such generator to treat oily wastewater. MXene nanosheets were distributed
as hydrogels have special states, such as bound water, intermediate on the KFs-MXene aerogel, which had a lamellar and porous structure.
water and free water. They proposed the idea that adjusting the polymer The structure of KFs-MXene promoted multiple reflections of solar rays,
network can increase the content of intermediate water and form water which increased light absorption and reduced heat loss, providing
clusters in the molecular network. These water molecules require less thermal insulation and rapidly heating the water on the surface of the
energy for evaporation, which can significantly reduce the overall evaporator.
8
Similar to highly porous aerogel composites, sponge composites also Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) also possess highly porous
exhibit low densities and open cellular structures [133]. However, un structures and large surface areas. Han et al. [137] reported a synergistic
like lighter aerogel composites, heavier sponge composites tend to form improvement in thermal trapping, heat localization and light absorption
larger holes when polyurethane (PU), melamine–formaldehyde (MF), or using ultrathin, heat-insulating G@ZIF interfacial nanocavity. The
other commercial sponges are used as templates [133]. Yu et al. [134] length of the light-graphene interaction was amplified by the interfacial
used a hydrophilic polymer (Konjac Glucomannan, KGM) and a solar nanocavity between the graphene and ZIF layers (Fig. 6e). The G@ZIF
absorbent (rGO) to compose a sponge (KGS) with a 3D porous structure, film had an average transmittance and reflectance of 0.1 % for broad
as shown in Fig. 6a and b. The super-hydrophilic and low-cost KGS can band light, and can absorb approximately 99.8 % of solar irradiation.
be used for solar-driven radioactive wastewater treatment. Compared to its graphene counterparts, the G@ZIF film exhibited an
There are other composite materials with porous structure for apparent ≈2-fold increase in broadband light absorption (Fig. 6f). The
enhancing light absorption. Yang et al. [135] developed an ultrathin ZIF nanopores had the ability to transfer small target molecules to the
flexible 2D porous photothermal film based on MoS2 nanosheets and heated graphene surface while prohibiting the entry of dye molecules.
single-walled nanotube (SWNT) films, which exhibited high spectral This prevented the risk of dye molecules contaminating the photo
absorption capability. The porous structure was made up of SWNT-MoS2 thermal material and decreasing light absorption.
network and flower-like MoS2 nanosheets. SWNT-MoS2 film possessed Zhou et al. [121] assembled 2D graphene into 1D rough, loose and
protrusions that resembled mountain ridges and valleys. The film had porous fibers, forming graphene fibers (GFs). On the GFs fiber, corru
higher surface roughness, which increased the contact area between film gated graphene pieces were loosely stacked and aggregated, and nano
and water surface and also increased the evaporation rate. The porous pores were generated between adjacent corrugated graphene pieces.
network structure facilitated fast steam transport, minimized heat loss, These structural components lengthened the multiple scattering light
and enhanced evaporation. Since the SWNT-MoS2 film was ultrathin, paths of the incident light and enhance light collection performance
flexible, self-floating and had high mechanical strength, it can withstand through multiple reflections (Fig. 6g and h). The top surface tempera
the waves and fluctuating water levels that are common in seawater tures of the GF-based Janus membrane are higher than those of the
desalination. carbon nanotube (CNT)-based Janus membrane, as shown in Fig. 6i.
Xue et al. [25] constructed graphene oxide/CuO/Cu2O film-coated Irregular pore structure. Irregular gap porous structures can be
copper (GO/CuO/Cu2O@Cu) foam. The GO/CuO/Cu2O@Cu foam created by combining 2D materials with different morphologies of ma
possessed interfacial solar-driven water evaporation and photocatalytic terials. There are also hollow structures that catch light in the irregular
properties. The GO/CuO/Cu2O@Cu had a porous structure. The sunlight gaps. Fan et al. [138] introduced PS microspheres into polysulfone (PSf)
that illuminated the surface of the sample could be reflected and membrane coated by rGO (rGO@PSf) as an absorber layer to construct
refracted many times between the randomly oriented nanosheets, which complex light reflection space, which strengthened the surface absorp
improved the light harvesting ability of the material. tion to solar light through multiple scattering effects. In contrast, the
Zhang et al. [136] introduced nanopores with a diameter of around rGO@PSf membrane, with its flat and dense surface, would reflect the
10–20 nm and vacancy defects into MoS2 nanosheets. The MoS2 nano sunlight directly. CB nanoparticles were further introduced to improve
sheets fold or overlap to form many protrusions with various valleys and the light absorption and water wettability of the functional layer by
heights, resembling mountain ranges with open pores formed under forming nanoscale rough structure (Fig. 7a and b). The light absorption
sunlight (Fig. 6c and d). 3D dimpled MoS2 membrane (DMM-SA) with rate of CB/rGO/PS@PSf film was 96.25%, owning to the capacity of CB
open interconnected macroporous (1–2 µm) network was prepared, and rGO to absorb light as well as the multiple scattering effect of the
which also permitted various ions and molecules to access and diffuse rough porous structure. Fig. 7c displayed the colour of the different
effectively. membrane samples. Fig. 7d-f showed the reflection and absorption of
Fig. 6. (a) Schematic diagram of KGS; (b) SEM images of KGS [134]. (c) SEM images of the flat surface of the pristine 2H-MoS2 membrane, and the nanochannels are
formed by the partially overlapping nanosheets; (d) SEM images of open macropores formed by 2H-MoS2 nanosheets under 1 sun illumination [136]. (e) Scheme
illustration for light absorbance of G@ZIF and graphene; (f) UV–vis-NIR absorbance of G@ZIF and graphene films [137]. Schematic diagram of the light absorption
and reflection on (g) GFs and (h) CNTs; (i) IR image of the GF- and CNT-based Janus membranes under 2 sun illumination [121].
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the rGO@PSf, the rGO/PS@PSf, and the CB/rGO/PS@PSf membrane. bamboo [140], green moss [141], sunflower heads [142], coconut husk
Zhao et al. [139] synthesized polydopamine (PDA) @MXene mi [143], mushroom [142], Jute stick [144], and daikon [145]. Loofah
crospheres by hydrogen bond induced self-assembly, with small MXene holds the advantages of rich porous structure, biodegradability, strong
particles attached to the surface of the PDA spheres (Fig. 7g and h). The mechanical strength, low price and self-floating on the water surface,
PDA@MXene microsphere photothermal layer could be used for solar- and presents the potential to be used as solar evaporators. Saleque et al.
driven interfacial evaporation. The PDA@MXene photothermal mem [146] demonstrated black candle soot as a solar absorber coated on the
brane had a light absorption efficiency of 96 % in the spectral range of dopamine treated luffa sponge exhibited a desirable evaporation rate
250–1500 nm, which was attributed to the light absorption in the near- (1.30 kg m-2h− 1) and 64.75 % efficiency. This design owned remarkable
infrared regions of MXene as well as the rough surface and porous merits with simple fabrication process, low materials costs. Moreover,
structure. In contrast, MXene membranes with dense stacking had a this team further synthesized a solar evaporator based on the loofah
smooth surface and low light absorption. The system can achieve rapid coated with Ti3C2-MnO2 nanocomposite, which showed higher evapo
water transport and steam escape due to the hydrophilicity of MXene ration efficiency (85.25 %) and rate (1.36 kg m-2h− 1)[147]. The 3D
and PDA and the interspacing between core–shell microspheres, as microporous structure of loofah was beneficia to settle crystallized salts.
