PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Connected speech sounds:

Assimilation
Assimilation is a connected speech process that occurs when speakers make one sound segment
sound similar to a neighbouring one. EG 'I like a Vegemite sandwich’ the word 'sandwich' you
probably drop the /d/ consonant sound, [sasnwitf] ('sanwich')

Vowel reduction
The process that occurs when a speaker reduces the quality of a vowel sound. Vowel reduction is a
connected speech process in which vowel sounds change and the quality is consequently reduced.
Vowel reduction tends to make the vowel sounds short, making some speech sound unclear or
relaxed. Consider how you say the word 'banana'. EG banana, might sound more like [baneina]
('benaneh') than [benerne] ('banana').

Elision
When a speaker drops a sound segment, this is known as elision. It usually involves the omission of
an unstressed vowel, consonant or syllable. EG 'library'. Through the process of elision, the word is
most likely pronounced [laibj i] ('lie-bri').

Insertion
When a speaker adds a sound where there wouldn’t normally be one, this is called insertion. It
usually occurs when a word ending with a vowel is immediately followed by a word that begins with
a vowel, or when two consonants in a row are difficult to articulate. EG 'Anna ate a pancake’: 'ate' is
likely to be articulated as [jaeit] ('rate') as the speaker transitions between the words 'Anna' and
'ate'.

fodic features (PISTV):

Pitch
Pitch is the relative height, ranging between high and low, of auditory sound. It is natural for the
pitch of our voice to rise and become high when we are excited or scared, and be lower when we
wish to sound serious or authoritative.

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Intonation
The prosodic feature of intonation relates to the patterns of pitch variation across phrases, clauses
and sentences. In fact, when we speak, we don't actually produce 'sentences' in the written sense of
the word, but 'intonation units', which are units of speech that have a single intonation contour.
Intonation can affect the syntax as well as the semantics of what we say. Falling intonation can
indicate surety, absoluteness and finality.

Stress
Stress is the intensity that is placed upon a syllable within a word. The speaker may increase the
length, volume or pitch of the syllable compared to its surrounding syllables, to create emphasis.
Stress can be used to alter the semantic meaning of a sentence.

Tempo
Tempo relates to the pace (speed) with which an intonation unit is delivered. It is often linked to the
communication of emotion or intent within a conversational exchange.

Volume
Volume is the relative increase or decrease in decibels across an intonation unit. Increasing volume
on a single syllable can create stress. When it occurs across a longer stretch of an intonation unit, it
must be considered within the situational context.

Phonological patterning:

Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of phonemes at the beginning of words in a phrase, clause or sentence.

Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of vowel phonemes across phrases, clauses or sentences.

Consonance
Consonance refers to the repetition of consonant phonemes, often at syllable final boundaries.

Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the process by which evocative words are created from the sounds they
represent.

Rhythm
Rhythm is created when the intonation of a set of words is repeated across two or more phrases,
clauses or sentences.

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Rhyme
Rhyme refers to the repetition of similar phonemes at the ends of two or more words. This entails
the direct manipulation of consonance and assonance in word-final syllables.

MORPHOLOGY

Word formation processes/morphological patterning:

affixation
The process of forming a new word by the addition of affixes

abbreviation
A shortened version of a word created through its initials or other symbols, or by removing
components of a longer word or string of words (e.g. VCAA, St).

Initialism
A word formed from the initial letters of a series of words that refer to an entity or concept and are
pronounced as a string of letters (e.g. VCE, RSVP).

Acronym
A word formed from the initial letters of a series of words that refer to an entity or concept and are
pronounced as a word (e.g. scuba, ANZAC).

shortening
Forming a new word by removing part of a longer word.

compounding
A word formed by joining two full words together into a single word (a process called
compounding).

blending
A word formed by joining parts of two or more words together into a single word.

backformation
The process of forming a word by removing a part of a word that is mistakenly thought to be an
affix from a longer word. The resultant word is also known as a backformation.

conversion of word class

Changing the part of speech to which a word belongs without adding affixes (e.g. 'to email').

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contraction
A word formed by removing some letters and marking the missing letter with an apostrophe.

Hypocoristic use of suffixes

The process of shortening, modifying or altering words from their original form by adding a suffix
such as '-0' and '-ie' (e.g. 'servo' for 'service station' or 'sunnies' for 'sunglasses'). In doing so, a more
colloquial expression is created.

LEXICOLOGY:

Word classes:

Common nouns and proper nouns

Common nouns refer to things generically (e.g. 'beach', 'wisdom', 'apple'). They are written using
lower-case letters, unless they appear at the start of a sentence. Common nouns can be modified
by other words, such as adjectives and determiners.

Pronouns
Pronouns replace nouns and noun phrases (a group of words consisting of a noun and words that
modify the noun) within a sentence. Pronouns aren’t nouns themselves; they always refer to some
other element, either stated or not, in a sentence. Using pronouns enables us to avoid repeating
nouns, which helps us to vary our language while staying on topic. Reducing repetition can also
make a text more cohesive.

TERM DESCRIPTION

Subject Replaces a noun or noun phrase that is in the subject position in a

sentence.

Object Replaces a noun or noun phrase that is in the object position in a

sentence.

Reflexive Contains the suffix '-self' or '-selves'; used to refer to another noun or
pronoun in the same sentence. Can demonstrate that someone is doing
something alone, without any assistance from others, and can also be
used as an intensive pronoun (a pronoun that emphasizes the subject of
a sentence).

Possessive Indicates possession or ownership. Unlike a possessive determiner (e.g.

'his dogj 'my pencil'), it stands on its own within a sentence and does not
modify another word.

Interrogative Used to introduce a question. Interrogative pronouns include 'what',

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 'which', 'who', 'whom' and 'whose'.

Relative Helps to introduce a relative clause within a larger sentence by relating

that clause to the noun that it modifies. Relative pronouns include the
terms 'which', 'what', 'who', 'whom', 'whose' and 'that'.

Demonstrative Refers to a particular place, person or thing. Replaces the entire noun or
noun phrase it represents.

Verbs
Critical in conveying information, verbs express actions, states or occurrences. Verbs are sometimes
referred to as 'doing words', as they communicate what a subject is 'doing', but this does not really
describe their full role. In English, verbs are a complex word class. At the highest level, you can
consider verbs as representing actions in relation to time -that is, past, present and future (marked
by a modal auxiliary). Someone can have done something yesterday, be doing it right now, or be
planning on doing it tomorrow. Verbal marking of time plays a critical role in almost every sentence
we create.

Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb is a 'helping' verb - one that supports the main verb of a sentence. You’ve already
seen some of these auxiliary verbs in the table on pages 35-6, such as 'be' and 'have'. There are two
types of auxiliary verbs in English: primary auxiliary and modal auxiliary.

Primary auxiliary verbs (aux)

Primary auxiliary verbs are usually used to construct grammatical tenses that could not otherwise
be conveyed by inflectional morphemes on the main verb alone. There are three primary auxiliary
verbs in English: 'be', 'have' and 'do'. These words can also act as main verbs, but when they're
coupled with a main verb they act as auxiliary verbs to help the main verb show aspects of tense,
time or voice. You will study voice in relation to verbs in Year 12

modal verbs
Modal auxiliary verbs (mod) Often called 'modals' for short, modal auxiliary verbs express the
possibility, ability, intent, obligation or necessity of an action occurring. They modify verbs to
change their mode - the state in which they exist. There is a fixed number of modals in English;
these are shown in the following table. Each one modifies a verb to express a slightly different
meaning. Those that are no longer often used in our society are marked as 'rare'.

adjectives
Adjectives help to describe nouns by providing extra information about them.

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Adverbs
Adverbs help to describe, modify or qualify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs and whole phrases or
sentences. They answer questions such as 'When?', 'Where?', 'How?', 'How often?’, 'How long?’ and
'How much?' Most commonly, adverbs are formed by adding an '-ly' suffix morpheme to an
adjective, such as in 'quickly', 'happily' or 'frequently'. There are many adverbs that don’t end with
'-ly', but looking for that suffix is a quick way to recognise one. Some common adverbs that don’t
have a detectable suffix are 'soon', 'often', 'never', 'today', 'too' and 'very'.

Adverbs can behave in various ways, expressing elements such as time, place and manner; cause
and effect; degree; certainty; frequency; and comment.

Prepositions (prep)
Think of the word 'preposition' by splitting it into two morphemes: 'pre' and 'position'. A preposition
expresses a relationship between a noun and another word, phrase or element in a sentence. In a
way, it 'sets up’ (pre) a 'position' between two elements, in relation to time, space (both conceptual
and spatial) and location. A preposition is followed by a noun phrase. The most straightforward
types of prepositions are combined with noun phrases to indicate a relationship with space or time.
For example, 'I will go in the morning’ includes a preposition relating to time; 'The book is on my
left’ includes a preposition relating to space

Conjunctions (coordinators, subordinators)

Conjunctions link words, phrases, clauses and sentences together. They allow us to form complex
ideas and sentences and also to demonstrate relationships between words or phrases from the
same class. For example, in the sentence 'Lydia and Amber ate dinner', the nouns 'Lydia' and
'Amber' are joined together with the conjunction 'and', which shows that both are participating in
the act of eating and that they are doing so on an equal footing.
Coordinators - The conjunction 'and' is an example of a coordinator. Coordinators help to place two
or more elements side by side in a way that demonstrates equality and equivalence. English has
seven coordinators: 'for', 'and', 'nor', 'but', 'or', 'yet' and 'so'. Many people use the acronym FANBOYS
to remember these.
Subordinators - A subordinator links clauses and sentences to each other in a way that
demonstrates a parent-child relationship. The 'parent' sentence is referred to as the independent
clause, and the 'child' sentence as the dependent clause. Subordinators tie sentences together to
construct more complex thoughts and ideas. They can increase cohesion and fluency in a text by
helping to condense information, reduce repetition and vary sentence structure.

determiners
A determiner is a word that's placed in front of a noun and helps to clarify the noun, specify
quantity or indicate possession. Determiners can be defined as belonging to one of four categories:
articles, quantifiers, demonstratives and possessives.