shown in Fig. 7i. Owing to the remarkable features of lotus seedpods, including
Natural pore structure. Nature provides abundant and cheap raw particular macroscopic cone shape and interconnected porous network
materials for human beings. Natural biomass-based materials usually formed by hierarchical pore structures, Fang et al. demonstrated
have the merits of porous structure, inherent high porosity, low thermal carbonized lotus seedpods achieved a satisfactory solar evaporation rate
conductivity and biodegradability. They can provide more effective and efficiency of 1.30 kg m-2h− 1 and 86.5 %, respectively [148]. Wood
evaporation area, improve the sunlight utilization by enhancing light as one of the sustainable resources on Earth possesses many advantages,
scattering, and promote water transport and steam escape. It shows including abundant hierarchical porous, aligned microchannel, natural
great potential for solar-drived interface desalination in terms of pro hydrophilicity, low cost and thermal insulation, which is an attractive
cess, cost, energy efficiency and environmental sustainability. candidate for solar interfacial evaporation. Many group have reported
A series of biomass-based materials have been investigated as solar wood-based evaporation could be developed for solar water purification
evaporators for solar interfacial evaporation system, such as carbonized system [149,150]. Tang’s team designed bilayer solar evaporators by
Fig. 7. (a-b) The SEM images of top surface of CB/rGO/PS@PSf membrane at different magnifications; (c) Digital photographs of various colors of membrane
samples with different membrane samples; (d-f) Light reflection and absorption of different membrane samples; (d) rGO@PSf membrane; (e) rGO/PS@PSf mem
brane; (f) CB/rGO/PS@PSf membrane [138]. (g) TEM image of PDA@MXene microspheres; (h) Top-view SEM image of PDA@MXene membrane; (i) Schematic
illustrations about heat localization and water transport processes of PDA@MXene membranes under light illumination [139].
10
coating waste polyester derived carbon onto the surface of nature wood could be reflected or refracted between the gaps, which improved the
[151]. With the advantages of abundant pores and rich oxygen- light absorption and permitted light-to-heat conversion.
containing groups, the prepared bilayer evaporators enhanced sunlight Qu et al. [153] prepared Au/Ti3C2 photothermal membrane with
absorption ( ca. 99 %) via increasing incident light path and multiple antibacterial property for solar water purification. The Au/Ti3C2 pho
scattering and diminished the evaporation enthalpy by formation of tothermal film exhibited a 2D layer structure. The interlayer spacing of
water clusters, which realized a desirable evaporation rate (2.38 Au/Ti3C2/PF was higher than that of Ti3C2/PF because of the anchoring
kg m− 2 h− 1) and excellent long-term stability. of Au NPs into the interlayer of Ti3C2, which resolved the agglomeration
issue between MXene layers. Numerous pores, microchannels, and
4.1.2. Hierarchical structure interlayer spacings in the Au/Ti3C2 layer multiply multiple light scat
The porous structure refers to the structure containing numerous tering/reflection effects, benefiting water transfer and vapor diffusion.
holes or voids inside the material, and the hierarchical structure is the Li et al. [154] developed a vertically aligned reduced graphene
micro-structure with layered structure or porous characteristics at oxide/Ti3C2Tx MXene (A-RGO/MX) hybrid hydrogel by using liquid
different scales. Here, the hierarchical structure focuses on the structure nitrogen-assisted directional-freezing method. A-RGO/MX owned
with ordered arrangement and orientation, such as accordion-like vertically aligned channels (Fig. 8a) for solar-powered seawater desali
structure, discussing the light absorption between layers. This struc nation and wastewater purification. The oriented channels of A-rGO/MX
ture enhances light absorption by preventing the stacking of nanosheets. hydrogel had diameters of 10–20 μm (Fig. 8b and c). The hydrogels had
Parallel aligned structure. The edges of layers can be observed in a high light absorption value of about 97 %, which was related to high
layered structures, which may be arranged perpendicularly, parallelly, light absorption capacity of MXene and multiple reflections within the
or at different angles. Additionally, the incident light may reflect be channels. These vertically aligned channels containing MXene nano
tween the layers. sheets also facilitated the upward transport of water to the evaporation
Wood sponge has a hierarchical structure, low density, high porosity, surfaces, achieving an evaporate rate of 2.09 kg m-2h− 1 under 1-sun
radially oriented microchannels, and environmental safety, extensively irradiation. The solar driven water treatment diagram is shown in
used in the field of photothermal water purification. Wang et al. [21] Fig. 8d.
prepared polydimethylsiloxane@wood sponge/MXene (PDMS@WSM) Meng et al. [155] designed gradient vertical-channels aerogels based
possessing Joule heating and photothermal conversion effect for the on porous N-doped reduced graphene oxide (N-rGO) meshes. Hydrogels
absorption and separation of crude oil. The natural wood was modified were frozen at − 80 ◦ C, − 70 ◦ C, and − 50 ◦ C for 1 h by introducing a
by MXene and PDMS, and the PDMS@WSM still retained the spring-like concentration gradient of NH4OH before the traditional freeze-drying
laminar structure and aligned channel structure, which possessed high process to create honeycomb-like, mix-shaped, and ring-like N-rGO
porosity and ultra-light features, exhibiting a wide absorption band and aerogels, respectively (Fig. 8e–g). Microchannels have the ability to
a low reflectivity band in the 200–800 nm region. reflect and scatter incident light several times. When the incidence angle
Xu et al. [152] used MoS2 as an interlayer spacer to create a layered decreases from 90◦ to 30◦ , the temperature distribution of the 3D aer
Ti3C2/MoS2 nanocomposite that would solve the problem of Ti3C2 ogel remains steady in photothermal conversion process. The highest
tending to aggregation. On the surface of Ti3C2, layered MoS2 was temperatures of the ring-like 5-N-rGO, mix-shaped 5-N-rGO, and
distributed evenly, while Ti3C2 maintained an accordion-like layered honeycomb-like 5-N-rGO were 97.9 ◦ C, 79.3 ◦ C, and 59.3 ◦ C, respec
structure. The Ti3C2/MoS2 nanocomposite had a high broad-band light tively, when the initial GO concentration was 5 mg⋅mL− 1. Especially, the
absorption of 92.4 % from the ultraviolet to NIR range when the MoS2 ring-like aerogel can gather incident light from 360◦ without angle
mass fraction reached 65 wt% (TM-3). There are natural gaps caused by dependence, as seen in Fig. 8h. The ring-like aerogels with gradient
irregularly stacked samples on the surface of TM-3 film and the large vertical-channels have the potential to be applied to efficient solar
gaps between layered Ti3C2/MoS2 nanocomposites. Consequently, light evaporation in a variety of environments and climates.
Fig. 8. (a) A-rGO/MX hybrid hydrogel diagram; (b-c) SEM images of freeze-dried A-rGO/MX hydrogel; (d) Practical application diagram of A-rGO/MX hydrogel
[154]. (e-g) SEM images of N-rGO aerogel with different shapes and corresponding diagrams honeycomb-like (e), mix-shaped (f), and ring-like (g). (Note: Circles in
Fig. 6e highlight the gradient size of the pore structure.) (h) Diagram of ring-like N-rGO with angle-independent light collection and multiple light-material
interaction (top); Infrared images of ring-like 5-N-rGO in different incident light directions (bottom) [155].
11
Vertically aligned structure. Growing vertically aligned 2D nano pollutants, and boosted the migration efficiency of photo-generated
sheets on the substrate results in a unique array structure inducing light electron–hole pairs. It was found that the Bi4O5I2/MoS2 with a mass
capture. Numerous scatterings and reflections of internal structure are ratio of 4 % MoS2 exhibited the highest hydrogen production efficiency
made possible by nanosheet arrays under incident light. Fan et al. [156] (Fig. 9f). Increasing the system temperature by the photothermal effect
designed a cobalt nanoparticle (CoNP)-carbonaceous nanosheets/ of Bi4O5I2/MoS2 helped to improve the photocatalytic activity.
MXene foam (Co-CNS/M foam) consisting of a 3D microporous skeleton Geometric light-trapping effect increases the light absorption ratio
with vertically aligned MXene nanosheets decorated with vertical arrays easier while light is restricted and multiply reflected inside 3D struc
of 2D carbon nanoplates embedded with CoNPs. Fig. 9a illustrate that tures. Li et al. [159] agreed with the concept and reported a novel water
the vertically aligned porous skeleton and dense nanoplate array sup treatment material (GNS@MoS2-SR). Pure graphene has a flat layer
press incident light reflection by light scattering and multiple reflections structure that causes specular reflection. By forming flower-like MoS2 on
in the hierarchical structure. Furthermore, the vertically aligned archi the surface of graphene (3D-GNS@MoS2, Fig. 9g), the optical absorption
tecture is conducive to large specific surface area, low thermal con was increased. The light reflex occurred repeatedly inside the 3D
ductivity, water transport and vapor escape. configuration of the GNS@MoS2, so the apparent reflectivity was
Yuan et al. [105] grew vertically aligned MoS2 nanosheet arrays with significantly reduced. It was demonstrated that the 3D-GNS@MoS2-SR
S vacancies (MoS2-x NSAs) on Mo meshes (Fig. 9b). The vertically exhibited superior light absorption with nearly 70 % in visible-near-
aligned MoS2 nanosheets formed several hundreds of nanometers infrared region relative to 2D-GNS@MoS2-SR with 50 % in the whole
porous structures that achieved a solar absorptance of 94.7 % in the full spectrum region of overall optical absorption ratio (Fig. 9h).
solar spectrum (Fig. 9c). MoS2-x NSAs resulted in 12 % enhancement by Moreover, porosity and layered structure are important factors
photodegradation of RhB, which had the stronger photothermal effect affecting the thermal conductivity of materials. The thermal conduc
(Fig. 9d). tivity of gaseous or liquid medium is usually lower than that of solid
materials. Therefore, in porous materials, increasing porosity is enable
4.1.3. Flower-like structure to raise the internal thermal resistance of material, reducing the thermal
Compared with spherical particles, structures with a flower-like conductivity [160]. In layered structures of the material, heat transfer is
morphology have higher surface area and can improve the efficacy of influenced by interlayer contact and intra-layer thermal conductivity
interactions at the surface [157]. When the incident light irradiates on characteristic. Cho et al. synthesized layered bismuth copper oxysulfide
the photothermal materials with flower-like microstructures, petal (BCSO) nanosheets for efficient interfacial solar desalination [161]. The
layers of the materials can capture the light. And the light beam can be 2D layered crystal structure of BCSO displayed anisotropic thermal
reflected between the petal layers, further collecting and utilizing the transport and diminished thermal conductivity (~0.099 W/m⋅K), which
light. was ~10 times lower than that of bulk BCSO. The BCSO nanosheets
Song et al. [158] created a 3D flower-like hierarchical mesoporous achieved solar-to-thermal conversion efficiency of 96 %, which was
Bi4O5I2/MoS2 with optimized photothermal-photocatalytic perfor attributed to layered structure, rough surface and nano-porosity.
mance. Bi4O5I2 was composed of a 3D flower-like layered structure of
nanosheets, which enhanced the harvesting of light (Fig. 9e). MoS2 4.2. 3D Macro morphology structure
loaded on the surface of the Bi4O5I2 nanosheets remained flower-like
structure, which improved the light utilization efficiency. Further The abundant angle and position changes of photothermal materials
more, the 3D flower-layered mesoporous structure offered additional on the macro scale can further enhance their light capture capabilities
surface active-sites, raised the contact probability towards organic on the basis of their microscopic morphology. Compared to 2D flat film,
Fig. 9. (a) Schematic diagram of the efficient generation of solar steam by Co-CNS/M foam [156]. (b) Schematic illustration of MoS2-x NSAs structure; (c) SEM
images of MoS2-x NSAs (embedded picture displays the photographs of MoS2-x NSAs); (d) Photocatalytic activity under one solar illumination Corresponding kinetic
constants of samples [105]. (e) SEM image of Bi4O5I2; (f) The average hydrogen production rates of samples with various compound ratios [158]. (g) SEM image of
3D-GNS@MoS2; (h) Light absorption ratio of GNS-SR, 2D-GNS@MoS2-SR, and 3D-GNS@MoS2-SR in the visible to near infrared region [159].
12
paper and film-based material systems, 3D structures will enhance the photothermal evaporator based on rGO and cellulose sponge (CS). The
multiple reflections and trapping of light within the material, such as 3D evaporator had an ability to reversibly switch between a 2D flat struc
triangular film and folding petal shapes. The 3D structure of practical ture and a 3D spiral structure. Keeping the mass and volume of the
design also boosts the evaporation area and facilitates energy manage materials unchanged, the transformation of the 2D flat structure into a
ment for the solar evaporating system. 3D spiral structure not only increased the evaporation surface area, but
Qin et al. [162] modified upper layer of hydrothermal-treated loofah also effectively enhanced the surface evaporation by using convection
sponge (HLS) by rGO (p-HLS@rGO), which possessed a hydrophilic- flow (Fig. 10f). The rGO-CS consisted of stacked porous sheets with
hydrophobic Janus structure. There were macro-pores with an average small pores of roughly 1 µm and large pores of approximately 50 µm
diameter of around 500 μm in the lower layer of unmodified HLS. The (Fig. 10g and h). The reversibly transformable 2D–3D photothermal
upper layer of HLS was modified by rGO, which had a multi-scale porous evaporator can be used in outdoor environments, and can be applied to
structure around 100 μm. The hierarchical porous structure allowed solar-powered seawater desalination and purification of heavy metal
incident light to have multiple refractions and reflections. In addition, and organic dyes contaminated water (Fig. 10i, j).
rGO exhibited an efficient light absorption capability. These two factors
contributed to efficient photothermal conversion performance of p-
HLS@rGO-12 aerogels. Compared to the theoretical limit of a typical 2D 4.3. Biomimetic structure
evaporator rate of 1.46 kg m-2h− 1, P-HLS@rGO-12 could achieve 1.75
kg m-2h− 1. Various micro-nanostructures that decrease light reflection and
By introducing a third vertical dimension, Liu et al. [163] developed benefit light absorption can be found in nature. 2D photothermal ma
an interconnected open-pore 2.5D Cu/CuO foam-based photothermal terials possess the unique thin layer morphology that can be coupled
evaporator. The 2.5D structure with a tilt angle of 55◦ could simulta with other materials to generate a variety of delicate and distinct bio
neously perform both 2D and 3D structures (Fig. 10a). On the surface of mimetic micro-nanostructure. The interaction of materials, water and
Cu foam, the blade-like CuO nanostructures were densely distributed, solar can get inspiration from nature.