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Interjections
The last word class that we explore is the interjection. Oh my! The two words you just read are an
example of an interjection: a word or phrase that expresses feelings, and sometimes requests or
demands. They tend to be highly expressive and emotive, adding colour to our language.
Interjections also include greetings and farewells as part of conversational exchanges. This
particular word class doesn’t necessarily attach to other word classes in the same way that, for
example, an adjective attaches to a noun, or an adverb attaches to a verb. Interjections can be
integrated into a sentence or stand alone.

Word formation processes:

Neologism
A new word in the lexicon, having been introduced to the language or being a repurposed existing
lexeme or lexemes.
Neologisms are words that are new to the language (from the ancient Greek terms: neo - 'new' and
logos -'word'). These are classified as words that have risen in popularity and usage, and have been
recently accepted as part of the language. They can be formed through the borrowing ofwords from
other languages, creation of new word forms, adaption of existing words or repurposing of existing
words in the lexicon. All words in a language have gone through this process at some stage to
become a part of the language.

borrowings
Borrowings are anglicised forms of words brought in from other languages. They differ from code
switches in that they have been naturalised (become part of the English language). In this process,
English spelling conventions are applied to the existing orthography to establish pronunciation
norms.

commonisation
Commonisation is the process whereby a proper noun becomes a common noun. This typically
occurs when a popular brand name is applied to all similar items, such as 'vaseline' and 'polaroid'.
Some commonisations come from names of people. For example the verb 'boycott' (from Irish land
agent Captain Boycott who was ostracised by tenants protesting unfair rents and evictions) and the
noun 'cardigan' (supposedly invented by the 7th Earl of Cardigan). Different countries may use
different commonisations. For instance, Americans might call a tissue a 'kleenex' and many British
will 'hoover' the carpets, instead of vacuuming.

Nominalisation
Nominalisation is the process of making nouns from verbs or adjectives. They can require
derivational affixes, such as 'scarcity' and 'completion', or occur without the need of affixes, such as
'change' or 'walk'. A single verb can produce multiple nominalisations. For example, the verb 'run'
can be used as a noun without an affix ('I had a good run’) or as a noun with an affix ('the running of

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the race’). Technological advancements have also led to nominalisations such as 'typing', 'streaming'
and 'likes', as in 'Einar got lots of likes for the pic'

Word loss:

Obsolescence
When the referent (the thing that a word or phrase refers to or stands for) of a content word ceases
to exist, the lexeme no longer serves its purpose, so may be removed from the language.

archaism
A term or phrase that exists within specific contexts (e.g. idioms) but has otherwise dropped out of
the language.

SYNTAX

Phrases:
A phrase is a single word or group of words that are related to each other and, together, form a
single structural unit that conveys meaning. Phrases do not contain both a subject (a noun that
controls a verb) and a verb, so they require other phrases or words to make a complete sentence.
Phrases can also be contained within other phrases. In English, there are five main types of phrases
(discussed on the following pages), whose names relate to the word class of the primary word (the
head) within the phrase.

noun phrase
A noun phrase is a group of one or more words, and contains a noun as the head of the phrase as
well as modifiers to that noun. Modifiers of a noun phrase can occur before the noun, or after the
noun. Modifiers occurring before the noun are usually determiners (including quantifiers and
numbers) and adjectives that help to describe or specify the noun. Modifiers occuring after the
noun can be adverb phrases, prepositional phrases or whole clauses. They also give extra meaning
to help describe or specify the noun. Both types of modification are optional in a noun phrase, as
they act only to provide extra information about the noun in order to help identify it.
Examples
The happy mouse ate the cheese, (modified with determiner and adjective) The mouse in my
pocket ate the cheese, (modified with determiner and prepositional phrase) The mouse nearby
jumped into my pocket, (modified with determiner and adverb) The mouse who was very happy ate
the cheese, (modified with determiner and relative clause)

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verb phrase
A verb phrase consists of a main verb and any modifiers. These modifiers include primary and
modal auxiliaries, infinitives, adverbs and adverb phrases, noun phrases acting as objects, and
complements.
Examples I ate a potato cake. I am eating a potato cake. I might have eaten a potato cake.

adjective phrase
An adjective phrase consists of an adjective as its head and may include modifiers to that adjective.
Usually the modifiers are other adjectives or adverbs. This type of phrase describes a noun in a
sentence.
Examples The very happy cat drank the warm milk. I wore a bright pink fluffy jumper. The fluffy
jumper was bright pink.

Adverb phrase
An adverb phrase consists of an adverb as its head and may include modifiers to that adverb. This
phrase can modify a verb, adjective or another adverb. Adverb phrases help to describe elements
such as time, place, manner, frequency and degree in the same way adverbs do. Examples I ate the
potato cake very quickly. I frequently eat potato cakes.

Prepositional phrase
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a noun phrase that is considered to be its
object. The preposition must come before the noun phrase in a prepositional phrase.
Prepositional phrases modify nouns, verbs or adjectives within a larger phrase, clause or sentence.
When they modify a noun, they describe the noun; in these instances, they usually follow the noun.
When they modify a verb or adjective they provide extra information as to where, how or when the
verb or adjective is acting.
Examples The cat in the hat sat on the mat. (‘in the hat’ modifies the noun ‘cat’;‘on the mat’ modifies
the verb ‘sat’) I put the potato cake in my pocket, (‘in my pocket’ modifies the verb ‘put’) The Tardis
is bigger on the inside, (‘on the inside’ modifies the adjective ‘bigger’)

Clauses:
A clause is a set of phrases that must, as a minimum, contain both a subject and a predicate. This
means that there needs to be a main verb (predicator) and a noun phrase (subject) that acts upon
that verb. Clauses can also contain objects, complements and adverbials. They may form a
complete sentence (independent clause) or part of a sentence (dependent clause). These two types
of clauses were mentioned when we discussed subordinators on page 45.

Subject
The subject of a clause is the main actor that plays a role with the verb of the clause. Subjects are
typically noun phrases. While a clause always needs a subject and a verb (predicator), there are

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some types of sentences where the subject is implicitly understood and does not need to be said.
For example, 'Get the cat off the bench’ does not have an explicit subject, but it is implied that the
command is directed at someone (e.g. 'you').

Object
The object of a clause provides further information about the subject and the verb - it gives extra
information about the action. While clauses will always have a subject and a verb, they will not
always have an object. There are different categories of verbs; some require one or more objects
while others can have no object at all.

Predicate
A predicate consists of the main verb of a clause and all of its modifiers. It contains the whole ofthe
clause that comes after the subject (rather than just the verb and modifiers of the verb). So a
predicate might, for example, include other clauses.

Complement
A complement is a word or set of words that is necessary to complete the meaning of a subject or a
predicate. They are essential to understanding; if the complement is removed, the sentence will no
longer make sense. Complements come directly after a copula verb and any phrase that effectively
describes or is equivalent to the subject or object. Copula verbs are special types of verbs that only
appear in sentences that require complements. In English, the most common copula verb is 'be'
(which can be a verb or a primary auxiliary). However, there are other verbs that can act as a copula
verb, including 'seem', 'appear', 'feel', 'become', 'find' and 'grow'. There are two main types of
complement: subject complement and object complement. Subject complements complete a
subject, whereas object complements complete the object. Subject complements are typically noun
phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases or adverb phrases.

adverbial
Adverbials provide extra information about a verb. They often say where, when, how, or how often
something occurs. Adverbials can be adverb phrases, but they can also be other phrase types, such
as prepositional phrases, noun phrases or whole clauses. Unlike complements, adverbials provide
optional information; they can be deleted without affecting the overall comprehensibility of the
clause, and are not critical to the sentence structure.

combined clauses:
When considering sentences as a whole, we often combine clauses in order to vary sentence
structure, provide appropriate amounts of information, and reduce repetition. There are two main
methods for combining clauses: by subordinating a clause when attaching it to an independent
clause, and by coordinating a clause by attaching it to an independent clause.

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Sentence structures:
Just as sentences can be classified by their type, they can also be categorised by structure. There
are five structures to consider: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex and fragment. The
structure is determined by whether the sentence comprises a complete clause, how many clauses
are within the sentence, and the conjunctions thatjoin those clauses together.

Simple sentences
Simple sentences contain a single clause that consists of a subject and a predicate. The clause
contains all of the information required to convey meaning

Compound sentences
Compound sentences consist of two or more independent clauses that are joined together using a
coordinator.

Sentence fragment
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences - missing either the subject or the predicate.
However, the fragment still makes sense within the text as a whole.

Simple sentences
Simple sentences contain a single clause that consists of a subject and a predicate. The clause
contains all of the information required to convey meaning.

Compound sentences
Compound sentences consist of two or more independent clauses that are joined together using a
coordinator.

Complex sentences
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The
dependent clause is created by joining it to the independent clause using a subordinator.

Compound-complex sentence
Compound-complex sentences are a combination of compound sentences and complex sentences.
These sentences contain at least two independent clauses that have been joined by a coordinator
and at least one dependent clause that's been joined by a subordinator.

Sentence types:

Declarative
A declarative sentence is framed as a statement of fact; it declares something. While the statement
may not be true, the framing of the sentence implies that it is. To be identified as declarative, a

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sentence need not be profound or even necessarily sensible, it just needs to be framed in a way
that communicates information. Declaratives are the most common type of sentence in English.

Interrogative
Interrogative sentences are framed in the form of questions, ending with a question mark. Whether
it is rhetorical or not, if it has a question mark it's considered to be an interrogative sentence. These
sentences typically begin with interrogative pronouns or auxiliary verbs.

Imperative
Imperative sentences act as commands, instructions or requests. Most of the time, the way an
imperative is framed means that the subject of the sentence is not stated; because it is likely to be
the addressee, it’s implied or it's understood within the context.

Exclamative
Exclamative sentences express emotions such as fear, excitement or surprise. The purpose of these
sentences is to add emphasis in some way. Standard exclamative sentences are constructed using
'what' and 'how' to make an expressive statement that often ends with an exclamation point.

Active and passive voice

There are two types of voice in the English language: active and passive. In the active voice, the
subject of a verb performs the action, while in the passive voice the subject ofthe verb receives the
action
The passive voice is more common in formal writing, and it can allow speakers and writers to avoid
specifying the performer of the action (the agent). Passive constructs that omit the agent are
known as agentless passives. Agentless passives can be useful in some circumstances as they
reduce the responsibility of the agent or avoid giving unnecessary detail.