multiple reflections and scatterings of solar light inside the trapping Black butterfly wings include inverse V-type ridges and holes, which
pores. Moreover, the micro-level surface roughness helped realize angle- contribute significantly to their low reflectivity. Ying et al [166] char
independent absorption (Fig. 10b and c). The doubled working sides of acterized the morphologies on black butterfly wings (Fig. 11a and b) and
the 2.5D Cu/CuO foam increased the exposed area to facilitate photo used finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations of the normal
thermal conversion, enlarging light absorption and evaporation area. ized electric field intensity to simulate the processes of light reflection on
The Cu/CuO foams possessed interconnected open-pore structure and bare surfaces and surfaces containing light-trapping nanostructures. The
hydrophilicity beneficial for supplying water adequately, even when the periodic ridges that exhibit nanostructures can trap solar light on wings
contact area with water was decreased and hindered salt accumulation. through multiple reflections. The bio-inspired nanocomposite mem
The 2.5D Cu/CuO foam with only one end immersed in the water, brane (MXene@rGO) was created based on the above idea. Incoming
prevented heat from diffusing into the water and localized heat to the light could be trapped in parallel or wedge-like morphologies between
interfacial evaporation areas. two adjacent MXene nanosheets were obtained by employing HF to etch
Wu et al. [164] prepared an U-shape bi-functional graphene devices the Al layers of Ti3AlC2 (Fig. 11c). Because MXene was not exfoliated
(BGDs). In BGDs, seawater flowed into hydrophilic surfaces and evap into single layer nanosheets throughout the synthesis process, its light-
oration through capillary force, while oil was recovered continuously by trapping nanostructures were retained, which were similar to ridges
siphon action through hydrophobic/oleophilic interior channels arrays of black butterfly wings. Trees can survive in saline-alkaline soils
(Fig. 10d). The SEM image of BGDs with a porous structure due to the because their root cells possess selective mass transport property. Akin
growth of graphene petals on the graphene monolith surface is shown in to characteristics of trees, the rGO sublayer of MXene@rGO membrane
Fig. 10e. The BGDs required a remarkable capacity to absorb light ac (Fig. 11d) possessed adjusted interlayer spacing, which selectively
quired an average absorptivity of 99 % in the solar spectrum. boosted water transportation and prevented salt accumulation. More
Wang et al. [165] prepared a reversibly transformable 2D–3D over, the MXene layer facilitated solar-driven evaporation.
The structure of a forest community can take advantage of sunlight
Fig. 10. (a) Schematic diagram of 2D and 2.5D Cu/CuO foam-based solar driven evaporator; (b) SEM image of Cu/CuO foam; (c) SEM image of blade-like nano
structured CuO [163]. (d) Schematic illustration of the U-shape bi-functional graphene devices (BGDs) simultaneously generating steam under sunlight and
continuously recovering oil from oil-contaminated seawater; (e) SEM image of BGDs [164]. (f) Schematic diagram of the water uptake mechanism of the 2D flat and
three-dimensional spiral evaporators; (g) SEM image of rGO-CS; (h) high-resolution SEM image of rGO-CS (small pores in Fig. 8g and Fig. 8h are circled by red dash
lines); (i,j) Schematic diagram of purified water collection structure [165].
13
Fig. 11. (a) SEM image of the morphologies of black butterfly wings; (b) SEM image of ridges structures on black butterfly wings. (c) Schematic illumination of light-
trapping phenomenon on the surface of MXene@rGO membrane; (d) SEM cross-section of MXene@rGO film [166]. (e) SEM image in the enlarged view of forest-like
LIG; (f) Digital image of a boreal coniferous forest; (g) Schematic diagram of multiple reflections of sunlight between densely arranged graphene “trees” and
“branches” [167]. (h) Digital images of lotus stems and transverse and longitudinal directions of lotus stems; (i-j) SEM images of transverse surface of biomimetic
PDMX/HPP aerogel; (k) SEM image of vertical section of biomimetic PDMX/HPP aerogel [169].
efficiently. Specifically, the surface albedo of evergreen needleaf forest to solar seawater desalination and wastewater purification.
is lower than that of planar grass. Peng et al. [167] were inspired by this Sunflowers exhibit heliotropism, and their stem tips can follow the
and prepared a forest-like laser-induced graphene (forest-like LIG), movement of sunlight Zhang et al. [170] designed a novel hybrid Sun-
which could reduce the light reflection of 2D graphene. The reflection of MoS2/Ni3S2@CA (CA stands for carbon nanowire arrays) that akin to
forest-like LIG in the 280–2500 nm wavelength range was roughly 1 %. sunflower-like light-trapping nano-structure. FDTD light tracing simu
The structure of the forest-like LIG is similar to boreal coniferous forest, lation indicated that the micro-nano structures exhibited high light ab
as seen in Fig. 11e and f. The internal multiple light reflection and ab sorption performance. The Sun-MoS2/Ni3S2@CA possessed a high solar
sorption were enhanced by the incident light among the “trees”, the photothermal conversion efficiency, which boosted the kinetics of water
“leaves” as well as “branches” (Fig. 11g). Forest-like LIG with super splitting.
hydrophobicity can be used for a solar-driven interfacial desalination Honeycomb has hexagonal shape that possess the highest surface/
film or a photothermal actuator due to its advanced photothermal per perimeter ratio, compared with other polygons that could tiling the
formance. Inspired by the spectrum-tailored solar conversion scheme of plane [171]. Lei et al. [38] created MXene‑decorated 3D honeycomb
plants, a 2D semiconductor nanosheets aerogel was conceived by Ho like fabric for water desalination and salt harvesting. The rough surface
et al.. Aerogel realized optimal utilization of the whole solar spectrum, and high porosity of the MXene/3D honeycomb fabric (M− h− fabric)
where high-energy ultraviolet photons were transformed into electron- with periodically concave arrays allowed incident light to generate
hole pairs with high redox potential, while low-energy vision-near- multiple scatterings and omnidirectional light absorption. Under the
infrared photons were converted into heat [168]. vertical irradiation of one solar intensity, the surface temperature of dry
Lotus stems have a hierarchical porous structure that helps light MXene/3D honeycomb fabric reached 86 ◦ C rapidly, while MXene/2D
absorption as well as parallel arranged vascular tissue that carries water plain fabric (M− p− fabric) only increased to 69 ◦ C. The surface tem
and mineral nutrients upward from roots. Wang et al. [169] prepared a perature of M− h− fabric was less dependent on the direction of light
biomimetic PDMX/HAP/PVA/PAM (PDMX/HPP) aerogel which had than that of M− p− fabric, thus, the former had better stability of pho
honeycomb pores and vertically arranged channel structures that were tothermal conversion. This phenomenon reflects that the concave
similar to the internal structure of lotus stems. The internal structure structure of honeycomb fabric is conducive to light trapping and thermal
image of the lotus stem is shown in Fig. 11h. The microstructure of the energy management.