Syntactic patterning (PAL):

Syntactic patterning is often employed by authors to support a function or purpose, allowing them
to create rhythmic and memorable pieces of texts. Syntactic patterns serve to draw readers' or
listeners' attention to a component of a text in a way that reinforces meaning and understanding.
Syntactic patterns consist of parallelism, antithesis and listing.

Parallelism
Parallelism is the repetition of grammatical structures two or more times in succession

Antithesis
Antithesis is the presentation of two contrasting ideas near one another in parallel structures.
Antithesis is used to create a balance between opposing ideas and to emphasize this contrast.
Antithetical phrases can use antonymy (use of opposites), irony, contrast in scale or other means to
juxtapose the ideas.

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listing
Listing is used to present a series of related ideas, items or elements, usually in a similar
grammatical form. Words, phrases or clauses in a list are often introduced by a colon and are
separated by commas or semicolons (for longer items or those already containing commas). Lists
can provide clarity by separating elements into a simple format, to create a rhythm in language and
to emphasize a point or build an argument.

DISCOURSE AND PRAGMATICS

Paralinguistic features:

vocal effects
Vocal effects such as coughs, laughter and whispering can add meaning to a conversation. Some
speakers, for example, use coughing while speaking in order to convey sarcasm. Laughter within
speech can indicate humour being intended by the speaker and can also act to reduce social
distance and create intimacy. Whispering can be used to indicate secrecy or to demonstrate respect
for others in a quiet environment such as a library.

Code switching as a means of demonstrating group membership and belonging:

When speakers alternate between languages, they are said to code switch. Code switching mostly
occurs in interactions between multilingual speakers who have two or more languages in common.
This is considered to be an effective communicative strategy that helps multilingual speakers to
convey their ideas and ensure they are fully understood. Nearly all multilingual children
demonstrate code switching at some point in their development of languages. This means they mix
elements of more than one language. Once viewed as a sign of language confusion, code switching
is now seen as evidence of multilingual proficiency and resourcefulness: the child draws on the
most appropriate language available to them, to express their thoughts and emotions in a given
context. While a monolingual child might overgeneralise the meaning of a word (e.g. by referring to
all four-legged animals as 'cat'), a multilingual child might borrow a word from another language to
make up for their limitations in the main language they are speaking.

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Conventions for the transcription of spoken language

Factors that contribute to a text’s cohesion (C CARES IRL):

Cohesion refers to the way we use grammatical and lexical techniques to link words together to
create meaning. It is important as it ensures that an audience can easily follow what is happening
within a text. Cohesion can be created through lexical choice; ellipsis, repetition and substitution;
collocation; adverbials and conjunctions; information flow; and reference.

Conjunctions
Coordinators join words, phrases and clauses together to allow for additions, comparisons and
contrasts. Common coordinate conjunctions include 'and', 'or' and 'but'.
Subordinators place relationships between ideas in the context of time and space, or cause and
effect. Common subordinate conjunctions include 'although', 'after' and 'because'.

Collocation
Collocation refers to words that typically appear next to or very near each other in texts. They
strengthen cohesion by allowing readers or listeners to predict the next word in a sentence or
utterance.

Adverbials
Adverbials are words, phrases or clauses that provide information, often in relation to time, place or
manner. They can be used as signposts within a text.

Repetition
Repetition refers to using the same word throughout a text to reiterate an idea or topic. It can
occur with exact duplication, or with inflectional modification.

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ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of words or phrases, particularly when they are already known due to
contextual information or because they have been referred to previously.

substitution
Substitution occurs when alternative words, phrases or clauses are used in place of the original.
This helps to reduce unnecessary repetition.

information flow-

Information flow refers to how speakers convey meaning by organizing and sequencing
their language to effectively communicate with their intended audience.
Information flow includes front focus, clefting and end focus. Some of the purposes of manipulating
information flow are to emphasize important information, provide contextual information, create
contrast, maintain interest and increase readability.
Clefting - Clefting refers to the modification of the syntax of a sentence to emphasize one particular
element. This allows that element to become the focus of the sentence, helping to increase
cohesion. There are two types of clefting: it clefts and wh-clefting. It-clefts always begin with 'it',
directly followed by a conjugated form of the primary auxiliary 'to be'. The focus of the sentence
follows, then the additional information completes the sentence in the form of a subordinate
clause.
Front focus - Front focus occurs when a speaker or writer places new or important information at
the initial or front part of a sentence. In typical English sentences, we use SVO word order (Subject,
Verb, Object) with complements and adverbials also usually occurring after the subject. When
something appears before the subject, it's considered to have been placed in front focus.
End focus - End focus occurs when speakers or writers place new or important information at the
end of a sentence or clause. This delays the delivery of a main idea to give it prominence or create a
sense of anticipation, surprise or resolution. In spoken texts, placing the most meaningful or
important elements last means that this is the most recent piece of information an audience hears.

referencing - anaphoric, cataphoric and deictic

Reference occurs when we use an expression to refer to another word, phrase or clause (the
referent) within a discourse or setting. We look at reference in terms of anaphoric reference,
cataphoric reference and deictic reference.
Anaphoric reference - Anaphoric reference is when an author or speaker refers to something
previously mentioned in a conversation or written discourse. This can be achieved using pronouns
or other referring expressions, such as possessive determiners. Anaphoric reference allows us to
avoid repetition.
Cataphoric reference - Cataphoric reference is when an author or speaker uses a pronoun or other
referring expression to refer to something that will be mentioned later in the discourse. Cataphoric
reference can build anticipation and set up expectations.

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Deictic reference - Deictic reference is an expression used in relation to the speaker, listener or
context of the communication. These are elements that signal the people, places, objects, times or
situations in which a discourse is occurring. Examples of deictic references are listed below

lexical choice
Lexical choice refers to the role of content words in creating texts: nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs. When writing for a purpose, selected words will relate to the topic or concept being
discussed, creating cohesion. Lexical choices that are most relevant for creating a cohesive text are
synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and hypernymy.
Synonymy - Synonymy refers to using pairs or groups of words that are equivalent or very similar in
meaning.
Antonymy - Antonymy is the relationship of words that are opposite in meaning. Antonymy unifies
words even though they are opposite in meaning, as they can be easily contrasted and compared.
Hyponymy and hypernymy - A hyponym is a word that belongs to (is considered a subtype of) a
larger category of terms, which is called a hypernym. A hypernym can have multiple hyponyms, and
hyponyms can also be hypernyms. Hyponyms and hypernyms help a writer or speaker avoid
unnecessary repetition and create varied texts. The clear semantic links between the terms
increase cohesion

Factors that contribute to a text’s coherence (FLICC):

Textual coherence is the logical and meaningful organisation of a text. It involves arranging ideas,
information and the elements of a text in such a way that the sentences, paragraphs and sections
create a clear message with smooth transitions. Coherence is integral as it allows an audience to
understand what is being conveyed. We analyse texts for the following features of coherence:
cohesion, inference, logical ordering, formatting and consistency and conventions.

formatting
Formatting includes the font style, spacing, alignment, headings and subheadings, lists, text
colours, graphics, margins and white space. Each of these visual features can help give prominence
to more important elements of a text. For instance, large headings are read before smalle

logical ordering
Logical ordering occurs when we construct a text, as we arrange information in a way that will
maximize understanding. We often do this subconsciously, but in planned texts it is an intentional
process designed to increase audience understanding. Common methods to logically order a text
include chronological (ordering a text in relation to when events occurred in time), sequential
(ordering information in a series of steps) and categorical ordering (ordering a text by topic).

inference
Inference is the meaning that the audience makes when considering a text that contains
information that is not overtly present. We draw inferences from the available information, context

16
and our own reasoning, allowing us to draw conclusions beyond what is written. Meaning often
relies on a cultural or social understanding of a particular context.2

cohesion
A coherent text relies on a high level of unity: elements working together to form a whole. Each of
the features of textual cohesion (discussed on pages 5-10) contribute to the coherence of a text.

Consistency and conventions

Consistency and conventions help to establish and maintain a sense of order, structure and unity in
the content, aiding coherence.
Consistency - Consistency occurs when similar concepts or entities are referred to in the same way
throughout the text, without unnecessary variations. Consistent formatting, as well as the use of
consistent punctuation, capitalisation, font and spacing also contribute to the overall coherence of
a text by providing visual cues to the reader and creating a unified presentation.
Conventions - Conventions are established rules and expectations for how certain types of texts are
structured, organised or presented. They can include genre-specific structures, such as the way
recipes or analytical essay responses are arranged, and field- or domain-specific writing norms,
such as the standard citation styles you might use in your VCE studies. Adhering to established
conventions in writing helps readers to follow the text, understand the intended meaning and
engage with the content in a familiar and expected manner.

Features of spoken discourse:

Features of spoken discourse are used in order to achieve purposes in situational and cultural
contexts. They include openings, closings, adjacency pairs, minimal responses / backchannels,
overlapping speech, discourse markers/particles and non-fluency features.

Openings
Openings Openings are the initial phase of a discourse where participants establish contact and
introduce the topic or purpose. The contents of an opening sequence are specific to the context of
a conversation. Openings not only establish contact between participants, but also help to create
rapport (familiarity and solidarity between people) and set the stage for the forthcoming
conversation. An opening can also signal the intended tenor of a conversation to all participants,
helping to meet face needs and establish an appropriate register. Typical openings include the
following.

Closings
Closings occur in the final phase of discourse, where participants wrap up the interaction, exchange
finishing remarks and signal the end of the exchange. They provide a clear end point to a
conversation, allowing participants to reflect on the discussion and potentially leave with a sense of
satisfaction or resolution. They also give an opportunity to express appreciation, gratitude or good

17
wishes to other participants. This helps maintain social norms and demonstrates politeness and
respect.

adjacency pairs
Adjacency pairs are sequentially linked utterances or turns in a conversation where one speech act
(e.g. a question) is followed by its expected response (e.g. an answer). These sequences are
normally adjacent to each other - one after the other - in a cooperative conversation. Most
adjacency pair sequences have what is referred to as preferred or dispreferred responses. The
preferred response is the one expected by the initiator of the sequence. The dispreferred is the
response that is not expected. An invitation, for example, has the preferred response of an
acceptance. Another valid response, however, is a rejection of the invitation, which is dispreferred.

minimal responses/backchannels
Minimal responses, also known as backchannels, are brief replies in a conversation that
acknowledge and encourage another speaker, and may provide opinions on the topic, without
providing significant additional information or indicating intention to take the floor. They help
maintain conversational flow and indicate understanding, engagement, support or agreement. They
may consist of vocalizations, words, phrases or non-verbal cues such as nodding, smiling or
frowning.

overlapping speech
Overlapping speech is the situation in which two or more participants in a conversation speak
simultaneously. Overlapping speech can be either cooperative or uncooperative, depending on the
context and the intentions of the participants involved. Overlapping speech is indicated in
transcripts through the square brackets symbol.

Discourse markers/particles
Discourse particles, also known as discourse markers, are linguistic elements that do not carry any
semantic meaning on their own, but play a role in organising communication, managing
interactions and indicating speaker intention.

non-fluency features including:

pauses
Pauses are brief intervals of silence during speech. Non-fluent pauses can occur for various
reasons, such as the speaker gathering thoughts, indicating hesitation or signalling a shift in topic.
In a transcript, they are indicated by round brackets and full stops, with longer pauses indicated
with more full stops.

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Filled pauses/voiced hesitations
Filled pauses or voiced hesitations are instances where speakers use vocalizations such as 'uh', 'urn'
or 'er' to fill the silence in their speech. They are also known as voiced fillers. They often indicate
hesitation, uncertainty or a momentary struggle to find the right words and are commonly used to
hold the floor during a conversation.

false starts
False starts are when speakers begin an utterance but then interrupt themselves and start again.
This interruption can occur mid-word, mid-phrase or mid-clause. They occur due to self-correction,
uncertainty or the need to rephrase for clarity.

Repetition
Repetition is the unintentional restating of words, phrases or clauses within a speech due to
hesitations, self-correction or difficulty in finding the right words to say.

Repairs
Repairs are instances where speakers correct or revise their previous utterances. This may occur
due to errors, miscommunication or the need for clarification. Repairs can happen through various
strategies, such as self-correction or seeking confirmation.

Strategies in spoken discourse:

Strategies in spoken discourse help speakers to achieve successful communication and create a
harmonious social environment. The strategic use of discourse features, coupled with other
linguistic features, can help to achieve what the speaker intends within a speech act. Spoken
discourse strategies include topic management, turn-taking, management ofrepair sequences and
code switching.

topic management
Topic management refers to the methods speakers use to manage a topic within a conversation or
monologue. Topic management can include the following strategies.

Turn-taking
Turn-taking refers to the methods by which speakers alternate turns when talking. In most
conversations, at any given moment, one person speaks while others listen, and then another
person takes their turn to speak. This practice prevents people from talking over each other and
helps maintain the flow of conversation.

management of repair sequences

Repair management refers to the processes by which speakers identify and correct communication
problems in spoken discourse, to ensure smooth and continuous conversation. These problems
could be related to pronunciation, grammar, word choice or misunderstanding. Repairs can be
19
considered in terms of who makes the utterance requiring repair, who initiates the repair sequence
and who performs the repair. The following categories are those used by Schegloff, Jefferson and
Sacks (1977) to categorize repair sequences

Code switching
Code switching is when a speaker switches between two or more languages in a single interaction
or text. Code switching can be done for many purposes, including to demonstrate group
membership and belonging, to reflect a shared cultural/linguistic background, or to increase social
bonds and solidarity.

Politeness strategies:
Politeness refers to the language choices that show consideration, respect and sensitivity towards
others, and an awareness of social communication expectations and norms. Politeness markers
such as 'thanks', 'please' and 'sorry' are commonly used in everyday conversations. The politeness
strategies that people employ may vary depending on contextual or social factors, such as the
degree of social distance between the participants (the closeness of their relationship); however,
they are most commonly used to build rapport. In English Language, we focus on positive and
negative politeness.

Positive politeness
Positive politeness refers to the strategies we use to create and maintain social harmony by
demonstrating empathy and building rapport. Rapport can be reflected through language that
shows friendliness, solidarity, interest and inclusiveness.

TERM DESCRIPTION

Emphasizing similarity Highlighting shared characteristics, interests or values to create

camaraderie.

Showing interest Expressing interest in the audience's opinions, experiences or

emotions through asking questions, listening attentively and
responding empathetically.

Using humour Making jokes, witty remarks and lighthearted banter to create a
relaxed and friendly atmosphere.

Offering compliments Complimenting the audience's appearance, achievements or

abilities to boost their self-esteem.

Using inclusive Using personal inclusive pronouns - 'wej 'our' and 'us' - to create a
language sense of belonging and establish common ground.

20
Negative politeness
Negative politeness focuses on reducing the imposition placed on the listener. This is achieved by
indirectness, showing deference and demonstrating respect for the listener's autonomy. Negative
politeness is used when the intent is to maintain social harmony or when there is a perceived social
distance between participants.

TERM DESCRIPTION

Hedging Using tentative language to avoid imposing on the listener's

autonomy, particularly when making requests or challenging their
opinions

Being indirect and Using indirect or vague language, such as hints or euphemisms, to
ambiguous convey a message indirectly. This leaves the listener to infer the
intended meaning.

Using low modality Including modal auxiliaries in interrogatives that indicate possibility
verbs or uncertainty, to make requests in a less imposing manner.

Apologizing Making apologies to show deference and acknowledge potential

imposition on the listener

Applying other Using language to soften the impact or tone of what is being said,
mitigating strategies such as when making a request or giving feedback. Some common
examples of mitigating strategies include: using polite expressions,
tag questions and disclaimers; downplaying; using terms of address;
or other respectful language to address the listener or refer to their
position or status.

Face
The term 'face' is used to describe the aspect of the listener that is being acknowledged through
the use of politeness strategies. It can be divided into positive face and negative face.

Positive face
The desire to be seen as competent and liked by others. It reflects an individual's need for social
recognition, appreciation and inclusion. Concerns the desire for favourable social interactions and
maintaining a positive self-image.

Negative face
The desire to be free from imposition and constraints on autonomy. It reflects an individual's need
for independence, privacy and freedom to act. Concerns the desire to maintain one's sense of
individuality and personal space.

When we use politeness strategies, we are usually attending to the face needs of the listener,
mitigating threats to their positive or negative face. These threats are referred to as
21
face-threatening acts, and if appropriate levels of politeness are not used, offense and discord may
be created.

Face-threatening acts
A face-threatening act is communication that may pose a threat (potential harm) to an individual's
positive or negative face, leading to consequences such as embarrassment, loss of face, offense or
conflict. Examples of face-threatening acts include making requests, giving directives, complaining,
disagreeing, interrupting and delivering bad news.

SEMANTICS
Semantic domain
A semantic domain contains a group or range of words that have related meanings. We organise
words into particular domains when they have lexical relationships with each other. This tends to
produce words that occur together frequently. In the semantic domain of 'snow', for example, we
have words such as 'flurry', 'blizzard' and 'snowstorm'; all of these words can be used to discuss
snow. This semantic domain can also include lexically related words, such as 'ski', 'downhill' and
'avalanche'. We often use words from the same semantic domain to aid comprehension; when
words are lexically related, they are more easily and quickly understood.

Inference
When a text - its words, phrases and sentences - contains information that is not overt, we can
derive meaning by inferring what it intends to convey, which often relies on our cultural or social
understanding of a particular context.

Semantic patterning:
Semantic patterning involves the organisation and arrangement of meanings or semantic concepts
within a text. This can be used to aid with cohesion and coherence, and to capture and maintain the
attention of specific audiences. When texts are analyzed for semantic patterning, it is relevant to
consider figurative language, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, simile, hyperbole, personification,
animation, lexical ambiguity and puns.

figurative language
Figurative language includes words or expressions that deviate from their literal or ordinary
meanings to create a more vivid or expressive effect. Figurative language is an umbrella term that
consists of many other semantic patterns. For the purposes of this study, the semantic patterns
listed below and on pages 24-5 are considered types of figurative language.

22
irony
Irony occurs when a speaker or writer states one thing but means another, typically the opposite of
what they have stated. This can be achieved via sarcasm, understatement or backhanded
compliments.

metaphor
A metaphor uses one semantic domain to help explain another semantic domain.

Oxymoron
An oxymoron is created when contradictory words or phrases are used in combination to create a
contrasting effect. The juxtaposition of contradictory elements can evoke irony, humour or
emphasize a paradoxical situation.

Simile
A simile compares elements using 'like' or 'as' to highlight their similarities.

Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a figure of speech that involves exaggerated statements or claims that are not meant
to be taken literally.

Personification
Personification is a pattern that attributes human qualities, characteristics or actions to non-human
entities or inanimate objects.

Animation
Animation is the technique of bringing inanimate objects or fictional characters to life through
language based around motion and expression.

Puns
Puns are a form of lexical ambiguity that exploits multiple meanings for an intended humorous or
rhetorical effect. These plays on words rely heavily on phonological, orthographical (relating to
writing conventions) or semantic similarities.

Lexical ambiguity
Lexical ambiguity refers to the existence of two or more possible meanings within a single word.
Lexical ambiguity can also be known as semantic ambiguity. When used intentionally, lexical
ambiguity can add layers of meaning to a text, evoke emotion or produce a comedic effect (as in the
case of puns: see below). Its unintended use can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations
and cause repair sequences to be initiated within conversational exchanges.

23
LANGUAGE FORMALITY, INFLUENCES AND
FUNCTIONS

Metalanguage and linguistic terms

Standard The variety of English that a community has determined to represent that community's established
English variety of written and spoken English, and is formally codified in dictionaries and other official
language resources.

Functions of The purpose of a message. Language has six functions: referential, emotive, conative, phatic,
language metalinguistic and poetic.

Register Stylistic variation of language, defined by its use. It involves all features of language as well as
levels of formality.

Tenor The relationships between the participants of a communicative exchange.

Audience The intended listener/s to or reader/s of a text.

Levels of formality
The level of formality of a text refers to how formal or informal the language used is. Formality can
be considered as a continuum; there are varying degrees of formality, rather than a black-and-white
distinction between formal and informal language. This allows for nuanced expression that can be
tailored to specific situations.
highly informal
somewhat informal
somewhat formal
highly formal
The level of formality in language can be created through the use of certain features that are typical
of either informal or formal texts. Swearing, slang and the use of colloquial language, for example,
can increase the informality of a text, while the use of jargon, euphemism and double speak can
increase the formality of a text.