biomimetic PDMX/HPP aerogel is shown in Fig. 11i–k. The solar light In nature, biological micro-nanostructures display antibacterial
absorption ability of PDMX and vertically arranged pores possessed qualities, such as cicada wings [172], dragonfly wings [173], gecko skin
multiple light reflections, which synergistically improved its photo [174], micro-sized and nano-sized structures on the surface of lotus
thermal performance. Moreover, the lotus-stem-like vertically arranged leaves [175] as well as the numerous nanoblades on the slippery zone of
porous structure facilitated the transport of water and the escape of Nepenthes [176]. Bacterial cells can be penetrated by the nanopillar
vapor. Under one sun irradiation, the evaporation efficiency of bio structures on the surface of cicada wings whose photograph is shown in
mimetic PDMX/HPP aerogel could reach 93.6 %, which could be applied Fig. 12a. Taking Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027 cells as an example,
14
Fig. 12. (a) Photograph of the cicada wing surface; (b) The situation about penetration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027 cells by nanopillar structures on the
surface of cicada wings. Scale bar = 1 μm [172]. (c) The photographs, schematic diagrams, and SEM images of Salvinia cuccullata and GDT; (d) The schematic
diagram of GDT applied to uranium extraction from seawater in the top of Fig. 12d; possible uranium adsorption mechanisms of GDT in the bottom of Fig. 12d [178].
(e) The preparation process of a 3D artificial tree [184]. (f) Diagram of evolution of direct solar steam generation systems [185].
the penetrated state of these bacteria is shown in Fig. 12b [172]. This transfer resistance, better utilize photogenerated charges, and facilitate
water sterilization by mechanical rupture mechanism can be realized water transport. Under sunlight illumination, multiple internal re
using 2D nanosheets [177]. Li et al. [178] inspired by the hierarchical flections are generated in the porous channel, allowing the hydrogel
porous structure of Salvinia cuccullata prepared green tea waste/gra achieve broadband solar absorption.
phene aerogel (GDT) with Salvinia cuccullata root-like structures Wang et al. [182] designed a bionic mushroom solar steam generator
(Fig. 12c) for solar-enhanced uranium extraction and great antibacterial (BMSSG), inspired by mushrooms with black pileus and a fibrous stipe.
ability (the top of Fig. 12d). GDT had a large number of interconnected They mimicked the stipe of the mushroom with a wooden strip and the
multiscale channels, which enlarged the specific surface area and pileus of the mushroom with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) modified gra
increased the photothermal conversion performance. Tea waste is phene aerogels (GA) for SSG, similar to the transpiration of trees. The
beneficial for enhancing antibacterial capabilities since tea polyphenols PVA-GA at the top efficiently absorbed solar light and converted it into
and tea saponin show bacteria restraint. In addition, the antibacterial heat. Simultaneously, the vertical channels in the wood were inter
effect of the GDT was also enhanced by the sharp edges of the graphene connected, and the capillary effect of the porous cellulose could trans
sheets. The GDT had disinfection rates of 79.3 % for E. coli and 84.8 % port water from the bottom to the top for interfacial evaporation.
for S. aureus. The coordination or chelation of N- and O-containing In rainforests, there are distributed intermittent periods of direct
functional groups is one possible mechanisms of uranium adsorption in light (sunflecks), and plants have to develop special strategies to access
GDT, as shown in the bottom of Fig. 12d. sunlight; for example, Monstera has fenestrated leaves grow in tropical
While learning the light capture strategy from nature, we can also rainforests [183]. Wang et al. [184] considered that the fenestrated
learn the strategy of optimizing water transportation and evaporation. leaves of Monstera were related to light capture under oblique and
The process by which plants extract water from their roots and subse diffuse sunlight. Thus, they created artificial trees (Fig. 12e) with
quently evaporate on the surface of leaves may offer inspiration for the various layers and leaf shapes. Under oblique incidence, more light
design of 2D photothermal materials used in water. Bio-inspired mate could be harvested through the Monstera-inspired leaf-shaped leaves
rials could be designed based on Lemna minor [179], water lily [180], than the ellipse-shaped leaves. Owing to the 3D hierarchical structure
and other plants. and leaf fenestration, incident light will multiply reflect between the
Plants can convert polluted water into clean steam through “water leaves. Additionally, this strategy can be applied to various light-
transportation”, “water evaporation”, and “enzyme catalysis” driven by absorbing materials. They considered that this study would advance
solar. Inspired by the branched micron-sized vessels of plants, Mo et al. the understanding of why Monstera leaves develop holes. Numerous
[181] created photothermal-photocatalytic TiO2/Ti3C2/C3N4/PVA tactics and the advancements of direct solar steam generation (DSSG)
(TTCP) hydrogels by imitating the vessels in plants using the porous systems, such as water transportation, light management and thermal
network structure to remove VOCs during solar distillation. This facili management, have been proposed, which makes the DSSG develop into
tates the process of “water transportation” and enhances the exposure the natural plant morphology. It can be depicted in the evolution of
between contaminants and the catalysts. Bionic micropores reduce mass DSSG systems (Fig. 12f) made by Zhou et al. [185]. Furthermore, our
15
comprehension of some natural biological behaviors can benefit from solar interface evaporator. The high ion concentration may form salt
research on the interactions between water, sunlight, and photothermal crystallization on the surface of the evaporator, and the crystallized salt
materials. is prone to generate salt-blocked microchannels during evaporation,
A comparative analysis, including photothermal conversion effi which may damage the absorption of sunlight and destroy the transport
ciencies, solar absorption, the unique properties and practical applica of water, resulting in a dramatical deterioration of evaporation perfor
tions in water purification of 2D photothermal materials, have been mance [193]. The issue can be alleviated by dissolving the formed salt
presented in Table 1. These quantitative data in Table 1 more directly crystals. Janus structure with the hydrophobic upper layer for light
show the impact of different morphologies on performance in term of absorption and the hydrophilic bottom layer for pumped water could
light absorption and water treatment capacity. reduce the influence of salt deposition, which made the salts crystallize