Standard English
Standard English is the form of English that is considered the accepted standard. neither formal nor
informal. Standard English is used to create a common ground for understanding, ensuring that
messages are conveyed accurately and effectively. The teaching of Standard English in educational
institutions makes it a foundational aspect of literacy and learning. Standard English also enhances
opportunities in global communication and professional fields as it makes texts accessible to wider
audiences and assists in the creation of clear and effective communication.

Influences of language
Language is shaped and influenced by various factors that guide how we communicate in
different contexts. Three important factors are register, tenor and audience.

24
Register
When we speak or write, we alter our language to suit the situation in which we find ourselves.
Analysing the register of a text involves describing how a speaker or writer is using language based
on a particular context. Common registers include formal, informal, technical, public, ceremonial
and colloquial.

Tenor
The tenor of a text refers to how the relationships between the participants can be reflected in the
features of language that they use. When communicating with others, whether written or spoken,
the roles the participants play can sometimes be more important than the situational or cultural
context. Social status, professional roles, personal relationships and social distance are some of the
elements you should consider when analysing the tenor of a text.,,..Audience
When constructing texts, writers and speakers usually keep in mind their intended audience.
Whether a text is spontaneous or planned, the register that writers or speakers use and the tenor
they want to achieve are closely bound to the audience. A speaker or writer with a familiar
audience is more likely to use an informal register, to promote and maintain rapport. For unfamiliar
audiences, a more formal register would be employed to ensure inclusivity. Many texts have
multiple audiences, and it is important to consider this when you analyse a text. A televised speech,
for example, often has a physical audience in front of the speaker, but also a wider audience
watching the broadcast.

Major functions of language

Authors and speakers create texts with the intent of achieving something.
Whether it be to persuade, direct action, present opinions, provide facts or simply to convey
emotions, the language that we use has an underlying function.
The major functions of spoken and written texts are referential, emotive, conative, phatic,
metalinguistic and poetic

25
FEATURES OF INFOR,AL LANGUAGE

Metalanguage and linguistic terms

Colloquial A type of casual and relaxed informal language that is often location-specific.
language

Slang Newly formed words and phrases that are commonly found in very informal contexts. They can be
playful in nature, or even suggestive or crass.

Taboo language Language that is considered inappropriate or insulting by a large portion of a society.

Dysphemism An inappropriate word or phrase that is intentionally used in place of a more neutral word, to
intensify the impact of the utterance.

Swearing The use of a specific set of terms, often intentionally though sometimes unintentionally, that
are deemed rude and offensive within a particular culture.

Emoticons Visual pictures that are created using keyboard symbols, such as punctuation marks, letters
and numbers.

Emojis Small icons or pictures that are embedded into digital texts.

Context-specific Individual symbols that represent different meanings depending on the situation in which
graphemes they are used.

26
Features of informal texts
Informal language is inherently a flexible and creative style of language. Informal texts, both written
and spoken, tend to be unplanned, dynamic and adaptable.
Some common types of informal texts include:
- conversations among friends
- social media posts
- advertisements
- viral videos.

Subsystem patterning
Subsystem patterning in informal language reveals the underlying structure and creativity
of everyday communication. It is often used informally for an inventive or playful effect.
Some common ways in which the different types of subsystem patterning are used in
informal texts are listed in the following table.

27
Colloquial language
Colloquial language is a flexible and dynamic form of expression that captures the
informal, conversational style used in everyday speech and writing. It often includes
region-specific language, cultural dialects and relaxed grammar. Specific cases of
colloquial language are called colloquialisms, and these can add authenticity and warmth
28
to communication. In Australian society, the use of colloquial language is closely tied to
our perceived national identity.

29
30
Slang
Slang consists of newly coined words and phrases that are regarded as very informal. For
example, modern slang terms associated with young people might include 'sus' (meaning
'suspicious'), 'tea' (meaning 'gossip') and 'bet' (expressing agreement). Slang words can
often represent a trend or fashion in society at large, and may fall out of use relatively
quickly. Slang terms differ from colloquialisms in that they are less universally accepted,
used and understood in the wider community - they tend to be tied to smaller social and
cultural groups.

31
Taboo language
Taboo language consists of words, phrases and expressions that are considered socially
or culturally inappropriate within a particular community or context. It can include vulgar
and obscene language, swearing, dysphemism and language that demeans, insults and
denigrates. As a result, taboo language is typically used in informal rather than formal
contexts by speakers and writers. The use of taboo language is highly context-dependent
and subject to what is considered 'taboo' in cultural and social norms. People use taboo
language in order to add emotion or humour, strengthen social bonds or demonstrate
that they belong to a particular social group that uses such terms. They may also adopt
these inappropriate expressions into their vocabulary to express playfulness and to
deliberately flout social conventions.

Dysphemism
Dysphemism is the use of words and expressions that are intentionally harsh, offensive or
derogatory to describe a particular person, group or concept. For example, calling
someone names such as a 'snake' or a 'rat' has negative connotations of being deceptive
or a traitor, respectively. Dysphemistic language is typically used in relation to sensitive
and taboo topics. dysphemism purposefully employs language that is considered blunt,
direct or impolite. Dysphemistic language can be used for various reasons, including
expressing strong emotions, demonstrating contempt or disdain, or making a persuasive
argument through negative characterisation.

Swearing
Swearing, also known as profanity or cursing, involves the use of offensive and socially
inappropriate language. Swearing can be used to abuse and intimidate others, to add
emphasis, to reflect an informal context, to convey a negative idea, or as a coping
mechanism for pain and suffering.

Emoticons, emojis and context-specific graphemes

Emoticons, emojis and context-specific graphemes are visual language features that can
convey emotions, represent objects or concepts, and serve specific purposes. They
facilitate communication and add an additional layer of meaning and expression to
written and digital texts.

Emoticons
Emoticons are visual representations, typically facial expressions or emotions, created
using keyboard characters.. They are often used to add a sense of emotion. In
contemporary society, they are less frequently used than emojis, as most devices will
translate emoticons that have been entered by a user into related emojis.

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Emojis
Emojis are pictorial symbols or icons used to represent various emotions, objects,
activities and concepts in digital communication. They are designed to visually convey
meaning and add nuance to text-based messages. The meaning of an emoji can differ
based on the situational and cultural context in which it is used. For example, the praying
hands emoji can mean prayer, gratitude, a plea for help, spirituality or a conveyance of
condolence. Because emojis rely heavily on contextual meaning in order to be
understood, they can often act as a form of slang, with meanings that are not necessarily
understood by the wider community.

Context-specific graphemes
context-specific graphemes allow us to communicate with more depth in a written text.
Context-specific graphemes assist in adding a layer of understanding and coherence to a
text that would otherwise be difficult to convey explicitly. They are often used for
efficiency of communication.

Informal language features and contexts

The relationship between context and the features of language in informal texts is tightly
interwoven. When examining these connections, it's important to consider tenor as this is
an essential part of context and is significantly influenced by the selection and usage of
language features. Situational context plays a pivotal role in shaping the construction of
the text. This extends to the text's informality, with the language likely to feature
colloquialisms, abbreviations and perhaps even in-jokes or references that reflect shared
understanding between sender and receiver. The cultural background of both the sender
and the intended receiver informs the language choices made by participants.PURPOSES
AND FUNCTIONS OF INFORMAL LANGUAGE

Metalanguage and linguistic terms

intimacy A sense of closeness and connection between individuals.

Solidarity A feeling of unity between individuals, based on shared experience or purpose.

Equality A sense that individuals in a particular exchange are of equal status, deserving of mutual
respect.

Positive Language strategies that reflect how another person is valued and positively regarded by others.
politeness

Negative Language strategies that respect another individual's ability to act autonomously and reduce
politeness constraints on their freedom.

Linguistic The manipulation of existing language features to create something new, such as new terms,
innovation expressions and pronunciations.

33
 Social harmony A positive social environment in which all individuals feel comfortable, respected and at ease with
each other.

Social taboos Topics that are considered uncomfortable or controversial, and are typically avoided or
equivocated in social contexts.

Rapport A sense of friendliness, harmony and shared understanding in a relationship.

In-group A sense of belonging to any kind of social group, such as a family, community, classroom,
membership friendship group or group defined by a shared interest (e.g. fans of a particular musician, or a
sporting club).

LANGUAGE VARIATIONS AND IDENTITY

Metalanguage and linguistic terms:

Australian Englishes:
There are three main types, Standard Australian English SAE, Aboriginal Australian English AAE,
Migrant ethnolect. Australian englishes have a distinguishing feature that set them apart, from
English spoken in other parts of the world. For example Hypocoristic use of suffixes is characteristic
if Australian Englishes. “Albo” rather then ‘Anthony Albanese’

Hypocoristic use of suffixes:

The process of shortening, modifying or altering words from their original form by adding a suffix
such as ‘-o- and ‘-ie’ (eg. servo for service station). In doing do, a more colloquial expression is
created.

Standard Australian English (SAE):

The variety of spoken and written English language in Australia that represents a common language
standard agreed to by the general population and codified in dictionaries, style guides and
grammar manuals. Standard Australian English represents a prestige variety in the Australian
context.

Accent:
Refers to the distinctive sounds someone makes when they pronounce words. These particular
pronunciations are inf;uenced by location, age and social differences in Australian English, the three
main accents are Broad, General and Cultivated.

34
HIstorical attitudes to the accents:
Broad accents was associated with the working class and seen as a marker of a lack of education or
refinement. It was associated with rural and bush settings. However in reality many people were
living in rural and remote areas were speaking with a general accent, challenging this stereotype. At
the other end the accent continuum, the cultivated accent was the most prestigious and was
associated with the upper class and education.

Contemporary attitudes to the accents:

The general accent is the predominant accents spoken by most modern Australian. This reflec\ts a
departure from the extremes of the accent continuum. As Australian society has undergone
evolution and transformation, the significance of social class has diminished. Although accent
variation was previously prominent of social class distinction, it has become less critical ro presses a
specific Australian accent for signalling individual social status. A general accent is frequently
categorised as homogenous due to its prevalence among the majority of Australians. Some factors
that have contributed to the widespread use of a General accent are its polarisation in Australian
films, television media and music, and its widespread use in the Australian education system

Perception of Australian National identity

An Australian national identity refers to the sense of shared culture, history, traditions, language
and values that define Australia as a nation. It encompasses the beliefs, customs and practices that
are seen as integral to the identity of Australia and is shaped by the factors such as geography,
politics, religion and social norms. Because Australia comprises a diverse range of individuals and
groups, defining our national identity is a complex and challenging endeavour as ir evolves and
transforms along side society. there are common vales and ideas typically associated with
Australia's national identity, which have permeated across time.

Anti-authoritarianism:
Negative attitudes to those in authority, especially those who exercise their power over others.

Anti-intellectualism:
Negative attitudes to intellectuals or highly educated people, often based on the belief that they
are iyr if touch with ordinary people.

Connection to land:
An Affiliation with the land and its natural features is often used as a symbol of national identity.

Connection to country:
For first nations people, connection to country is a central aspect of identity. Understanding ones
relationship with Country, and place within the dreaming adn wider cosmos, enables a fundamental
connection to identity in clan, tribal and national context.

35
Democratic values:
The values that underpin our governance, including the freedom to vote or run for office, the
freedom to gather and participate in politics, the freedom to express opinions and beliefs, and the
principle that everyone should be subject to the same laws and other basic human rights.

Egalitarianism:
The idea that all individuals should have equal rights, opportunities and treatment, regardless of
their social status, wealth or background. This includes equal access to education, healthcare,
employment and other basic needs. This idea of egalitarianism is sometime expressed in phrase ‘a
fair go’

Laid-back attitudes:
Associated with the idea of taking things easy, not getting too stressed and enjoying life.
Australians often perceive themselves as being friendly and easygoing.

Mateship:
Reflect the values of loyalty, solidarity and friendship

Multiculturalism:
refers to a society that is made up of many different cultures, ideally celebrating diversity abd
inclusiveness.

Global influences in English in Australian Society

Much of australia's unique linguistic development can be attributed to interactions with different
countries and the impacts of global events. Linguistic variations and diversity has been particularly
influenced by immigration, trade and cultural exchange, and this is particularly evident in the
nations variety of food. EG. Sushi, Bao, Banh mi, Hummus.

Global linguistic influences through technology and the internet

Modern technology, such as digital platforms and the internet, have also greatly influenced english
in australia by facilitating linguistic innovation and the adoption of new communication styles. It
has broken down geographic barriers for communication, accelerated the transformation of
language swiftly incorporating new expressions and terms into the Australian vernacular. Also
encourages brevity and informality.

36
 AUSTRALIAN ENGLISHES AND VARIATIONS BY
VARIATION BY CULTURE

Metalanguage and linguistic terms

Aboriginal Australian:
Aboriginal Australian Englishes is an umbrella term used to refer to the many different
varieties of English that many First Nations people speak

Migrant ethnolects:
A variety of language specific to a particular migrant community with a shared cultural
background.

English and variations by culture

There are three main Australian Englishes studied in Year 12 Englis Language; Standard
Australian Engkihs (SAE); Aboriginal Australian English (AAE) and Migrant ethnolect.

Migrant ethnolects and Aboriginal Australian Englises

Migrant and AAEs are English varieties that are specific to communities based on
ethnocultural heritage. The language used in these Australian Englishes is important in
reflecting group and individual identity.
- Allows speaker to maintain and express cultural identity by reflecting speakers’ heritage
and backgrounds
- Facilitate communications among individuals from the same cultural background,
especially in informal contexts
- Foster a sense of community among speakers, helping individuals feel a sense of
belonging and connection with others who share the same or similar cultural backgrounds
- Pronote bilingualism and multilingualism ampng speakers, as they often involve elements
of two or more languages.
- Contributes to the diversity and eevolution of a language, introducing new words,
phrases or ways of speaking into the broader language community.
- Facilitate cultural exchange, as they often involve blending elements of different languages
and cultures, leading too greater understanding and appreciation of different cultures.
- Help preserve and maintain heritage languages
- Contribute to the linguistic richness of Australia, showcasing the diversity of its people
and their cultural backgrounds

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Features of Aboriginal Australian

Phonetics and phonology

AAEs are characterised by unique pronunciation trhat differentiate them from SAE. In
many AAEs, it is typical to replace the voiced ‘th; phoneme with a voices /d/, which results
in words such as ‘this’ and ‘that’ being pronounced as ‘dis’ and ‘dat’. Also typical for a h
sound to be added ot these words that start with a vowel. For example, it has been notes
in some studies of the AAE that ‘uncle Henry’ is pronounces as ‘huncle henry. Another
common feature in AAE is for speaker to switch the ‘k; and ;s’ sound. From ‘ask’ to ‘aks’.

Morphology
Morphological features in AAEs include omitting plural noun marking, for instance saying
‘two dog’ instead of ‘two dogs’. Inflections including verb tense may also follow different
grammatical convention. (eg. ‘he gets the food’ instead of ‘he got the food’.

Lexicology
AAEs include words that aren't used in SAE, with many words borrowed from first nations
languages. There is a considerable regional variation in the lexicon of AAEs. for example
the word ‘policeman; is ‘monatj’ in western australia, ‘booliman’ in queensland and ‘gunji;
or ‘gunkibal’ in New South Wales.

Syntax
- Auxiliary verbs omitted
- Reduces use of preposition
- ‘Bin’ used as a tense marker
- ‘One; used as a substitute indefinite article
- Use of double negative

Semantics
Aunty uncle
Cousin cuz
Sister brother
Grandmother grannie
Mob
Additional lexemes
Omitting letters

38
Migrant ethnolects

Phonetics and phonology

Assimilation
Vowel reduction
Elision
Prosody

Morphology
Inflectional patterns
Affixation

Lexicology
Borrowing
Code Switching

Syntax
Modification of word order
ellipses

Semantics
Culture specific expressions
Idiomatic expressions
Metaphors with specific cultural meanings

Discourse and pragmatics

- Expected levels of formality
- Politeness strategies
- Types of discourse markers

In the Greek Australian ethnolect, pronunciation is generally non-rhotic - as with SAE -

where 'r' is not pronounced at the end of words. There is also a tendency to pronounce
the /ia/ ('ee-ah') sound at the end of words like 'year' and 'here' within the Greek
Australian ethnolect. The /0/ (thing) and /ỡ/ (this) phonemes are often pronounced as 't'
and 'd', respectively, due to the influence of Modern Greek which lacks a voiced and
voiceless 'th'. Consequently, 'this' might se pronounced as 'dis', and 'thing' as 'ting.

39
ATTITUDES TO VARIATIONS OF ENGLISH IN
AUSTRALIA

Prescriptivist attitudes
Belief that there are correct and incorrect ways to use language. Prescriptivist establish
rules and standards for language use often based on traditional norms. Tend to view
language as how it ‘should’ be and often aim to maintain the ‘purity’ of a language by
preventing changes that they perceive as degradation or corruption. AAE due to there
differences of SAE are often seen as ‘broken’ and migrant ethnoloct as ‘broken’

Descriptivist attitudes
Descriptivism focuses on language as it is actually used in real-world contexts.
Descriptivists aim to describe language objectively, without making judgements about
what is correct or incorrect. They study the variations and changes in language over time
and across different social groups, viewing all forms of language as valid in their own
contexts. Thus, descriptivists see change and diversity as natural and inevitable parts of
language evolution. Through a descriptivist perspective, AAEs are recognised as distinct
and legitimate varieties of English, reflecting the unique cultural and historical
experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This approach in the field of
linguistics seeks to document the varieties and support their usage within communities,
celebrating them as markers of group identity. Further, descriptivists see an
understanding of these varieties as an essential tool to foster connection and facilitate
the sharing of knowledge.

SOCIOLECT IDIOLECT AND ATTITUDES

Metalanguage and linguistic terms

Sociolet: A variety of language used by a particular group of people who share aspects of
their identity such as age, gender, sexuality, occupation, interests, aspirations and
education.
Idiolect: An individual's unique use of language, shaped by their personal experiences,
background and context.

Sociolect
A sociolect, a blend of 'social dialect', is a variety of language that is associated with a
particular social group or community. explores the relationship between language and
society, recognising that our social identities and affiliations significantly influence the
way we use language. A sociolect may contain lexical choices that are specific to a social

40
 group, as well as phonological variations, grammatical structures, and discourse and
pragmatic features such as politeness norms. These language choices are often used to
support group membership and belonging, create a shared sense of identity and reinforce
feelings of solidarity.

Age
Both our age and the generation to which we belong are important aspects of our notion
of personal identity in Australian society. Some language features that speakers and
writers use, particularly with informal language, are intrinsically linked to their age or
generation. Slang is one common marker of age. Each generation tends to develop its
own set of slang terms and phrases. For example, in the 1960s and 1970s, slang terms
that were popular among young people included 'groovy' and 'far out"'. In the 1990s, 'rad'
and 'bling' were common. More recently, younger generations have introduced 'no cap'
and 'rizz'. Over time, some slang terms may fall out of use, while others become
integrated into the everyday language of that generation of speakers. The diversity in
slang vocabularies between speakers of different ages is an example of a sociolect, as it
demonstrates how language use can vary based on social group - in this case, the
generation of the speaker.

Gender
Gender plays a significant role in linguistics and language use in many cultures, including
Australia's. It influences the way people speak and the language they use, often reflecting
societal norms, roles and expectations. Culturally based associations and stereotypes
relating to gender can be reflected both in the language used to describe gender and in
the language used by those who identify with particular genders. In Western cultures,
historically, there has been a traditional association of femininity with warmth and beauty,
and an association of strength and bravery with masculinity, and this is reflected in
language. Consider the adjective 'feminine' (and synonyms such as 'girly' and 'ladylike'),
which might connote someone who is dainty and cares about appearances, while the
term 'masculine' is more likely to conjure notions of machismo and toughness. However, it
is important to note that, as with many aspects of identity, expectations around gender
are culturally specific and can change over time, and this in turn is reflected in shifting
language use. The use of gender-neutral pronouns and titles has become more common,
particularly in institutions including universities, workplaces and government bodies, who
are increasingly implementing policies to respect and acknowledge individuals' preferred
pronouns. This includes providing options for gender-neutral pronouns (such as
'they/them/theirs') and terms of address (such as 'Mx') in forms and documents, as well as
encouraging the practice of expressing personal pronoun preferences in settings such as
meetings or introductions.