only on the hydrophilic layer of the Janus structure and then rapidly be
5. Long-term stability and economic analysis dissolved by continuously pumping water [194].
5.1. Long-term stability 5.2. Economic analysis
In the continuous operation process, it is necessary to maintain the Sun is a renewable, cheap and green energy resource. Economy is an
effectiveness of the photothermal materials, such as pollution resistance, comprehensive issue，including manufacturing cost, water treatment
corrosion resistance, acid and alkali resistance, mechanical stability, and capacity, long-term stability and reusability. Although MXene and TMDs
so on. The structure and properties of the material are one of the in own remarkable photothermal performance, the high cost may limit
fluence factors of long-term stability, such as MXene and BP, which have their utilization in large-scale water treatment. The combination of 2D
low stability under oxygen and/or water conditions [78 186]. And it materials with carbon materials is able to reduce costs. For instance, the
results in decreased localized heat generation capacity, and reduced prepared MoS2/C @ polyurethane sponges showed excellent water
durability and stability of the photothermal system, which is one of the evaporation performance and synergistically mercury removal function
obstacles to large-scale application. The stability of easily degradable with very low manufacturing cost of ≈$0.93 in− 3[195], which has great
materials can be enhanced by doping, coating or modification tech prospect in water purification and treatment of households and large
niques. Guan et al. synthesized highly durable and flexible borophene/ facilities. Carbon-based materials, such as carbon sponges, biochar, and
CNF hybrid paper [187]. Since the borophene is intimately inserted simple carbonization processes to obtain porous carbon, have advan
inside the CNF structure, rather than traditionally deposited on the film tages in price and abundance. Tsang’s group constructed an interfacial
supports with weak inherent interaction. The structural integrity can be solar vapor generation by luffa sponge and candle soot (SM-LS) as a solar
maintained with appropriate borophene concentrations. absorber. It was found that 1 m2 SM-LS with low materials cost≈$ 4.5
Abundant oxygen, temperature and humidity at the water–air per m2 was able to generate 7.5–8 L of freshwater per day on a sunny day
interface are easy to promote the growth of microorganisms. Organic [146]. The production cost of BP has been less than $1 per gram with the
pollutants and microorganisms in the water, such as bacteria, mussel, rapid development of its manufacture technique, affording a solid
seaweed, barnacle, etc., cover the photothermal layer. Settled creatures foundation for large-scale applications of BP.
can block water transport channels, corrode internal and external The hybrid system design can improve the utilization efficiency of 2D
structures, add weight to cause sinking, damage evaporators, affect the photothermal materials, owning economic feasibility. Ma et al. designed
photothermal effect and the service life of devices, and even threaten low-temperature groundwater sterilization system by inexpensive
water quality [188]. Compared to smooth surfaces, rough surfaces are micro/nano bubble devices assisted Te-based photothermal materials
easier to foul in long-term real-world water treatment applications. [15]. The development of CdTe solar cells have promoted the
Surface interactions will affect the adsorption capacity of the material advancement of the Te material industry. This system showed desirable
for pollutants due to the larger specific surface area of the rough surface fixed investment and operating cost with ~$200 and ~$1.0/m3,
compared with the material with a smooth surface. For example, bio respectively, which was closely to or less than that of other point-of-use
logical fouling may occur inside porous materials, blocking water water disinfection processes. Recently, researchers proposed an inter
transfer channels. Natural plants and cellulose paper can be used as a facial heating sterilization system by employing MWCNT-HfTe2 with a
substrate for solar evaporators due to their water absorption and cost per sterilization per liter capacity of just ¢0.21. The hybrid oper
transport channels, floatability and low cost. However, due to the ating mode utilized solar radiation and a xenon lamp with the addition
biocompatibility of these substrates, the microbial corrosion problem of of a photovoltaic system, which contributed to its operation all-weather
solar evaporation devices will be aggravated [189]. or during load shedding [103]. Moreover, the synergistic application of
To solve the problem of the biofouling conundrum, coupling with thermal energy and electricity helps increase the use of photothermal
advanced oxidation, photocatalysis, mechanical sterilization and micro/ materials at night or in low light conditions. Wang et al. designed an
nano bubble technologies to kill bacteria will prolong the photothermal arched photothermal evaporator based on the strategy of water skin
materials lifetime. 2D photothermal materials even play a unique role in effect and double-sided evaporation. The evaporator owned superb
anti-fouling, such as the incorporation of MXene in cellulose-based solar electrothermal effect and all-weather eminent evaporation perfor
evaporators that can cause stress and damage to bacteria membranes, mance, which provided an effective way for commercial and portable
which inhibits bacterial growth and biofilm formation [190]. The seawater purification devices. [22]. The development of material
evaporator can also be coated with an antibacterial agent Ag to inhibit manufacture technique and applications will greatly drive the economic
or reduce the growth and accumulation of microorganisms [191]. feasibility of 2D materials in large-scale utilization.
Antifouling coatings have also been developed to prevent microbial
attachment. Wang et al. developed a flexible nanocomposite coating 6. Environmental influence
with near-infrared light trigger self-healing and antifouling properties,
which combined polyurethane (PU) with a photoresponsive organ The essential principle for water purification need to avoid the
ic–inorganic nanocomposite (MZ-8/MXene) [192]. The MZ-8/MXene/ introduction of new environmental problems. Therefore, it is necessary
PU coating removed over 99 % bacteria and 93 % microalgae, exhibit to discuss the possible effects of the synthesis and application of 2D
ing antifouling performance. The MZ-8/MXene/PU coating also dis photothermal materials on the environment. MXene is a classic 2D
played enhanced corrosion resistance by preventing the penetration of photothermal material. The traditional MXene preparation method re
corrosive substances. quires to etch the layered ternary compounds, called MAX phases.
Salt crystal contamination significantly reduced the efficiency of the However, hydrofluoric acid (HF) or Lewis acidic molten salts as etching
16
Table 1
The comparison of performance for 2D photothermal materials applied in water purification.
Photothermal material Structure Pore Solar Photothermal Water treatment Application Unique properties
properties Absorption conversion ability
efficiency
zeolitic imidazolate framework-isolated Network pores Pore / 98 % Evaporation rate Solar water Graphene family:
graphene (G@ZIF) diameter of 1.78 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation and Good water solubility;
8–10 mm sewage treatment Easily subjected to
[137] surface modification;
graphene/polyimide (LIG/PI) Pine forest ~40 nm to 1 92.55 % Evaporation rate Solar water Excellent electrical
~ 510 nm of ~1.42 kg m- evaporation[113] conductivity and
2 − 1
h mechanical properties
3D vertically orientated GO sheet arrays Vertically / 0.977 Evaporation rate Solar water
(3D-G) orientated of 2.4 ± 0.25 10-3 evaporation[115]
L atm-1h− 1
rGO-based covalent organic framework Network 50 μm 99 % 98.07 % Evaporation rate Solar water
hydrogel (KTG) of 1.47 kg m- evaporation and
2 − 1
h 1; Uranium uranium capture
capture capacity [126]
521.6 mg g− 1
rGO coated on a carbonized wood (rGO/ Microchannels ~5.8–18 μm 93.61 % / Evaporation rate Solar water
C-WOOD) of 1.492 kg m- evaporation[120]
2 − 1
h
porous N- doped reduced graphene Parallel porosity of / 74.80 % Evaporation rate Solar water
oxide (N-rGO) meshes aligned 95 % of 2.53 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[155]
structure
3D-Graphene nanosheets (GNS)@MoS2- Flower Pore / / Evaporation rate Solar-driven