41
Sexuality
Sexuality can significantly impact language use. It can influence the words we choose, the
way we speak and the topics we discuss. In terms of lexical choices, individuals may use
specific words or phrases that signal their sexual orientation or identity to others in their
community. Discourse can also be influenced by sexuality. For example, individuals may
use language to challenge or reinforce societal norms and expectations related to
sexuality. This could include the use of humour and irony, or the use of indirect language
to express sexual identity. Some members of the LGBTQIA+ community may also rely on
shared cultural knowledge to communicate their identity or experiences. This can serve
as a form of safety or solidarity, allowing individuals to express themselves without
explicitly stating their sexual orientation or gender identity.

Occupation
Language use can vary significantly from one job or occupation to another due to several
factors, including the influence of the profession's culture and the need for
communication to be precise. There are various aspects of language that can change
depending on occupation. Formality can vary greatly, as different industries will have
different expectations. A lawyer, for example, is likely to use more formal language in
order to increase their credibility, and archaic terms may be used as legal jargon, further
reinforcing a higher level of formality. In comparison, a youth worker may use a more
informal communicative style in order to build rapport and establish trust with their
young clients.
Technical language (such as jargon) and occupation-specific abbreviations (such as
shortenings, acronyms and initialisms) allow for efficiency when communicating
occupation-relevant information. For example, a mechanic might use jargonistic terms
relating to the domain of automotive technology, such as 'backfire' (loud explosion in the
engine's intake or exhaust); a chef might refer to a 'roux' (a sauce made by mixing fat and
flour); a VCE student might refer to a 'SAC' (a piece of school-assessed coursework); and a
marketing manager might use the initialism 'SEO' (search engine optimisation - a strategy
to increase website traffic). The use of jargon is the most common marker of a writer or
speaker's occupation. Command of jargon can be a marker of prestige, and jargon can be
used to exclude people who do not share the specific profession. In this way, jargon as
part of a sociolect can be used to create and identify group membership.

Interests
Often without realising, speakers and writers vary their language when they are
interacting with others who share similar interests. This can affect individuals' lexical
choices, as well as the style of language they use to communicate.
Use of jargon is a prominent feature of language that reflects a person's interests. For
example, a gardening enthusiast might use the adjective 'heirloom' to describe a highly
valued historical variety of plant, or a gaming enthusiast might use the verb 'spawn' to

42
 describe an object appearing in a game world. These language choices function as
shortcuts to identify the speaker or writer as a member of a particular social group.

Education
In Australia, most educational institutions use SAE, and formal SAE tends to be associated
with those who are educated and well read. When authors use formal SAE that complies
with prescribed orthographic and grammatical conventions, they may be perceived as
being more educated than when they do not. Consequently, those who use language that
deviates from SAE may be negatively judged as having a lower level of education, even if
they are in fact very educated. Despite the common associations between an individual's
level of education and their use of formal SAE, education can influence language use in
other ways, as it also exposes us to a diversity of voices. These factors can in turn
influence our own patterns of language use. Language and education are also deeply
intertwined, each shaping and influencing the other. The language that we are exposed to
and use allows us to gain and express knowledge.

Aspirations
We can use language to represent ourselves in the ways in which we wish to be
perceived, and to help us achieve goals and ambitions - our aspirations. Lexical choices,
for example, can reflect desires to belong to particular groups, both professionally and
socially. Similarly, pronunciation, grammar and syntax can also reflect aspirational
intentions in situational and cultural contexts. Language users can also modify the way
they engage in a discourse to reflect their wants and needs, for example by increasing
their level of politeness or using a particular register.

Idiolects
An idiolect is the unique way of speaking and writing that belongs to an individual. It's a
personal dialect that includes specific lexis, grammar, phonology and other linguistic
features that are distinctive to that person. Everyone has an idiolect, which is shaped by
various factors including cultural background, social background, education and personal
experiences.
When a person speaks or writes, their idiolect is reflected in their choice of words,
sentence structures, expressions and even the topics they choose to discuss. An
individual's idiolect is often a blend of the regional, social and cultural variations they are
exposed to, combined with their own idiosyncratic methods of communication. For
example, a person might use certain vocabulary or phrases that are common in their
professional field, adopt colloquial language from their peer group and use specific
expressions or phonological features that are characteristic of their cultural or ethnic
community. This blending within an idiolect can result in a unique linguistic profile that

43
 reflects the individual's multifaceted social identity. Therefore, understanding the role of
variation is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of an individual's idiolect.
When analysing language use to determine characteristics of a person's idiolect, there are
several key features to consider. These features, listed below, can reveal aspects of a
person's social and cultural background, their personal beliefs and values and their
individual personality traits.
› lexical choices
› discourse features and strategies
› sociolect variations
› code switching
› ethnocultural variations
› politeness markers
The influence of social expectations and community attitudes
Language choices are significantly influenced by social expectations and community
attitudes. These expectations and attitudes can be seen as a form of social pressure that
guides individuals to use language in ways that are considered acceptable or appropriate
in their particular social context. For example, as we have seen in Unit 3, the use of
language features typically associated with formality or informality is heavily dependent
on context.

Group membership and belonging

Social expectations and attitudes can have a significant impact on many aspects of
language use. In different social circles or communities, for example, the use of AAEs,
migrant ethnolects or SAE can be a marker of group membership and identity. These
different English varieties can link to perceptions of an Australian. national identity, and
stereotypes and prescriptivist and descriptivist attitudes can encourage a speaker to stifle
or highlight particular elements of their idiolects. A speaker or writer will vary their
linguistic repertoires to meet social and community expectations for a particular context,
avoid negative judgements or gain benefits of particular styles of language (e.g. using
specialised jargon to indicate that they are knowledgeable and competent).

Expectations based on context

When analysing a text, it's important to consider the situational and cultural context in
order to infer the role that social and community attitudes and expectations play in the
construction of the text.
Each situational and cultural context will have a set of conventions and norms dictating
what is and is not considered acceptable to say. Politicians, for example, are often
expected to use inclusive language that respects diversity and avoids discrimination, and
news reports are expected to use clear, concise and unbiased language.
Community expectations also play a role in shaping the language used within sociolects
and, consequently, personal idiolects. Different age groups often have different language
norms and expectations, such as the diverse types of slang across generations. Similarly,
44
 interest groups or subcultures often have their own specific language norms. For
example, gamers, sports fans or hobbyist groups may use particular terms or phrases
which they expect other group members to understand.

LANGUAGE AND PRESTIGE

Metalanguage and linguistic terms

Sociolect: A variety of language used by a particular group of people who share aspects of
their identity such as age, gender, sexuality, occupation, interests, aspirations and
education.
Idiolect: An individual's unique use of language, shaped by their personal experiences,
background and context

Power and prestige in language use

Language is often an indicator of social structure, power dynamics and prestige. Power
dynamics may be the result of a social hierarchy, and may depend on context. For
example, a shop manager would generally have more authority than the sales staff, and a
teacher would have more authority in the classroom than a student.
The way language is used can reflect, reinforce or challenge societal hierarchies and
values, and the way in which it does so is deeply embedded in social and cultural
contexts. The following paragraphs outline a few common ways in which power can be
reflected and reinforced in language use.

Imperatives
The use of direct commands or imperatives can be a clear linguistic sign of asserting
authority or power. Consider the following ways to phrase a request. Examples 'Close the
door.' 'Would you mind closing the door?'
While both of these requests can assert power, the first indicates a presumed unequal
level of power between the person demanding the action and the recipient of the
demand. The sentence does not have the politeness markers that exist in the second
example, and their absence conveys that the speaker has a higher level of authority than
the listener.

Discourse strategies
Power and authority can be achieved by using various discourse strategies to control a
conversation. Dominating the topic of a conversation or consistently steering it in a
desired direction can signal that one speaker has power over another.

45
 Frequent interruptions or talking over someone can be a way of asserting dominance in a
conversation. Taking longer and more frequent turns can also serve to assert control and
power, particularly when it reduces the chance for others to provide their own input.
These behaviours can make other participants feel undervalued and overshadowed,
reinforcing speaker dominance in the conversation.

Specialised language
Power can also be asserted through the vocabulary we choose to use. Using specialised
language such as jargon or bureaucratic language can exclude those who aren't familiar
with it, reinforcing hierarchies based on knowledge or expertise. People can also gain
power by using specialised language to obfuscate, intentionally making things vague and
unclear for their audience. People who obfuscate might be more likely to 'talk around'
topics, using ambiguous or inaccessible language to ensure that they maintain the power
in a conversation.

Using politeness strategies selectively

Choosing to be polite to some individuals and less so to others can be another way of
establishing social hierarchies and power dynamics. For example, an individual may feel
that being rude to a waiter establishes their power as the customer. Power can be
demonstrated through the careful selection of language to reflect, create or reinforce
status and social distance, such as by using formal politeness strategies in situations
where they are typically not required. Requiring others to use a more formal term of
address, such as a judge expecting others to refer to them as 'Your Honour' in an
Australian courtroom, can also assert a person's higher status or power.

Relying on linguistic prestige

Speaking a standard variety such as SAE can confer prestige upon the speaker, as such
varieties are associated with education, socioeconomic status and cultural capital.
Furthermore, advocating for a standard form of a language and deeming other forms as
incorrect or inferior is another way of asserting social dominance. This type of attitude
can occur both culturally (such as when speakers of SAE assume that ethnolects are
'incorrect') and generationally (for example, older generations believing that modern
trends in language use or spelling are 'wrong'). Correcting others' language use, especially
in unsolicited ways, can be an assertion of linguistic authority and superiority.

Overt norms
Overt norms refer to the linguistic behaviours and patterns that are valued in wider
society. These are often associated with standard language use and prescriptivist
attitudes. Discussion of overt language types in Australia typically refers to more formal
use of SAE and its social value and recognition in many settings. To comply with overt
46
 norms, language users would adhere to grammatical conventions that are taught in
schools and are considered standard, such as avoiding double negatives, ensuring
subject-verb agreement in sentences and favouring more formal terms over
colloquialisms. Language also tends to conform to widely accepted conventions for
specific text types or communication mediums. For example, when applying for a job,
most applicants would adhere to overt norms by submitting a résumé with information
such as their education, experience and contact details. Overt norms are also used to
meet the expectations of politeness in broader society. In Australia, it is typically accepted
that people in public will conform to accepted politeness norms, such as not making
offensive jokes or comments where others might overhear. The widely recognised social
value for speaking a standard variant is known as overt prestige, and it arises due to the
association between overt norms and factors such as education, authority and
intelligence. This form of prestige is openly recognised and valued in society, especially in
formal and public contexts such as politics, the media, bureaucracy and the law.

Covert norms
Covert norms are linguistic behaviours and patterns that are not openly valued in
mainstream settings or might not align with what is traditionally considered 'standard' in
broader society, but are instead valued and hold significance within specific communities
or social groups. Covert norms can encompass various linguistic features. They may
require specific use of slang or jargon that is unique to a particular community - an
example would be Australian Rules Football fans referring to a catch as a 'speccie. The
use of language varieties that are not standardised among the majority - such as migrant
ethnolects and AAEs - can also constitute covert norms. Using linguistic forms that align
with covert norms can also be a way for individuals to express affiliation with a particular
group. Expectations for grammar and text types can be more flexible for language that
conforms to covert norms compared to overt norms; the priority is that the language
features being used are positively valued by the relevant community. Covert prestige
refers to the social value or status attached to linguistic forms that are specific to a
particular group or community. These forms might be stigmatised in broader society but
within a specific community they signal in-group membership, social belonging and
solidarity.
Covert prestige is often linked to group identity, and is often gained by the use of
vernacular that is acceptable in a particular context, especially when it expresses
solidarity and group membership and belonging. It can also be a mode of resistance
against mainstream norms, especially if a community feels marginalised or oppressed.

Code switching
Code switching occurs when language users alternate between two or more different
languages during a single conversation or text. Code switching can happen for a variety
of reasons, both social and linguistic, with the social reasons being the focus of Year 12
English Language. Code switching reinforces group membership and belonging in a
47
 number of ways. It can reinforce shared cultural background. Speakers can evoke specific
cultural references, jokes or memories that resonate with their listeners, reinforcing a
sense of shared history and belonging. A speaker might code-switch to convey affection,
intimacy or other emotions that feel more authentic or nuanced in one language than in
another. This can reinforce close bonds and a sense of belonging among speakers.
In some contexts, especially where a particular language is marginalised, code switching
can be an act of resistance. By choosing to use a marginalised language in specific
contexts, speakers assert their identity and challenge dominant linguistic norms, fostering
a sense of empowerment and belonging in their community. The ability to code-switch
and demonstrate group belonging to a particular language background can convey covert
prestige among those with a shared language background.

JARGONISTIC LANGUAGE USE

ice cream (refers to dairy product served at an icecream shop)

“private label issuer”, “B2B strategy”, “API-based solution” - Business Jargon. Portrays
expertise

"Pre-HM"

APIs, Servers

Jargon used by treasurer Jim Chalmers of 'serial acquisitions'.

The use of the jargonistic noun "polymorphism" can be used to establish expertise within
the ingroup of computer scientists and to obfuscate information from the out-group

front fetlock, rear fetlock, rear hind, near hind - vet jargon used to describe parts of a
horse

QUOTES

Language is the most natural badge of identity - David Crystal

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"Of all the markers of identity, language is by far the most significant" Bruce Moore

"Language is the key to identity and power" - James Baldwin

“Linguistic variation is a tool for us to construct ourselves as social beings, to signal who
we are and who we are not and cannot be” (Leslie Sterling)

More than anything else, language is the most natural badge or symbol of identity - David
crystal

In the book Love the Lingo, linguists Kate Burridge and Debbie de Laps suggested that
words can “provide wonderful windows into a community’s values and attitudes.”

linguistic change runs parallel with social change - felicity cox

“there is still a lot of ignorance and bigotry in Australia towards Aboriginal ways of
speaking.” (Kate Burridge and Debbie de Laps)

"the chief use of slang is to show you're part of the gang" - David Crystal

“Using in house jargon can signify that you are in a group” (Dr Karl Kruszelnicki).

Professor Bruce Moore - ‘Of all the markers of identity, language is by far the most
significant.’

‘Language is ever evolving and is a product of the world we live in’. Kate Burridge

online news article posted by Today ( july 24th 2024) titled with the interrogative noun
phrase “what do teens mean when they say ‘sigma’?”

Anthony Albanese X post, "She said yes"

Elizabeth Young (mother of Bondi Junction victim Jade Young), using the Chinese noun
“jie jie” which means sister in a speech calling on the government to address the gaps in
the mental healthcare system
American slang “woke” https://www.instagram.com/reel/C2wPotiS9v-/
Aboriginal English, Clothing the Gap ‘Shades of Deadly campaign’
https://www.clothingthegaps.com.au/pages/shades-of-deadly-campaign
In the 2024 court ruling of DPP v Thomas Sewell Jacob Hersant, Supreme Court. Judge
Emerton P Kennedy uses legalese to signal in-group membership to others in the legal
industry.

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 Norris nuts video titled: FINALLY MEETING HIS CRUSH w/Norris Nuts & Familia
DiamondPosted august 2024.Sockie Norris - "my hair is not hairing" in a sing-song voice.

jargon shows social togetherness” (David Crystal)

Practice work ->

‘Language can be a powerful tool in both building and destroying relationships.’ How is this
reflected in contemporary Australian society? Refer to at least two subsystems of language in your
response.

List out all the relevant paragraphs you can think to write for this prompt - break down the prompt +
walk through these paragraphs:

‘Language can be a powerful tool in both building and destroying relationships.’

● in-groups and out-groups

● language is a powerful tool used by governments, corporations, teachers, anyone really
language is immensely powerful
● threaten people’s positive face needs? → does this destroy relationships?
○ PC / egalitarian norms → if we abide by someone’s pronouns we might build
relationships if we DONT … we may damage those relationships → PC = politically
correct = making sure we do not offend anyone (using safe and cautious language)
○ egalitarian norms = Australian standards of equality and a desire to raise awareness
for vulnerable minority groups
○ navigating taboos = discussing racism / prejudice / money / sex / cultural identity that
may be sensitive for people of FNP background
● rebuttal/extension: language might not always necessarily build and destroy, but rather
neutrally communicate important concepts in the health / academic sectors (purely objective
and referential with no intents/purpose/function to damage or build any relationships)

TEENSPEAK (AGE RELATED LANGUAGE):

Teen speak allows for users to create a shared identity with their peers, establishing covert prestige.
However, with different social expectations, we see stark differences in the use of language. Thus
resulting in the transition from slang like teen speak to a heightened register, for overt prestige from
those in positions of authority. Australian youtuber LazerBeam frequently uses teen speak such as
the initialism “IYKYK” denoting the declarative “if you know you know”. This is commonly used to
explain a joke that requires inference, along with compound “lowkey” which implies “opaqueness and
secrecy” downplays a statement. The use of these neologisms allows for the youtuber to relate to his
primarily teenage audience. Thus, he formulates an identity that reflects their interests, granting
covert prestige without being in the same age group. While teen speak grants users covert prestige
within their peer ingroup, social expectations from those in higher power dictate how language is
used. My friend commonly uses covert rapport building interrogative “no kizzy no cap cuzz/iii/?”. The
elongated /i/ phoneme provides the interrogative tone, with rising intonation after the shortened
suffixed noun “cousin” to “cuzzy”. Noun “Cuzzy” denoting a close friend, and slang noun phrase “no
cap?” denoting the interrogative “is that the truth” are used to gain confirmation that i’m not lying in a
nonchalant and relatable manner. However, in my maths class he transitions to a heightened register

50
such as the formal interrogative “Excuse me, how did I lose a mark on this question?”. This allows
him to speak and converse with the teacher, someone of higher power, in a mature manner. As such,
he gains overt prestige. Displaying the ability of teenagers to act in a state of flux, extracting covert
acceptance while capturing the validation of those in positions of authority. Thus, varying social
expectations dictate how discourse is conducted resulting in interlocutors that formulate an identity
which allows them to gain covert or overt prestige.

Jargon is representative of one’s education, status and occupation granting overt prestige and acting
as a "natural badge of identity" (David Crystal). As such, given ones social role and social relations,
the use of jargon helps construct an identity that befits the social expectations of those around them,
as well as to pursue overt prestige and power. The Australian Financial Review (AFR) is the premier
economic news source in Australia, as such its editors and writers use jargon that represent their
capabilities in presenting information to their customers. Using the verb and noun phrases, “share
placement” and “interim dividend” the paper directly targets subscribed readers who likely
understand this jargon. This allows for the professional proficiency of AFR to be communicated
reflecting their customers social expectations of the company. As such, the use of jargon aids in
exerting power and influence to its consumers as an educated resource of finance. This leads them
to retain paid subscriptions through the use of jargonistic language. Furthermore, my father, a
radiologist by profession is often required to utilise medical jargon pertaining to his field such as
noun phrases “pulmonary angiogram” and “splenic embolization”. These jargonistic noun phrases
allow for him to uphold his status as a senior medical professional, garnering respect from both
patients and colleagues. Further allowing him to present himself as knowledgeable, trustworthy and
credible in the eyes of patients. Thus, jargon allows him to conform to his patients social
expectations of him as a medical professional; Jargon causes him to be perceived as more
educated, displaying power and granting overt prestige. Overall, the use of jargon is reflective of
social expectations by those around individuals, allowing them to exert greater influence and
garnering overt prestige.

explain how u would analyse different sentence types and how you would link them to identities/role
of participants?

○ declarative - informational - can be personalised and informal or very formal very

versatile you can relate to literally anyones job if they have to make any
announcement, the government or a politicians identity for using a declarative
○ imperative - INSTRUCTIONAL, AUTHORITATIVE, ASSERTIVE = positions of power
at home, in the workplace, at school identity factors to do with these jobs
○ interrogative - question and answer format maybe its an interview as part of the
identity of an interviewer, maybe its a casual rapport building question as part of the
identity of someone being a good friend looking out for someone
○ exclamative - normally expresses emotions, anger, sadness, excitement = think about
who, when and where might use these, their job or their life circumstances, maybe
you could relate it to someone being a little sibling who is excited for their big sister
and thus uses exclamatives and its part of their identity to feel that joy based on the
transcript
● Convergence and Divergence:
○ convergence = copying the accents and vocabulary of the majority
○ divergence = sticking to your roots and standing out (standin on biness)

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