SR structure diameter of 1.78 kg m-2h− 1 interfacial
1.17 μm evaporation and
(3D),1.27 oil water
μm separation[159]
Ag NPs in rGO and permeates through Porous Length of ~ 97 % 95.67 % Evaporation rate Solar water
the whole PVA network (DPFC) 30–40 μm of 3.20 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[123]
and width
of ~ 10–20
µm
graphene and polyvinyl alcohol Porous The 0.97 92 % Evaporation rate Solar water
network embossed of 1.77 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[125]
height of
about 100
μm
Ti3C2Tx MXene/rGO hydrogels (MRHs) Porous Pore size 95 % 91 % Evaporation rate Solar water MXene:
from 113 to of 3.62 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[109] Good hydrophilicity
187 μm and surface structural
polydimethylsiloxane@woodsponge/ Lamellar Porosity of ~95 % / Oil absorptivity Collection of tenability; Abundant
MXene (PDMS@WSM) structure 88.67 % of 11.2x10-5g/m3 spilled oil[21] active sites; Large
crosslinked MXene aerogels (CMAs) Network pores Interspace 99 % / Evaporation rate Synergistic surface area and
distance 1 of 1.624 kg m- coupling of photo- metallic conductivity;
2 − 1
nm h thermal [131] Surface contained
and electro- –OH, − F, and − O
thermal
evaporation water
polydopamine (PDA)@Mxene Array pore Pore ~96 % 85.20 % Evaporation rate Solar water
diameter of 1.28 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[139]
490 nm
hierarchical binary gel (HBG) Porous 100 μm 94 % 93.7 % Evaporation rate solar water
containing a MXene (Ti3C2) gel and of 1.37 kg m- evaporation and
2 − 1
montmorillonite (MMT) gel h ; degradation sewage treatment
efficiency of [122]
methylene blue,
Congo Red and
Methyl Orange
(100 %)
kapok fiber-based MXene composite Lamellar Porosity of 97 % 82.87 % Evaporation rate Solar water
aerogel (KFs-MXene) 95 % of 1.40 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[132]
Au/Ti3C2/PF Accordion-like Pore / / Evaporation rate Antibacterial and
structure diameter 2 of 2.66 kg m-2h− 1 solar water
μm purification[153]
reduced graphene oxide/Ti3C2Tx Lamellar Pore 97 % 93.50 % Evaporation rate Solar water
MXene (A-RGO/MX) hybrid hydrogel diameter 10- of 2.09 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[154]
20 μm
cobalt nanoparticle (CoNP)- Lamellar Pore 97.50 % 93.39 % Evaporation rate Solar water
carbonaceous nanosheets/MXene structure diameter of 1.39 kg m- evaporation and
2 − 1
foam (Co-CNS/M foam) 30–50 μm h ; degradation sewage treatment
efficiency of MO [156]
(100 %) and MB
(100 %)
(continued on next page)
17
Table 1 (continued )
Photothermal material Structure Pore Solar Photothermal Water treatment Application Unique properties
properties Absorption conversion ability
efficiency
MoS2-based hydrogel (SMoS2-PH) Porous 50–300 μm 95.6 % 93.4 % Evaporation rate Solar water
of 3.297 kg m- evaporation[124]
2 − 1
h
Ti3C2/MoS2 Net structure / 92.40 % 87.20 % Evaporation rate Solar water
of 1.36 kg m- evaporation and
2 − 1
h ; degradation sewage treatment
efficiency of [104]
rhodamine B
(100 %) and
methylene blue
(100 %)
MoS2-x nanosheet arrays with S Lamellar / 94.70 % / Evaporation rate Solar water
vacancies (MoS2-x NSAs) structure of 1.77 kg m-2h− 1 evaporation[105]
Bi4O5I2/MoS2 Z-scheme heterojunction Flower / / / Degradation Photocatalytic
structure efficiency of Cr degradation
(VI)99.2 %,2,6- [158]
DCP 98.5 %
3D dimpled MoS2 membrane (DMM-SA) Lamellar pore width / 83.8 %(±0.8 Evaporation rate Solar water TMDs:
1–2 μm %) of 1.68 ± 0.08 kg evaporation[136] Semiconductor with a
m-2h− 1; narrow band gap;
degradation Structural diversity;
efficiency of Strong optical
resazurin 99.8 % absorption
agent have been used in the fabrication process, which brings a potential knowledge about the safety effects of environmentally transformed 2D
hazard. The residual HF on the surface of MXene may cause severe materials has yet been deficient [201]. Once 2D materials were released
toxicity to the environment. Therefore, it is particular vital to develop of into the aquatic environment, it will react with water complex mixtures
fluorine-free synthetic strategies for MXene. For example, Talapin’s such as inorganic ions, surfactant molecules, NOM and microorganism,
group has reported a method for directly preparing MXene bypassing which may affect their environmental behavior and ecotoxicity.
intermediate MAX phase [196]. The method saves time, avoids the
generation of hazardous waste associated with the etching step, im 7. Conclusions and prospects
proves the preparation efficiency of MXene, and is expected to accel
erate the possibility of industrial application. The review analyzes the advancements of 2D materials applied in
Traditional 2D graphene production processes including mechanical water, such as graphene, MXene, and transition metal dichalcogenides.
exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), reduction of graphene Concentrating on the issue of light reflection induced by the tightly
oxide and epitaxial growth. The progress of reduction of graphene oxide stacked 2D nanomaterials, this work summarized the morphological
uses strong acids and large amounts of water, which may lead to the regulation of increasing light absorption in water applications. The
production of acidic wastewater, causing certain pollution to the envi literature review indicates that: by controlling micromorphology, such
ronment. Waste acid and wastewater should be disposed properly dur as microscopic pore structure and hierarchical structure, incident light
ing the preparation process [197]. CVD progress may require the use of can scatter and reflect multiple times inside the micro-nanomaterials,
highly purified gases with relatively little environmental impact. How increasing their capacity to absorb light; By combining 2D photo
ever, operating conditions with high temperature can cause energy- thermal materials with macro scale materials that have high light ab
consuming. sorption, the area of light-material interaction can be directly expanded
2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are a promising alter at the macro level; By learning the light-trapping structures of creatures
native to graphene. For obtaining large-scale 2D TMDs, liquid exfolia like butterfly wings, Salvinia cuccullata, and mushrooms, photothermal
tion approach is promising, but mechanical exfoliation is difficult to materials can harvest sunlight efficiently and simultaneously learn the
achieve. Toxic organic solvent of Nmethyl-pyrrolidone (NMP) and strategies of water transportation, evaporation, and sterilization from
dimethylformamide (DMF) are the commonly used in this preparation nature. Morphology regulation of material not only enhances its ca
process [198]. Wet-chemical synthesis techniques, such as hydro/sol pacity to trap light, but also improves its hydrophobicity, super
vothermal synthesis, co-precipitation, and sol–gel synthesis are famous hydrophobicity, antibacterial activity, and anti-icing ability.
bottom-up strategy to prepare 2D TMD flacks. These techniques neces Furthermore, the characteristics of photothermal materials in water
sitate toxic chemicals and produce harmful by-products, which may vapour transportation, energy management, ion selection, specific sur
generate baneful influence on the environment [199]. Hence, the further face area, and catalytic active site will also be impacted by the change in
development of green and environmentally friendly approaches is morphology. In addition, the research on interactions between sunlight,
essential. water, and photothermal materials can improve our understanding of
During the employment of photothermal nanomaterials in water some natural biological behaviors. The challenges and perspectives to
treatment purification, the impact on the environment mainly considers ward 2D photothermal materials in the application of solar interfacial
the potential toxicity of the material leakage or even discarded into the evaporation, sterilization, and other water treatment applications are
water to living entities. In the field of biomedicine, various 2D photo revealed, and the feasible strategies are addressed.
thermal nanomaterials, including graphene-family, Mxene, stable 2D As mentioned earlier, biosafety, environmental impact of synthesis
binary compounds, such as MoS2, have exhibited excellent biosafety and application, and preparation cost of 2D photothermal materials
[200]. Whereas some unstable Xenes, such as the tellurene, shows need to be considered in practical large-scale water treatment, and
toxicity. The toxicity of some photothermal materials could be reduced feasible recommendations have been given in the previous sections.
through encapsulating by some nontoxic polymers. Although assessing Many advanced strategies have been proposed for the development
the toxicity of 2D materials has achieved considerable progress, the of advanced solar evaporation systems, including optical enhancement,
18
thermal management, and water path optimization. Although several a continuous flow reactor where the photothermal film of carbon black
breakthroughs have been made in solar-powered water evaporation and Au nanorods is integrated into the flow channels [206]. The
systems, there are still challenges to overcome. experimental results showed that the water temperature was higher than
When the solar interface evaporation system is used to treat volatile 75 ◦ C, achieving significantly efficient inactivation of Escherichia coli,
organic compounds (VOCs) wastewater, VOCs will distill and aggregate MS2 and PR772. However, microbial contamination at the interface can
with water vapor due to their low boiling point as the temperature of the easily lead to a decrease in light absorption and photothermal conver
interface evaporation process increases. The aggregation of VOCs poses sion efficiency, resulting in a sharp decrease in sterilization efficiency.
a serious threat to water quality safety. The synergy of photothermal Solar thermal disinfection coupled with advanced oxidation, photo
effect and photocatalysis as a photo-driven interface and the coupling of catalysis and micro/nano bubble technologies have shown high poten
solar interface evaporation with advanced oxidation or Fenton/Fenton- tial in practical applications. Lu et al. developed a micro/nano bubble-
like are expected to achieve efficient removal of VOCs in water. The assisted photothermal catalytic system based on tellurium nanorods to
introduction of photocatalysts can generate ROS at the interface, which enhance solar disinfection of low-temperature groundwater [15]. Bac
is beneficial for the rapid degradation of pollutants. Wang et al. prepared teria, such as E. coli, S. aureus, and spores of B. subtilis, have been
Ti3C2 MXene/CdS with the synergistic effects of photocatalysis and extensively chosen as the target pathogenic micro-organisms. However,
photothermal evaporation, which exhibited a water evaporation rate of a major challenge to photothermal disinfection is the widespread pres
1.80 kg m-2 h-1 and a phenol photodegradation rate of 85.12 % [202]. ence of bacteria and viruses that are resistant to heat and oxidation. In
Cui et al. designed a bifunctional photothermal membrane of N-doped practical applications, it is necessary to efficiently inactivate different
carbon nanosheets modified by Co nanoparticles, which achieved an types of micro-organisms. Last but not least, most of the previously re
excellent water evaporation rate and removal efficiency for phenol, ported photothermal disinfections were evaluated on a laboratory scale
antibiotic, and dye wastewater [203]. Actual VOCs wastewater is usu using purified water, saline or phosphate buffer as culture media. Nat
ally composed of various organic compounds with different volatility ural water contains inorganic ions, natural organic pollutants and bio
and chemical properties. Therefore, the solar interface evaporation molecules. The disinfection efficiency and mechanism of photothermal
system based on photocatalysis must be suitable for degrading different disinfectants in natural water are still not clear, which greatly limits the
types of volatile organic compounds. In addition, due to the relatively further development of photothermal disinfection efficiency and prac
low concentration of VOCs, it is necessary to improve degradation effi tical applications. Therefore, the study of the practical disinfection ef
ciency in order to meet emission standards. ficiency of these materials used in natural water matrices or wastewater
In practical applications, the stability of solar interface evaporation is of great importance.
systems may be affected by variables such as meteorological conditions, Compared to other strategies for improving photothermal conversion
which can affect evaporation efficiency and photocatalytic degradation efficiency, there are no extra species of materials consumed through
efficiency. Future development of solar interface evaporator systems single-morphology regulation. These tactics can provide reference rec
may incorporate photovoltaic systems or phase change materials to ommendations for other applications, such as comprehensive utilization
achieve all-weather evaporation. Irshad et al. developed phase change of solar energy and electromagnetic wave absorption, like photoelectric
materials for continuous freshwater production with higher evaporation devices, optical devices, and electromagnetic wave-absorbing materials.
rates, inspired by all-weather solar evaporators [204]. In addition, the Consequently, the idea of regulating nanostructures to enhance light
introduction of catalysts that do not require light to activate persulfate absorption has profound meaning. The morphology, structure, content,
or H2O2 to generate free radicals can achieve degradation of volatile and other properties of the material will all affect its performance. In
organic contaminants by both free radical and non-radical pathways. addition to increasing the photothermal performance of 2D materials, a
For materials with surface micro-nano structures, mechanical sta deep understanding of relationships between morphology and light
bility performance needs to be considered, especially in actual flowing absorption will also be a microthinking of the larger issue: the structure-
water environments. For seawater in actual water bodies, sewage and effect relationship of materials.
crude oil spills, the composition is complex, the pH of water bodies is
unstable, and there are various corrosive pollutants. There is a need to CRediT authorship contribution statement
design photothermal materials with better durability, such as incorpo
rating the morphology design of 2D materials with polymer-based Tingting Jiang: Writing – review & editing, Resources, Funding
photothermal materials with acid and alkali resistance and low cost. acquisition, Conceptualization. Sihui Bian: Writing – original draft,
Although the photothermal materials reported recently can achieve Visualization, Software, Investigation, Conceptualization. Yu Wang:
extremely high conversion efficiency, it is difficult to directly compare Investigation. Xiaorui Fan: Software. Lin Zhu: Funding acquisition.
different materials and/or systems to achieve consistent photothermal Xinyue Song: Investigation. Guanbo wang: Investigation. Tianhao
conversion efficiency and performance analysis due to the lack of Wang: Project administration. Haifeng Zhang: Supervision.
standard experimental conditions, settings, efficiency calculations, and
performance evaluations. Therefore, standard experimental conditions Declaration of competing interest
should be clearly defined.
Photothermal disinfection using nanomaterials is a promising and The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
effective strategy for water disinfection. However, photothermal disin interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
fection still faces challenges in future practical applications. The pho the work reported in this paper.
tothermal disinfection process involves dispersing nanoparticles in a
solution and sterilizing bacteria through photothermal heating. Disin Data availability
fection in the form of nanofluids is more susceptible to radiation, con
duction, and convective heat loss due to heating of the bulk liquid Data will be made available on request.
volume, resulting in reduced sterilization efficiency, difficulty in mate
rial recovery, and potential water contamination. Various nanoparticles, Acknowledgments
such as Au, Fe3O4, ZnFe2O4, CoFe2O4 films and Fe3O4-decorated carbon
particles, have been self-assembled in a floating membrane reactor to The authors appreciate the financial support provided by Jilin
realize interfacial thermal concentration [205]. The thermal insulation Province Scientific and Technological Planning Project of China (No.
structure ensures reliable mechanical support, lowers heat conduction 20230101328JC), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
losses, and further enhances thermal localization. Loeb et al. constructed 52202124), Jilin Province Education Department project of China
19
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Chemical Engineering Journal 499 (2024) 156450

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemical Engineering Journal

The nexus of solar absorption and morphology designs based on 2D

1. Introduction biomedical [3–5], environmental [6,7] and energy-related fields [8].

5.1. Long-term stability 5.2. Economic analysis

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